SUMMARY NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL GEOMORPHOLOGY

SUMMARY NOTES FOR ADVANCED LEVEL GEOMORPHOLOGY

GEOMORPHOLOGY NOTES
PART I: STRUCTURAL GEOMORPHOLOGY
Lesson 1: THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH
Introduction:
- The Big Bang Theory
- The Geologic Time Scale
Lesson 2: THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
Introduction:
(a) Layers of the Earth and their Properties
(b) Rock Material Cycle
(c) The Forces that Shape the Landscape (Internal and External Forces)
(d) Categories of Landforms (Major and Minor)
Further Study 1: EARLY THEORIES OF CRUSTAL MOVEMENTS
I. ISOSTASY:

II. THE THEORY OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT

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(a) Introduction: The Theory of Continental Drift was one of the early theories of crustal Motion
put in put in place by a German Meteorologist Alfred WEGENER in 1915. His ideas were published
in a book entitled “Origin of the Continents and Oceans”. For Wegener the continental crust
was drifting apart and the present continents resulted from the breakup of an original single land
mass or supper continent called Pangea (Pangaea) which was surrounded by a large water
body called Panthalasa some 250million years ago.
Some 200million years ago, Pangea breakdown (supper continent) and gave birth to two
continental land masses separated by a sea called the Tethys sea. That is;
 Laurasia which formed the Northern continental land mass which later splitted to form
Europe, North America, and Asia.
 Gondwanaland was formed the Southern continental land mass and later splitted to form
Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia.
All these fragments from the supper continental landmass therefore created gaps which were
occupied by water today called oceans and seas. These land masses moved to different directions
to their present positions.

(b) Evidence of Continental Drift

Wegener to support his theory advanced a number of evidence as analyzed in the paragraphs
below,
1. The Striking Parallelism (Physical evidence): This evidence state that if the eastern
coast of the continents of South America and western coast of Africa are brought together,
they can fit like a Jig-Saw puzzle.
2. Biodiversity similarity: He advanced that the same plant and animal species that are
found in South American continent are also seen in the African continents especially at both
continental edges. Good examples are found in the Amazon and Congo basins.
3. Structural Resemblance and Geologic Similarity: Wegener said that the same
geological structures found in the East coast of South America are found in the Western
coast of Africa. These include the fold mountains system which must have resulted from the
squeezing, folding and deformation of landscape when the continents were drifting.
4. Evidence from fossils: Wegener said fossils of rocks at the edges of most continents are
similar to those of the opposite continents. This means that these deaths plants and animals
were once living together before the split, when they died; they produced rocks with same
fossil type.
(c) Limitations or Weaknesses of the theory of continental Drift

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1. Wegener in his theory only said that the supper continent splitted and was drifting. He never
explained what caused this supper continent to split up and what was making them to drift to
different directions.
2. The theory did not also say how the drifting of continents resulted in the formation of major
landforms in other continental locations. It only explains the formation of features at the edges of
the drifting continents as ocean basins, rift valleys and Fold Mountains.
3. One major limitation of Wegener theory was the idea envisaged that, only the sialic continental
crust was drifting over sima and not over the upper mantle called the Asthernosphere.

Further Study 2: RECENT THEORIES OF CRUSTAL MOVEMENTS

THE THEORY OF SEA FLOOR SPEADING

(a) Introduction
The theory of seafloor spreading was put in place by Harry Hess in 1960. This theory states that
“as new crustal materials from magma rise and cools on the sea floor pushes the old
crustal materials on both sides laterally along the edges causing an outward expansion
of the sea floor”.
So, the sea-floor spreading is the movement and accumulation of basaltic materials beneath
that has formed the Mid-Ocean Ridge on the sea bed. This Ridge rise above the surrounding levels
of the sea-floor to form the greatest level of the sea heights. These submarine mountain ranges are
characterized by linear belts of submarine volcanoes, rift valleys, Block Mountains as well as
frequent occurrence of earthquakes.

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The seafloor spread from the centre of a ridge as cracks open up. This successive spreading
leads to the formation of the younger ocean floor which leads to the drifting of continents. It is
estimated that the ocean floor is spreading at the rate of 2 to 18cm per year.
If the idea of sea-floor spreading is accepted, it means that the earth is gradually expanding in
size which is not the case because the earth’s crustal materials is being destroyed in some
places at the same rate it is being created along the mid-ocean ridge. This destruction is said to
occur along submarine trenches or subduction zones.
(b) Causes of Seafloor Spreading

The Sea-floor spread when at the mid-ocean ridge where a divergent boundary is causing two
plates to move away from each other. This new space is therefore filled by new molten materials
from magma push up by convection current which cools onto the edges of the plates. This sea-floor
follows the following steps.

Steps of Sea-floor Spreading

The first step for the formation of the sea-floor is the upward rising of magma from the
Asthernosphere with the help of convection current in the rift valley or opening. This magma
therefore cools to form new rocks. Then the older rocks are pushed away on both sides as new are
formed at the Mid-Ocean Ridge.

This would make the Oceanic Plate and the Continental plate to meet to form trenches. The
OP would bend down (sink) under the CP. Gravity would pull rocks toward the mantle making the
rocks to melt again to the mantle.

(c) Features Produced by the Sea-floor Spreading (Landforms)

The theory of sea-floor spreading helps us to understand the origin of major landforms on the
ocean floor such as Mid-Ocean Ridges, Submarine trenches and fold mountains.

1. Mid-Ocean Ridge: They are formed as the rising convection currents spread laterally and
forced the overlying ocean crust to crack up and move apart. This allows magma to up well
through this cracks created by the spreading which later solidify on the ocean bed into a
ridge.
2. Submarine trenches: They are formed when the oceanic crust (high density) sink beneath
the continental crust when they meet to create a very deep V-shape depression known as
Trench.
3. Fold Mountains: They are formed when sediments from the sea-floor spreading accumulate
over a long period to the edges of the continents. It parks them and compresses them so that
the sediments end up forming a mountain range along the continental edge.
4. The sea-floor spreading can also result in an extensive undersea plain called the Abyssal
plain.

All these features can be seen on the diagram above.

(d) Limitation of the Sea-floor Spreading

The only weakness of this theory is that it explains the origin of the major landforms at the seafloor
and does not major landforms at the continents or earth surface.

Lesson 3: THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

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(a) Introduction

This is a unifying theory which comes to explain why continents are drifting after the many
weaknesses of the theory of continental drift and that of sea-floor spreading.
The theory of Pate Tectonic state that “The earth is divided into rigid segments called
plates which are in constant motion”.
These segments move in different directions at a distance of about 2 to 13cm. The theory of
plate tectonics is based on two main aspects or concepts. That is the Kinetic and Geometric
principles.
I- The Geometric Principle

This principle states that the crust or lithosphere is made up of rigid segments of different sizes
and shapes called plates. Some of these plates are large and are called major plates while those
that are small are called minor plates.

Plates are therefore defined as rigid blocks including continental and oceanic plates which are
in slow motion on the soft mantle. Plates are part land and part water.
There are seven (07) major plates of continental proportion, six of which are part land and
Part Ocean. They include;
- The African plate - The South American plate
- The Eurasian plate - The Indo Australian plate
- The North American plate - The Antarctic plate
There is only one major plate which is completely water that is the Pacific plate.
There are many minor plates such as the Arabian plate, Iranian plate Cocos plate, Nazca plate,
Philippine Caribbean and Juan de Fuca etc.

II- The Kinetic Principle

The Kinetic aspect or concept stipulates that these rigid segments called plates both large and
small are in constant relative motion. They move on a mobile zone on the Upper Mantle called the
Asthernosphere at a rate of about 2 to 13cm per year. Plates move in three different ways or
follow three major patterns.
 Plates move toward each other to create a margin of convergence (Destructive margins).
 Plates move away from each other to create a margin of Divergence (Constructive margins)
 Plates can slide pass each other to create conservation margins.
When plates move, they create edges next to the moving plates called Margins. These margins
(zones) are zones of severe tectonic activities like earthquakes, volcanicity, folding, faulting
making all plates margins to be seismic zones. On the other hand areas away from these margins
are free from constant seismic activities. These zones are called Asseismic zones.

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(b) Causes of Plate Movements

A number of ideas have been developed to try to explain the causes of plate movements.
These include the Ridge-push mechanism, the Gravity sliding hypothesis, the sub-crustal
convection currents theory and the slab-pull hypothesis.
According to the Sub-crustal convection currents theory
The mechanism responsible for the movement of the earth lithosphere (Diastrophism) is
convection currents. This convection current originates from the upper mantle (Asthernosphere)
due to the breakdown of radio-active elements such as uranium as a result from high
temperatures. These currents move materials from the upper mantle in a circular manner onto the
earth surface. This temperature differences in various parts of the mantle causes differences in
densities.
Given the semi plastic nature of the upper mantle, under this high temperature, the mantle
become less dense and capable of flowing (rise) slowly toward the surface there by setting up a
system of convections currents similar to those of a boiling pot on fire.

OR

When these vertical currents reach the surface (crust), they spread out laterally in the form of
lava on areas which are less hot which later solidifies.

Summary table of Plate margins and Associated landforms and processes

PLATE LANDFROMS TECTONIC PROCESS
MARGIN

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- Mid-Ocean Ridge eg: (Mid Atlantic Ridge) - Tensional Faulting

Constructive - Block Mountains - Volcanism
- Rift Valleys eg: (East African Rift valley) - Shallow focus Earth quakes
- Deep-sea Trenches eg: Mariana and Tonga Trenches in the - Compressional folding
pacific ocean - Deep focus Earthquakes
Destructive - Volcanic Mountains - Violent volcanism
- Island Arcs or Volcanic Island eg: Fold Mountains
- Tear fault and Escarpment eg: San Andreas Fault in California -Tear fault
Conservative - Earthquakes

Lesson 4: LANDFORMS OR FEATURES ASSOCIATED TO DIVERGENT MARGINS

(CONSTRUCTIVE)

(a) Definition: Divergent plate margins are tectonic zones where plates move away from each
other producing the effect of sea-floor spreading. They are called destructive because when plates
move apart, molten materials or magma is allowed to rise and solidifies as new rocks features.
They are also called constructive margins. Divergent margins are associated to a number of
features.

(b) Features produced at Divergent margins

Divergent margins are associated to the following features or landforms
 Mid-Ocean Ridge ( Mid-Atlantic ridge, Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge):
They are chains of sub-marine mountains found at the centre of the ocean floor
characterized by tensional fault. They may have the height between 3000 to 4000m above
the ocean floor. The summit is rough with a deep fracture called the Axial Rift of about 1-
2km deep through which magma usually rise. They extend for thousands of kilometer at
the centre of the ocean. Example the Mid-Atlantic ridge extends for over 60.000 km

 Rift valley (East Africa Rift around Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika and Lake
Victoria)
They can also be called Graben. They are elongated steep-valleys bounded by fault
scarps with a flat floor that may be 50-60km. They are found at the top of the Mid-Ocean
Ridge. A good example is the East Africa Rift which extends for about 4800km in length
from Syria to Malawi. They are formed by tensional forces which result to faulting.

 Block Mountains
They are deep sided mountain blocks or plateau. They can be formed at divergent and at
convergent plate margins. At divergent plate margins, they are formed by tensional faulting.
They are also called Horst.

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(b) Processes at Divergent margins

Many tectonic processes take place at constructive plate margins like;

- Deep tensional faulting which takes place after the upward movement of molten materials
called magma which originates from the upper mantle resulting to the formation of rift valleys and
Block Mountains.

- There is also volcanism which takes place along the margin which is quiet effusive and welling
out in very large quantities. Much of the magma comes from the upper mantle and it is basic lava
which is less viscous with a higher percentage of iron and aluminum. This magma rises from
fault lines and it is pushed upward convection currents.

As all regions affected by volcanism, earthquakes are common. They occur when there is a
sudden release of tension build up over a long period of time under the surface. This release of
tension causes vibration or shaking of the earth crust.

Lesson 5: LANDFORMS OR FEATURES ASSOCIATED TO CONVERGENT MARGINS

(DESTRUCTIVE)

(a) Definition: They are plate margins where two plates move toward each other. They are also
called destructive plate margins. Plates meeting can be of two natures;
 Two plates of the same density that is the continental-continental plates to give collision
margins.
 Two plates of different densities that is continental-Oceanic plate to gives Destructive
margins
(b) Features produced at Convergent margins
Divergent margins are associated to the following features or landforms
1. Collision Margins and Associated Features

They are formed when two lighter sialic continental plates move toward each other (meet). In
this case since they have the same density, no subduction takes place. The continental plates are
rather twisted and uplifted into a fold mountain. The two continental plates fused to form a
single continental block in a process called Suturing (Junction of two colliding blocks).

The only feature created by the meeting of two continental plates is a fold mountain. A good
example is the meeting of the Eurasian plate with the Indo-Australian plate to form the
Himalayas mountain Range. The main processes here include Folding and frequent
Earthquakes which are sometimes violent.

2. Destructive Margins (Subduction) and Associated Features

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They are formed when a Continental plate meet with an Oceanic plate. When this happens the
edge of the Oceanic plate sinks beneath the continental plate which is less dense. This portion
will be digested into the mantle and transformed into magma. This process is called subduction.

a) Submarine Trenches

They are very deep V-shaped elongated depression on the ocean floor. They are the deepest
points of the ocean usually beside the continental landmass. They are hundreds of kilometer long
and tens of kilometers wide. A good example is the Mariana trench which is the deepest trench
having a deep of about 12.000m which is formed when the pacific plate sink beneath the
Philippine plate. We equally have the Tonga trench with a length of 10.000m which is formed
when the pacific plate sink beneath the Indo-Australian plate. It is the second deepest trench.
Other trenches include Aleutian Trench, the Peru-Chile Trench, and the Japanese Trench (Pacific
plate sink beneath the Eurasian plate).

b) Island Arcs

They are groups of andecite (acid) volcanic islands which appear on the edges of the stronger
continental plate either on the sea or land in the form of a string or line. They are formed when acid
magma rises from the Benioff zone (deeper parts of the mantle) as a result of deep focus
earthquake in the existing cracks or faults. Island Arcs are common in the Pacific Ocean where the
Pacific plate sink beneath the surrounding land masses like Indonesian Philippines, Japanese etc are
some examples.

c) Volcanic Mountains

They are formed at destructive margins. They are acid or composites cones. These types of
volcanic mountains have steep sides which result from deeply buried materials which undergo very
intense metamorphism due to great pressure and compression by the plates (Orogenesis).
Volcanic activities also take place due to the melting of subducted plates which forced the melted

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materials to rise and accumulate on the surface forming Volcanic Peaks or Lava Plateaux.
Examples we have the Andes Mountain Range, by the subduction of the Nazca and Cocos Plates.

CONSERVATIVE MARGINS AND ASSOCIATED FEATURES (TRANSFORM MARGINS)

They are margins which are formed when two plates by-pass each other with no destruction
or construction. There are few of such margins in the world. Example the North American Plate
by-pass the Pacific Plate at some points.

Transform plate margins are associated the following processes,

- Faulting: As the crust cracks and the blocks move-pass each other horizontally. This produces
tear faults and escarpments. Example is the San Andreas Fault in California.

- Violent Earthquakes: As the rocks of the earth crust suddenly fracture and rub each other. Eg.
San Francisco Earthquake in 1906.

The major features formed at conservative margin are Tear fault and Escarpment.

Strengths of Plate Tectonics

The theory includes all the proofs of continental drift and sea floor spreading. It is noted
that this theory is a refined version of these two theories. These proofs include;

 The Striking Parallelism (Physical evidence)

 Biodiversity similarity
 Structural Resemblance and Geologic Similarity
 Evidence from fossils

Weaknesses or Limitations of the Theory of Plate Tectonics

There is no exact mechanism to explain plate motion. It is for this reason that many geologist
rely on Holmes’ Sub crustal convection current which remains the most credible today. There are
till many doubts on many explanations causing plate movement.

Again, it is difficult to explain what causes plate boundaries. However the ages of the plates are
not known. It did not also explain why some plates are larger than others.

Lesson 6: VOLCANISM

(a) Meaning and Process of Volcanism

Volcanism is a process whereby all liquid, solid and gaseous materials are ejected onto the
earth surface or injected into the earth surface. From this definition two types of volcanicity can
be distinguished; Intrusive and Extrusive volcanicity.

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- Intrusive Volcanicity occurs when magma cools and solidifies beneath the earth surface.
- Extrusive Volcanicity occurs when lava cools and solidifies on the earth surface.

Structure of a Volcano

Causes of Volcanism.
Volcanism result from magma formed in the crust or mantle and its upward movement. Magma
or molten material originates from the upper mantle and in the lower crust. This is because rocks in
the mantle are subjected under very high temperatures (2000-3000°C). The magma is in a semi
plastic state that is near melting point. This is because of the overlaying pressure of the crust
above. It rises toward the surface only when the material becomes liquid (molten).
The reasons for the changes in state of magma to liquid are because of;
 Additional heat caused by great friction at plate margins where there is subduction as rocks
crush into each other where the edge of one plate forces itself into the mantle at convergent
margins.
 It is also due to radioactive heat produces at certain hotspot inside the mantle which makes
material to melt.
 The release of overlying pressure on the semi plastic rock during faulting or folding.
The reasons why magma rises upward
 Magma comes from the magmatic chamber. There are two main reasons why magma rises
(Erupt upward) at the surface.
 The boiling liquid under high temperatures and pressure containing bubbling gases always
struggle to escape onto the surface.
 The deep fault caused by either tensional or Compressional forces which release pressure
and facilitate the upward movement of bubbling gas.
NB: The result of the uprising magma is that, when at the surface, it cools, solidifies, form crystals
back into solid rock.

(b) Cycle of a Volcano

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World Distribution of Volcanoes

Most volcanism take place on the active seismic zones and it is clearly associated with plate
boundaries.

 The circum-pacific belts west coast of south and North America and south Eastern Asian into
New Zealand (Ring of fire) with countries like Japan, Phillipine, Peru and Chili
 Eurasian-Melanesian belt Northwest Africa and South West Europe Eastward into Indonesia.
 Mid-Ocean Ridges in all Oceans (Spreading axis)
 Rifting zone of the East African plate.
 In Cameroon, we have the Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL) which starts at the coastal region
of the south West to the western highland and extends to the Mandara Mountain in the
Northern Cameroon. Some volcanic mountains along this line are Mt Cameroon (4100m),
Mount Kupe (2050m), Mt Manenguba (2396m), Mt Oku (3008m) and Mt Bamboutos (2740m).

(c) Products or Material of a Volcano

The products from volcanic eruption would be determined by THREE categories of materials
that is Liquid, Solid and gases (Lava, Pyroclast and Volcanic gases)

i) Liquid Materials (Lava or Magma)

There are two types of lava emitted which wary in their chemical composition and therefore
behave differently at the surface. This difference is at the level of the proportion of silica in the
lava. Lava with a high silica is acid while lava with a low silica contain is basic.

ii) Solid Materials (Pyroclast or Fire broken rocks)

These are fragments ejected by volcanoes due to the explosive nature of some eruption. During
these eruptions, materials are sprayed up to 40Km above the earth surface. These solid materials
are of different sizes and include Ash particles, Cinders, Small and Large Stones, Gravel,
Breccia are send out into the atmosphere.

iii) Gaseous materials (Steam)

All volcanic eruptions are accompanied by hot gases in high or small amount. Acid lava erupt
more violently than basic lava because of its higher proportion of gases. The common gases are
Carbon dioxide, Sulphur dioxide, Chlorine, Florine, Hydrogen sulphide and Vapour. Vapour
is the highest proportion of gases.

(d) Landforms of Volcano

There are TWO main types of landforms associated with volcanic eruption, the Intrusive volcanic
landforms and the intrusive volcanic landforms.

I. Intrusive Volcanic Landforms

They are landforms formed from the cooling and solidification of molten magma in the crust.
They include; Sill, Batholith, Lacolith, Phacolith, Lopolith and Dyke.

1. Sill: These are horizontal sheets of igneous rocks that solidify along the bedding plain and
extend for about 170 Km. Example the Greatwhin sills NE England.

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2. Dyke: These are narrow walls of igneous rocks that cut across, cool and solidify vertically in the
bedding plain of sedimentary rocks. They also extend for several kilometers. When exposed to
by erosion, it may form a resistant wall-like ridge. Example the Cleveland Dyke NW England.
3. Batholid: They are the largest of all igneous intrusive rocks made up largely of coarse grain
granite which are very resistant to erosion. They are large domes of igneous rocks which form
the core of maintain. It extends for many Kilometers.
4. Laccolith: It is a cake-like mass of igneous rock that may have the size of a mountain. It has a
flat base with dome shaped upper surface when viscous magma penetrate into sedimentary
rock forcing the overlying layer to bulge at the surface there by cooling and solidify.
5. Phacolith: They are lens-shape mass of igneous rock which occupies the crest of anticline and
the base of a syncline in a folded sedimentary rock caused by the cooling and solidification of
magma.
6. Lopolith: They are large saucer-shaped mass of igneous rock found along the bedding plane of
sedimentary rock. It is formed when magma cools and solidifies in the form of a shallow basin.

II. Extrusive Volcanic Landforms

They are landforms formed from the cooling and solidification of molten Lava on the crust.
They include; Lava cones, Acid lava, Ash and cinder cones, Composite cones.
1. Lava Cones (Basic lava or Shield)
They are broad base and very extensive cones which are almost circular. They are gentle sloping
with a relatively low height. Volcanoes of mid-ocean ridges like Hawaiian and Ice land.
This is formed because of the fluid nature of the lava which is basic emitted in large quantities
over a long period of time over long distances. There is few violence and little pyroclastic materials
during eruptions.
2. Acid Lava Cones (Cumulo-Dome Volcano)
It is a steep sided mountain with greater height. It is rather convex at the flanks. It is shown
below.
This shape is because of the viscous nature of the lava which usually acidic emitted from the
vent. This lava does not flow far and cools faster and do not take long time to solidify.
3. Ash and Cinder Cone (Andecide)
They are very small and low heights (Less than 200m) made up of layers of pyraclast that is Ash
and Cinder. It has steep concave sides with large craters. It result from violent volcanic eruption
during lava is blown high into air. This solidifies back into fragments and fall on the vent.
4. Composite cone (Strato Volcano)

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It is a large conical shaped mountains build up of alternating layers of ash and lava. They are the
most common and highest. They have well developed crater. They can also developed secondary
cones taken to reduce the impact.

Lesson 7: VOLCANOES AND MAN

(a) Importance of Volcanoes

 Volcanic landscapes are used for touristic attraction.
 Volcanic landscapes are very fertile soils which are used for agriculture
 Some volcanic mountains are exploited to product geothermal energy to provide house hold
and industrial electricity.
 Mineral exploitation takes place on volcanic landscape. Precious minerals are collected for
decoration and transformed to produce cement.
(b) Volcanoes as a Hazard
1. Ashfall or pyroclast rain, Ash and cinder projected far into the skies falls back to cover vast
areas of forest, farmland and settlements.
2. Fire which result from hot molten lava and rock fragments across the surface parch up green
plants and send them on fire. Example Cameroon in 2000.
3. Lava Floods or flows spreading across the landscape burn old land surface and everything
across it way that is houses, roads, farmland creating new land surface.
4. Mudflows or Lahars caused by torrential heavy rains on a volcanoes mixed with less ash and
cinder lying on the surface and when saturated is dragged down hill as thick watery mud
flooding large areas and river valleys.
5. Earthquakes causes the collapse of many structures, building and dams which may kill or
cause flooding thus lost of life.
6. During volcanic eruptions, poisonous and suffocation may not be ejected very high into the
atmosphere to be dispersed tend to move down the slopes resulting to asphyxiation and the
killing of animals and people. Example Lakes Nyos in Cameroon in 1986 which killed over
1700 people.

(c) Adaptation and Mitigation Strategies

1. Creation of seismic monitoring stations with specialized equipment like seismographs to detect
earthquakes to alert the population. Example was installed around Mount Cameroon in 2003.
2. Building deviation barriers or walls to divert the flow of lava away for settled areas like in Hawaii
Island and Italy.
3. Resettlement or relocation of population from volcanic zones to safer areas further away to
reduce damage.
4. Cooling lava fronts with water like in Iceland.

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5. Sensitizing the population via the Radio, TV, and Internet etc on risk and measures to adopt
during and after eruption.
6. Limiting construction zones by law of areas prone volcanic eruption
7. Government has put in place construction zones to avoid the destruction of property and loss of
lives.
8. The people have tried to build houses and structures with more resistant materials which would
resist volcanoes and earthquakes.
9. The government has put in place research stations to try to predict how frequent some
volcanoes would erupt so that measure could be taken to reduce the impact.

Lesson 7: EARTHQUAKE AND MAN

(a) Meaning and Nature of Earthquake

Earthquakes are natural phenomenon which proof that the earth continues to be a dynamic
planet changing each day by internal tectonic forces. Most earthquakes occur along plate margins.

Earthquakes are sudden vibrations (Trembling or movement) of the earth crust. Seismologists
estimate that over one million earthquakes takes place every year. Some of them are noticeable
while others are unnoticeable.

Manifestation and measurement of Earthquakes

The point at which the earthquake begins is called the Focus. It occurs beneath the crust where
rocks rupture and move apart. Areas of earthquake and occurrence are called Earthquake Foci
which could be near the surface (1-70km) lead to shallow focus earthquake or at great depth
leads to deep focus earthquake.

When rupture occurs at the focus, movement along a new or old fault line releases energy which
causes vibration. This energy is send out in the form of a shock waves called Seismic Waves in
all directions.

The point above on the earth surface directly above the focus is called the Epicenter. This area
damages are greatest and it is the nearest point to the focus and away from the epicenter. They
become weaker and people far off hardly feel shaking.

The instrument used to record and measure seismic waves is called Seismograph. It consist of
a weighted pen suspended from a frame, which draws line on a roll of paper (waves) proportional to
the degree of vibration. The paper on which the earthquake is recorded is called Seismogram.

The intensity and magnitude of an earth can be determined by using the Mercalli scale and
Richter scale. The mercalli scale measures the intensity of an earthquake while the Richter scale

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measures the Magnitude or strength. It ranges from 0 to 10. Values below 4 are for light and minor
earthquakes which may not be detected and above 4 are strong or major earthquake.

Types of Seismic Waves

There are two main types of seismic waves which transmit the energy of a quake on the earth.
They include Body and Surface Waves.

a) Body Waves

They are waves generated from the focus and travel only within the interior and may
sometimes reach the surface somewhere. There are TWO types of body waves.

- Primary Waves (P-Waves): It is cause by rock particles which move forward and backward in
the same direction. It travels to about 8-9km/S in liquid, air and rocks.

- Secondary Waves (S-Waves): They are caused where rock particles shake side by side at right
angle to the direction of waves. They travel to about 4-5km/S. They only move on solid and so
cannot reach the core.

b) Surface Waves

These are waves generated from the epicenter which travel on the surface of the earth in all
directions away from the epicenter. They travel slowly than the body waves. There are of two
types.

- Love Waves (L-Waves): They are the slowest of all and they cause rock particles to vibrate from
side to side in the direction of the wave motion. They can move round the earth.

- Releigh Waves: They cause surface rocks to move in a vertical circular motion very similar to
waves of water in the sea. They can cause the surface to be deformed building upward or
downward.

(b) Distribution of Earthquake (Global scale and Cameroon)

(c) Causes of Earthquake

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There are two main causes of earthquake which are plate tectonics and volcanic eruption.
1. Plate tectonics

Most world seismic zones are associated to plate margins that is collision, separation, by-passing
of plates generate shock waves which causes earthquakes. When plates move in different ways,
they create tensional and Compressional forces which result to the fracturing and, folding and
faulting, rupture which causes the earth to shake as energy is released.

2. Volcanic eruption

Magma ejected and moving on the earth surface before and during eruptions causes the earth to
expand and contracts. As magma struggle to rise into and out of the earth crust during eruption, it
causes massive trembling of rocks in the region. To conclude, volcanic eruptions are always
associated with earthquakes because they usually appear at plate margins.

We equally have manmade (Anthropogenic) earthquakes caused by human activities. These

earthquakes are caused by,

 Explosions of mines
 Bomb blast
 During construction of roads when compacting.
(d) Earthquakes as a Hazard
1. Earthquakes cause landslides, slumping of loose water saturated regolith, mudflows
especially in mountainous areas as a result accelerating Geomorphic processes.
2. Earthquakes can cause submarine gent sea waves called Tsunamis which are very
destructive and travel at a speed between 700-800km/hour.
3. Collapse of building, rupture of dams and consequently flooding.
4. Earthquake causes deaths and loss of property, forest ecosystem destroyed leading to
disequilibrium.
5. Rupture of gas and water pipes or pipelines which may result to fire.
(e) Measure to Mitigate the Effects of Earthquake
1. Creation of seismic monitoring stations with specialized equipment like seismographs to
detect earthquakes to alert the population. Example was installed around Mount Cameroon
in 2003.
2. Encouraging the development and building with earthquake resistant materials.
3. Limiting construction zones by law of areas prone to earthquake
4. Sensitizing and educating the local population via the radio, Tv, social media about the risk
of an earthquake.

PART II: DENUDATIONAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

Lesson 9: DENUDATION

Meaning and Classification

Slopes

I. WEATHERING

Meaning : Weathering refers to the breakdown or disintegration and/or decomposition of rocks

insitu (On spot) due to exposure to weather elements like moisture, water, heat, gases etc on the
earth surface. In other words we mean weathering is the process by which rocks break down or

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decay by natural agents on spot. It is a static process involving no displacement of weathered

materials.

Types of Weathering

There are two main types of weathering, Physical weathering and Chemical weathering.

1. Physical weathering

It refers to the breakdown or disintegration of rocks into smaller particles on the spot as they are
exposed to weather agents without any chemical change. It is also called mechanical weathering.
Mechanical weathering is influenced by;
 Temperature changes throughout the day like in the Tropical Desert.
 Very low and fluctuating temperature coupled with availability of water in the Polar Regions
 Water and rainfall; that is erosional unloading
 Organic activities like those of plants and animals

2. Chemical weathering

Chemical weathering is the decay or decomposition of minerals found in rocks. It is common in

regions where water is available and high temperatures to accelerate chemical reactions like in the
Equatorial region. When chemical weathering take place, mineral composition changes and make
the rock to become weak.

Weathering as a System

Weathering system comprises input, processes and output. Weathering is a stage of denudation
and it is therefore viewed as a sub-system in its own. Weathering as a system can be summarized
on the table below.

INPUTS OR AGENTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS OR PRODUCTS

A- Physical Weathering Physical Output
- Heat - Insolation Unaltered minerals (Clast or fragments)
- Salt or Frost crystals Weathering Resistant minerals or crystals
-Biological agents e.g Plants - Frost action
and Animals - Bio-mechamical
- Pressure release
B- Physical Weathering Chemical Output
- Water - Hydrolysis - Altered new minerals e.g Kaolin, Iron
- Carbonic Acid - Carbonation oxide
- Humic (Organic Acid) - Hydrationn - Unaltered stable minerals e.g Quartz
- Gases e.g CO2, O2 - Oxidation - Solutes e.g Calciuc bicarbonate.
- Chelation

Lesson 10: INTENSITY AND TYPES OF WEATHERING

Lesson 11: THE IMPACTS OF WEATHERING

Lesson 12: MASS WASTING (MOVEMENT)

Meaning

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Factors

Classification

Lesson 13: PROCESSES AND FEATURES OF MASS WASTING (MOVEMENT)

Slow

Fast

Impact

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