International Journal of Kinesiology & Sports Science

ISSN: 2202-946X
www.ijkss.aiac.org.au

The Effects of an Eight Week Plyometric-based Program on Motor Performance Skills and
Muscular Power in 7–8-Year-Old Primary School Students

Andrew Sortwell1*, Michael Newton2, Daniel A. Marinho3, Ricardo Ferraz3, Dana Perlman1
1
School of Education,University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
2
School of Health Sciences, University of Notre Dame, Perth, Australia
3
Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal
Corresponding Author: Andrew Sortwell, E-mail: [email protected]

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history Background of Study: Competence in motor performance skills is important in enabling
Received: August 02, 2021 children to be physically literate. Plyometric-based training has been suggested as an effective
Accepted: October 11, 2021 means to enhance motor performance skills in young athletes. However, no studies have reported
Published: October 30, 2021 the effects of a whole body plyometric-based program integrated into physical education on
Volume: 9 Issue: 4 motor performance skills with young children. Objective: This study aims to examine the effect
of a plyometric-based program on primary school students’ motor performance skills, upper and
lower body muscular power, and reactive strength index. Method: The sample was composed
Conflicts of interest: None of 61 primary school students, 29 girls and 32 boys, aged 7–8 years old, from two second-
Funding: None grade Physical Education (PE) classes. Both groups participated in their regular eight-week PE
lessons (50-minute classes twice a week). During the study, the plyometric group performed a
plyometric-based program in the 15-minute warmup of each class, while the comparison group
performed regular warmup activities. Student’s motor performance skill proficiency, reactive
strength index, lower and upper body muscular power were assessed before and after the eight
weeks of PE lessons. The data were analysed using a two-way analysis of variance, followed
by pairwise comparisons with the Bonferroni adjustment. Results: The data analysis indicated
significant increases in motor performance skill proficiency, upper and lower body muscular
power in the plyometric group vs comparison group (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: These results
suggest that including a plyometric-based program in the PE warmup phase of the lessons may
improve motor performance skills and muscular power in primary school students.

Key words: Resistance Training, Movement Skills, Children, Physical Education, School, Plyometrics

INTRODUCTION Australia were achieving the Australian physical activity

Lifelong engagement in physical activity can minimise the guidelines in 2018 (AIHW,2020). Considering that the de-
risk of significant adverse physical health effects, such as cline in physical activity levels commences from an early
cardiovascular disease, type two diabetes, obesity, osteo- age, researchers have postulated that augmenting a child’s
porosis, breast and colon cancer (Pedersen & Saltin, 2015). motor performance skills level of proficiency could be criti-
During childhood and adolescence, adequate levels of daily cal to attenuating this decline (Barnett et al., 2016).
physical activity increase the tendency to engage in physi- ‘Motor performance skills’ is a term used in the paedi-
cal activity into adulthood (Alvarez-Pitti et al., 2020). It is atric exercise science and physical education disciplines to
recommended that primary school-aged students include at mirror a variety of terms previously used in the research lit-
least 60 minutes of moderate to vigorous intensity physical erature (i.e. fundamental movement skills, motor skills and
activity per day and participate in muscle and bone strength- fundamental sports skills) to elucidate goal-directed human
ening activities (McCarthy et al., 2021). Moreover, in the movements which require specific skill learning, practice
Active Healthy Kids Australia report, schools are encour- and stimuli to develop proficiency (Behringer et al., 2011).
aged to engage students in activities designed to improve In children, a solid foundation in motor performance skills
motor performance skill proficiency and develop muscular is likely to assist in overcoming the theoretical ‘proficien-
fitness components such as power and strength (Schranz cy barrier’ (Seefeldt, 1982). Advanced motor performance
et al., 2018). Despite the benefits and recommendations, skill proficiency developed in childhood may result in higher
physical inactivity is a concern for government health au- participation levels in health-enhancing physical activity and
thorities as only 26% of children aged five to twelve in fitness activities later in life (Jones et al., 2020). Motor per-

Published by Australian International Academic Centre PTY.LTD.

Copyright (c) the author(s). This is an open access article under CC BY license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.9n.4p.1
2 IJKSS 9(4):1-12

formance skills are the foundation for more complex motor skill proficiency, measures of muscular power and reactive
activities such as sport-specific skills (Behringer et al., 2011). strength index. The study involved 61 volunteer students, 32
During middle childhood (ages five to seven), the boys and 29 girls, aged seven to eight years from two het-
development of motor performance skills is critical and a erogeneous second-grade PE classes at a primary school.
sensitive period for rapid adaptations (Lloyd & Oliver, 2012). Similar intervention studies were utilised for sample size
A relevant setting to accomplish this development of motor calculations (Faigenbaum et al., 2014; Nobre et al., 2017).
performance skills is during primary school Physical Educa- Based on interaction effects between groups and time in a
tion (PE). PE curriculum has been identified as an ideal set- two-way ANOVA, a priori power analysis (GPower V3.1.9.2,
ting to assist children in developing their overall motor perfor- Dusseldorf, Germany) was conducted to estimate the mini-
mance (e.g. running, jumping, throwing) and physical activity mum amount of students needed to achieve the desired power
behaviours (MacNamara et al., 2015). Evidence from the 2015 (Faul et al., 2007). The priori power analysis indicated that 30
New South Wales ‘Schools Physical Activity and Nutrition students per group would be sufficient to yield 80% statistical
Survey’ (SPANS) suggests that there has been minimal im- power at a significance level of p < 0.05 (Faul et al., 2007).
provement in motor performance skills since the decline from Due to the nature of this study and for practical reasons within
2004 to 2010 (Hardy et al., 2017; Schranz et al., 2018). It can a school setting, randomisation of participation was conduct-
be inferred that despite the availability of PE in schools, there ed at the class level, supporting this study’s classification as
is scope for improvement in PE movement education concepts quasi-experimental (Handley et al., 2018). Random assign-
to enhance student skills to achieve proficiency in motor per- ment of groups was conducted by an independent third-party
formance skills. This inference aligns with the 2018 Active blind to the study, using a coin toss (Moher et al., 2010). The
Healthy Kids Australia Report (Schranz et al., 2018), in that two classes were then assigned randomly into the plyometric
the lack of achievement may in part be due to neglecting the (Plyometric, n = 31; 17 boys and 14 girls) and the comparison
development of physical capabilities such as muscular power. (Comparison, n = 30; 15 boys and 15 girls) groups.
Children may be best-offered opportunities during child- Before the commencement of the study, written informed
hood to engage in activities that provide adequate stimuli to consent was obtained from both the parents/legal guardians
develop the neuromuscular system during PE classes. A type of and study participants, after they were given a full explana-
neuromuscular power training such as plyometric training can tion of the purpose, features and potential risks participating
enhance motor learning by eliciting specific neural adaptations in the study. The study protocol conformed to the current
(Granacher et al., 2011; Tumkur Anil Kumar et al., 2021). Plyo- agreement of the Declaration of Helsinki on ethical prin-
metrics is a form of exercise intended to link movement speed ciples for research involving human subjects and was ap-
to strength and produce explosive strength, which is common- proved by the University of Wollongong Ethics Committee.
ly known as muscular power (Davies et al., 2015). Plyometric The inclusion criteria for the study participants were as
movements involve a rapid, explosive movement during an follows: (i) being enrolled in the second grade (grade in which
eccentric contraction followed immediately by an explosive approval for the study was obtained); (ii) being free of inju-
concentric contraction. This sequence is also referred to as the ries or physical conditions that will put the student at risk; (iii)
stretch-shortening cycle. Recently, this form of exercise has providing the corresponding signed written informed assent
been employed to improve motor performance skills of vol- by the student; and (iv) providing the corresponding signed
leyball, basketball and soccer players while reducing the time written informed consent by the student’s legal guardian/s.
engaged in sport-specific skill development within training The exclusion criteria for data were: (i) not attending both the
(Cherni et al., 2019; Gjinovci et al., 2017). More importantly, familiarisation, pre-and post-test assessment sessions, and (ii)
meta-analytic studies have suggested that plyometric exercise not attending 80% of the physical education lessons, and (iii)
could enhance motor performance skills, although there is a missing more than two consecutive PE lessons.
need for research in children (Behringer et al., 2011; Harries
et al., 2012). The research to date on plyometric training and Program
children has mostly been restricted to improving aspects of fit-
ness or a limited range of sports skills for team events. The plyometric and comparison groups were engaged in two
Therefore, this study aimed to compare the effects of plyo- 50-minute PE lessons each week over an eight-week period.
metric-based training integrated into PE lessons on motor per- Each lesson included a 10–15-minute warmup before par-
formance skills, reactive strength index, and measures of upper ticipation in the PE Unit titled Games and Sport: Ball Skills
and lower body muscular power in seven- to eight-year-old stu- (see Table 1). The unit was implemented as part of the reg-
dents. It was hypothesised that plyometric-based training would ular school PE Curriculum and both classes were taught by
result in more positive changes than the standard PE program. the same PE teacher. The plyometric group performed the
plyometric-based program as their warmup, and the compar-
ison group performed their traditional warmup twice a week
METHOD at the start of the PE lessons.
Study Design and Participants
This study followed a quasi-experimental design to com- Comparison Group Warmup
pare the effects of a plyometric-based program embedded Participants in the comparison group participated in their
into the warmup phase of PE lessons on motor performance traditional warmup activities, consisting of walking, brisk
The Effects of an Eight Week Plyometric-based Program on Motor Performance Skills and Muscular Power in
7–8-Year-Old Primary School Students 3

Table 1. Overview of the PE unit titled ‑ Games and Sport: Ball Skills

Lesson General Skills Focus General Types of Activities
1 Dribbling ball with both feet Group practice drills, games, modified sport
2 Dribbling ball with both feet Group practice drills, games, modified sport
3 Dribbling ball with both feet Practice drills, games, modified sport
4 Bouncing/dribbling the ball with hands Individual practice, group games
5 Bouncing/dribbling the ball with hands Individual practice, group games
6 Bouncing/dribbling the ball with hands Individual practice, group games
7 Catching and throwing Group practice drills, games, modified sport
8 Catching and throwing Group practice drills, games, modified sport
9 Catching and throwing Group practice drills, games, modified sport
10 Throwing and passing Group practice drills, games, modified sport
11 Throwing and passing Group practice drills, games, modified sport
12 Throwing and passing Group practice drills, games, modified sport
13 Kicking Individual practice, group games
14 Kicking Individual practice, group games
15 Striking Group practice drills, modified sport
16 Striking Group practice drills, modified sport

walking and side steps, followed by dynamic stretches. The phase progressively increasing the intensity while decreas-
traditional warmup lasted 10 to 15 minutes and was followed ing the repetitions.
by the set lessons. The comparison group warmups did not Within each session, the plyometric group performed
include any ‘plyometric exercises’ or ‘plyometric training’ eight different plyometric activities (Tables 3-5). For plyo-
(see Table 2). After the warmup was completed, the students metric exercises involving the use of a medicine ball, stu-
participated in the same replicated PE lesson. Using check- dents were instructed with a lightweight rubber ball weigh-
lists, students were observed by the researcher and a general ing 200 grams before performing them with a weighted
class teacher during each lesson to monitor adherence to the 1-kilogram medicine ball. Medicine ball activities in weeks
comparison group warmup and the set PE lesson. seven and eight utilised a two-kilogram medicine ball.
A qualified PE teacher implemented the plyometric war-
mup and the PE teaching program. During each lesson, a
Plyometric Group Warmup Intervention
fidelity checklist and logbook was used to monitor imple-
The progressive plyometric-based program was performed mentation for adherence and quality. The researcher and
during the warmup phase of the PE lesson on non-con- the general classroom teacher both directly observed the
secutive days twice per week (Monday and Thursday) for PE teacher and a sample of four students participating to
eight weeks under monitored and controlled conditions. The inform the completion of the fidelity checklist and logbook
warmup lasted 10 to 15 minutes and was followed by the (Loflin, 2015). Fidelity of implementation for all components
set lesson. The warmup consisted of a circuit of plyomet- was > 90% and found to be adequate (Hastie & Casey, 2014).
ric stations in which students worked in pairs or individu- No student experienced injuries or pain during the plyomet-
ally. The plyometric stations consisted of upper and lower ric warmups.
body exercises that have been previously used with children
(Faigenbaum et al., 2009), and the structure of the program
met the suggested training guidelines for children: training Measured Variables
repetitions of 6-10 (Lloyd et al., 2011), at least 30 seconds Variables in the study included anthropometric indices, test
rest between each exercise (Moreno et al., 2014), frequency of motor performance skills, measurement of upper, lower
of two sessions per week, and 72 hours recovery between body muscular power and reactive strength index. Two fa-
sessions (Lloyd et al., 2011). miliarisation sessions were delivered prior to the pre-test-
The plyometric-based program intervention was divided ing day to accustom students to tests of motor performance
into three phases (periods), with the first and second phase skills, reactive strength index and muscular power. For both
spanning three weeks and the last phase being two weeks. pre-testing and post-testing, tests were completed in two
The plyometric framework required planned changes over days and each time administered in the same sequence, at the
the eight weeks in acute training variables such as; exercise same time each day, by the same research assistants, and stu-
choice, number of repetitions per set, in order to maximise dents abstained from physical activity in the 24 hours prior
training adaptations (Miller et al., 2006). The first phase was to the test. The research assistants were blinded to the group
low intensity, higher volume to safely introduce the students to which students belonged and were trained and familiar
to plyometric activities, followed by the second and third with all tests. The students were directed to wear the same
4 IJKSS 9(4):1-12

Table 2. Overview of the comparison group warmup

General Movements Dynamic Stretching
Walking 30m x 4 times Leg swings forward and back, each leg ten times
Brisk walking 30m x 4 times Leg swings side to side, each leg ten times
Sidestep walk right 30m Walking knee hug for 30m
Sidestep walk left 30m Slow squat to stand, ten times
Follow the leader’s actions movement activity Spiderman climb for 30m, two times
Overarm rotations, ten times
Double arm swings across the chest, ten times

Table 3. Description of each plyometric‑based session in weeks one to three

Monday Sets x Thursday Sets x
Reps Reps
Medicine Ball squats 2 x 10 Jump and freeze 2 x 10
ABC pushes 2 x 10 Doubler leg backward jump 2 x 10
Sticky knees with ball 2 x 10 Triple “X” jump 2 x 10
Medicine ball chest pass 2 x 10 Medicine ball chest pass 2 x 10
Standing jump, reach for the stars 2 x 10 Lateral taps 2 x 10
Medicine ball throw downs 2 x 10 Single leg hops 2 x 10
Single leg hops 2 x 10 Medicine ball throw downs 2 x 10
Straight jump relay 1 x 10 Figure 8 jump relay 1 x 10
*20 seconds for each exercise station; 30 seconds recovery between stations; medicine ball weighed one kilogram

Table 4. Description of each plyometric‑based session in weeks four to six

Monday Sets X Thursday Sets x
Reps Reps
Jump and turn 90 degrees 2x8 Hurdle hops 2x8
Push up on knees 2x8 Lateral hops 2x8
Zig Zag double leg jump 2x8 Medicine ball one arm shoulder pass 2x8
Medicine ball 1 arm shoulder pass 2x8 Zig zag double leg jump drill 2x8
Take your marks and jump 2x8 Rapid fire medicine ball throw downs 2x8
Medicine ball overhead pass 2x8 High five jump drill 2x8
Medicine ball push pass 2x8 Scissor jump with medicine ball 2x8
Power skipping relay 1x8 Ladder run hop relay 1x8
*20 seconds for each exercise station; 30 seconds recovery between stations; medicine ball weighed one kilogram

Table 5. Description of each plyometric‑based session in weeks seven and eight

Monday Sets x Thursday Sets x
Reps Reps
Medicine ball squat jumps 2 x 6‑8 Hexagon drill 2 x 6‑8
Explosive push ups on step edge 2 x 6‑8 Single leg hop 2 x 6‑8
Zig Zag single leg jump 2 x 6‑8 Long jump sprint 2 x 6‑8
Medicine ball lunge chest pass 2 x 6‑8 Medicine ball overhead throw downs 2 x 6‑8
Medicine ball push pass 2 x 6‑8 Jump and turn 180 degrees 2 x 6‑8
Take you marks and jump 2 x 6‑8 Medicine ball push pass 2 x 6‑8
Medicine ball overhead throw down 2 x 6‑8 Tuck jumps 2 x 6‑8
Single leg hop relay 1 x 6‑8 Power hop relay 1 x 6‑8
*20 seconds for completion of each set; 30 seconds recovery between sets; medicine ball weighed two kilograms
The Effects of an Eight Week Plyometric-based Program on Motor Performance Skills and Muscular Power in
7–8-Year-Old Primary School Students 5

sports shoes and their traditional PE uniform for both testing Lower body muscular power
sessions. Ten minutes of standard warmup (i.e., submaximal Lower body muscular power was assessed using the
running, dynamic stretches) were executed before testing. results obtained from the squat jump test. The squat jump
(SJ) height was measured using the Takei 5406 digital
Anthropometry jump belt meter which has a high test-retest reliability
(Takei, 5406-Jump MD, Toyko, Japan) (Fernandez-Santos
Anthropometric measures included pre-and post-height and
et al., 2015). The jump meter was attached to the waist
mass. Students’ standing height was measured to the nearest
according to the described standardised protocol provided
millimetre using a portable stadiometer (HART Sport & Lei-
with the jump meter. Students completed three trials with
sure, Australia). Body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1
hands on hips throughout the jump, with a 1-minute rest
kilograms using the mean of measures from the Innerscan
between trials. The squat jump involved the subject flexing
Body Composition Monitor (Tanita BC-541). Additionally, the knee to 90-degree angle position, holding the position
body mass index (BMI) was calculated using height and for 3 seconds before completing an upward only (concen-
weight. tric) jump. If students failed to adhere to the exact protocol
or performed a countermovement, the trial was repeated
Motor performance skills after an additional 1-minute rest. This test required the stu-
dents to jump vertically on 2 feet as high as they could,
Change in motor performance skills was measured using the
with the jump belt meter attached to their waists and then
Fundamental Movement Skills Polygon Test (FMS-Polygon)
fall back to where they started to jump. The distance they
(Bozanic et al., 2011). The FMS-Polygon has been estab-
vertically jumped was recorded on the digital indicator.
lished as a valid and reliable instrument for assessing motor
Each student was provided two trials and then three jumps
performance skills of children and has concurrent validity
to see how high they could jump. The student’s best jump
with the “Test of Gross Motor Development” (TGMD-2)
measured in centimeters (cm) was identified as the final
(Bozanic et al., 2011). The FMS-Polygon consisted of four
recorded score.
tasks executed successively in the shortest time possible. In
order of execution, the four tasks were: throwing and catch-
ing a volleyball against a wall target six times consecutively; Reactive strength index
running 15 metres and clearing three soft hurdle obstacles The reactive strength index (RSI) was measured using the
(height 50cm, width 100cm and depth 10cm); carrying and drop jump (Flanagan, 2008) and a portable electronic jump
placing two 3kg medicine balls on a gymnastics vault (height mat (JustJump; Probotics, Huntsville, AL, USA). Students
110cm, width 150cm and depth 65cm), and then 20 metres performed the drop jump test from three different heights
straight-line running. The four tasks were measured using an (10cm – DJ10cm, 20cm – DJ20cm, and 30cm – DJ30cm).
electronic timing system. Students were provided with four During the test execution, students placed their hands on the
attempts, the initial attempt was a trial, and the subsequent hips to eliminate arm swing during the jump take-off phase
attempts were timed and recorded. An overall test result was of the jump mat. The students dropped from a box to the
calculated by averaging the three trial times, which was pre- ground after an initial step forward. Immediately upon both
sented in seconds. feet contacting the Just Jump timing mat, the student jumped
as high as possible. The Just Jump timing mat measured and
Upper body muscular power recorded flight time and contact time. Reactive strength in-
dex was calculated by dividing contact time by flight time for
Upper body muscular power was assessed using the medi- all three applied drop-jump heights. Initially, subjects were
cine ball chest throw (Davis et al., 2008). Before each throw, provided with two practice trials. The subject then performed
a one-kilogram weighted ball was covered with magnesium three trials from each specified height with a 2-minute rest
carbonate (e.g., gymnastic chalk) so that when the weighted between each attempt. The best drop jump for each height
ball landed on the black flooring, a distinctive white mark is was used for further analysis. Test-retest reliability of drop
made, allowing for precise measurement. Each student sat on jumps has been previously reported (Quatman et al., 2006).
the floor with their legs straight and feet pointing vertically For this study, we calculated intra-session reliability of RSI
and their back against a wall. A 90cm wide lane was marked based on three testing trials for each drop-jump height and
out to guide the throw. When performing the medicine ball note appropriate to high reliability of the pretest and posttest
chest throw, the student placed their elbows against the wall, measurements (Pretest: ICC:.91.,96.,93; Posttest:.83.,89.,86,
and then instructed to throw the ball. A two-minute rest was for 10-cm, 20-cm and 30-cm height, respectively).
provided after each of the three attempts. The distance of the
medicine ball throw was measured using a measuring tape
which was taped to the floor, to withstand the force of the Statistical Analysis
ball landing on it. The distance from the wall to the near edge All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS
of the mark from the ball on the floor was measured. Each Version 26.0 for Windows (SPSS Inc, Armonk, New York,
student was provided two trials and then three attempts with 2018). Analysis of data followed a multi-step approach.
only the farthest distance being used for further analysis. Firstly, assumptions of normality and homogeneity of vari-
6 IJKSS 9(4):1-12

ance were tested with the Shapiro–Wilk and Brown-For- gest that in response to the plyometric program, the plyomet-
sythe tests, respectively. Secondly, descriptive statistics were ric group had improvements in RSI that were likely greater
calculated for all values to illustrate the overall characteris- than the comparison group.
tics (central tendency and spread of score) of the sample at
the beginning of the study. Student’s t-tests were also carried
DISCUSSION
out to determine differences among the two groups’ initial
values. Comparison of group changes for all dependent vari- The current study aimed to analyse the effects of integrat-
ables were calculated. Next, to evaluate the effects of the ing an eight-week plyometric training program into the first
intervention, data were analysed using a series of two (Plyo- 10-15 minutes of the usual 50-minute physical education
metric vs Comparison) X two (Pre vs Post) ways repeated lessons in primary school students. The research findings
measures ANOVAs. To evaluate the effect sizes (ES), par- demonstrate the efficacy of infusing plyometric-based train-
tial eta-squared values (η2) were presented as follows: small ing intervention within the warmup phases of primary PE
ES: >.02; medium ES: >.13; large ES: >.26 (Ferguson, 2009). lessons and suggest that eight weeks of the intervention pro-
If a significant repeated measures ANOVA was calculated duced significant changes in motor performance skills, upper
(p<.05), a post-hoc pairwise comparisons (Bonferroni ad- and lower body muscular power in students aged seven to
justed) was completed. The use of the follow-up pairwise eight years old. While the plyometric group changes were
comparison was used to examine the location of the signifi- significant, the observable changes in the comparison group
cant difference, whether between-subject (plyometric group, were minimal. This research is the first to date that has em-
comparison group) and/or within-group (time). ployed a whole-body plyometric-based intervention within
PE lessons with students aged seven and eight, measuring
the effect on motor performance skills, both upper and lower
RESULTS body muscular power, and reactive strength index. As such
Table 6 shows the descriptive analysis of student baseline the findings create new knowledge and extend the under-
physical characteristics. Analysis of assumptions of nor- standing associated with the potential benefit of engaging
mality and homogeneity were met for all included data PE students in a plyometric-based program. The significant
(p > 0.05). The descriptive statistics and comparative anal- changes in FMS-Polygon reported in the present study are
ysis (Student’s t-test) between plyometric and comparison promising and infer the potential efficacy of including plyo-
groups for baseline values revealed no statistical differences metric exercises in primary school PE lessons to achieve
between groups (Table 7). Table 8 shows the comparison of curriculum objectives.
group changes for all tests. The current findings are consistent with other published
Results from repeated measures ANOVA revealed a sig- studies examining efficacy of plyometric training in slightly
nificant group (Plyometric vs Comparison) X time (Pre to older children than in the present study (Bedoya et al., 2015;
Post) interaction effect (F 1, 59 = 88.065, p< 0.05, η2 =.599, Eraslan et al., 2021). To the best of our knowledge, only two
see Figure 1) for the FMS Polygon test. Using η2, there was studies (Chaouachi et al., 2014; Nobre et al., 2017) have ap-
a large between-groups effect size for the FMS-Polygon plied a plyometric-based program on school premises, outside
test. The results from repeated measures ANOVAs for mea- of the PE curriculum, in a slightly older sample than in the
sures of muscular power and reactive strength index indicat- current study, and both identified significant improvements
ed a significant group (Plyometric vs Comparison) X time in motor performance skills. Nobre et al. (2017) reported that
(Pre to Post) interaction for squat jump (F 1, 59 = 41.81, a 12-week lower body plyometric program, significantly en-
p < 0.05, η2 =.415, see Figure 2), medicine ball chest throw hanced lower body gross motor skills in the intervention group
(F 1, 59 = 15.806, p < 0.0.05, η2 =.211, see Figure 3), compared to the comparison group. The results of the current
10cm drop jump RSI (F 1, 59 = 15.592, p <.05, η2=.209, study also compare favourably with the research of Chaouachi
See Figure 4), 20cm drop jump RSI (F 1, 59 = 11.246, et al. (2014), that examined the effect of an eight week lower
p < 0.05, η2 =.160, see Figure 5) and 30cm drop jump RSI body plyometric program on specific motor performance skills.
(F 1, 59 = 10.726, p < 0.05, η2 =.154, See Figure 6). Chaouachi et al. (2014) reported significant improvements rel-
Bonferroni adjusted post hoc pairwise comparisons in­ ative to the control group in 30m sprint, agility, star excursion
dicated significant improvement (p ≤.01) for the plyometric and stork balance assessment, with medium to large effect size
group as identified in the FMS-Polygon test at the post-test (d=0.34 to 1.25). In comparison with the current study, the re-
time point (See Table 9). The plyometric group demonstrated search conducted by Nobre et al. (2017) and Chaouachi et al.
faster (lower) scores for the FMS-Polygon test compared to (2014) reported similar findings, however it is noteworthy that
the comparison group (Figure 1). Post hoc analysis indicated the program and the participants differed. For example, the
significant improvement for the plyometric group in lower current study utilised a younger and gender-inclusive cohort
body muscular power at the post-test time point (squat jump, and examined a lower and upper body plyometric program.
p ≤.01) and also for upper body muscular power (medicine The aforementioned studies involved only male children with
ball chest throw, p ≤.05). Conversely, post hoc analysis in- an average age of nine years or older. In addition, these pro-
dicated no significant differences in the drop jumps between grams were not aligned with the school curriculum.
plyometric and comparison group at post intervention. How- Although there is a dearth of studies that directly compare
ever, upon visual inspection of Figures 4-6, and comparison the effects of plyometric training within PE lessons on motor
of baseline performances, magnitude-based inferences sug- performance skills, the present results are comparable to those
The Effects of an Eight Week Plyometric-based Program on Motor Performance Skills and Muscular Power in
7–8-Year-Old Primary School Students 7

Table 6. Baseline physical characteristics

Variable Plyometric Group Comparison Group p‑value
(n = 31) Mean (±) (n = 30) Mean (±)
Age (y) 7.35 (0.49) 7.37 (0.49) 0.93
Body height (cm) 128.13 (6.13) 126.30 (6.23) 0.25
Weight (kg) 30.26 (5.91) 28.80 (5.21) 0.33
Body mass index (kg m ‑2) 18.43 (3.42) 18.03 (2.61) 0.60
Values are Mean±Standard Deviation; No significant differences between groups

Table 7. Baseline homogeneity between groups for dependent variables

Variable Plyometric Group Comparison Group p‑value
(n=31) Mean (±) (n=30) Mean (±)
FMS‑Polygon (seconds) 34.40 (3.72) 34.83 (4.78) 0.70
Medicine ball chest throw (cm) 209.63 (23.93) 206.63 (36.71) 0.71
Squat jump (cm) 23.45 (5.18) 24.3 (5.21) 0.51
Drop jump (10cm) RSI 40.62 (12.98) 48.78 (15.40) 0.20
Drop jump (20cm) RSI 39.79 (13.89) 46.64 (14.22) 0.16
Drop jump (30cm) RSI 38.60 (13.53) 44.63 (14.94) 0.22
Values are Mean±Standard Deviation

Table 8. Pre‑ and post‑measurements for plyometric and comparison groups (mean±standard deviation) and percentage
of change
Plyometric Group (n = 31) Comparison group (n = 30)
Pre‑ Post‑ % Pre‑ Post‑ %
FMS‑Polygon (sec) 34.40±3.72 29.96±3.29 12.91 34.83±4.78 35.03±4.75 0.06
Squat Jump Height (cm) 23.45±5.18 26.61±4.36 13.48 24.3±5.21 23.77±4.20 ‑2.18
MBCT (cm) 209.63±23.93 223.74±23.23 6.73 206.63±36.71 208.20±32.10 1.57
Drop Jump 10 cm (RSI) 40.62±12.98 48.44±11.75 7.82 48.78±15.40 50.16±12.96 2.83
Drop Jump 20 cm (RSI) 39.79±13.89 46.49±14.10 16.84 46.64±14.22 46.08±11.72 ‑1.2
Drop Jump 30 cm (RSI) 38.60±13.53 44.38±12.75 14.97 44.63±14.94 46.08±12.75 3.2
% Is the percentage of change from pre to post‑test measurements; MBCT = medicine ball chest throw, RSI = reactive strength index

program into tennis training and their data identified increased

motor performance skills in young male tennis players aged 12
to 13. These performance skills included short sprints, agility
testing, serve velocity and accuracy. Consistent with the cur-
rent study, the intervention was delivered twice per week for
eight weeks and was a substitute for part of the training ses-
sion. These results and study design are similar to the current
study and provide further efficacy for allocating 10 to 15 min-
utes of class time to plyometric training to improve motor per-
formance skills. It is reasonable to conclude from the current
study that short bouts of plyometric training are an effective
method to accelerate motor performance skill development
when confronted with reduced PE curriculum time. Of note
is that the comparison group experienced little or no improve-
ment in all measured variables over the duration of the study.
Figure 1. FMS-polygon mean for the treatment by time In this study, results indicated that in comparison with
interaction between comparison and plyometric groups standard PE lessons, the inclusion of a whole-body plyo-
metric training seems to be a sufficient stimulus for im-
studies in sports (Fernandez-Fernandez et al., 2016). By way proving motor performance skills. Although the mech-
of example, a study by Fernandez-Fernandez et al. (2016) im- anisms responsible for this improvement in this study are
plemented an eight week upper and lower body plyometric not entirely understood or directly measured within this
8 IJKSS 9(4):1-12

Table 9. Bonferroni adjusted post hoc pairwise comparison for dependent variables
Dependent Variable Mean Std. p 95% Confidence Interval
Difference (Comparison Error for Difference
group ‑ Plyometric group) Lower Upper
Bound Bound
FMS‑Polygon
Pre‑ 0.64 1.32 0.62 ‑1.99 3.29
Post‑ 5.24 1.26 0.01* 2.71 7.77
Squat Jump height
Pre‑ 0.84 1.33 0.53 ‑1.81 3.51
Post‑ ‑2.84 1.10 0.01* ‑5.04 ‑0.65
Medicine Ball Chest Throw
Pre‑ ‑3.01 7.91 0.71 ‑18.84 12.81
Post‑ ‑15.54 7.16 0.03** ‑29.87 ‑1.22
Drop Jump 10cm
Pre‑ 4.08 3.30 0.22 ‑2.52 10.68
Post‑ ‑4.14 2.97 0.17 ‑10.09 1.81
Drop Jump 20cm
Pre‑ 4.34 3.31 0.19 ‑2.29 10.97
Post‑ ‑2.13 3.23 0.51 ‑8.59 4.34
Drop Jump 30 cm
Pre‑ 4.93 3.45 0.16 ‑1.97 11.83
Post‑ ‑1.59 2.93 0.59 ‑7.45 4.27
* Significant at P ≤ 0.01; **Significant at P ≤ 0.05

skill proficiency improvements (Behrens et al., 2016; Col-

lins et al., 2019). Research also supports the suggestion that
plyometric training imparts both neuromuscular adaptations
and muscular power adaptations, both of which have been
identified as essential components of motor performance
skill development (Behringer et al., 2011; Ramirez-Campillo
et al., 2018). Furthermore, there is supporting evidence from
systematic reviews that plyometric training improves motor
performance skills in children via enhanced neuromuscular
development (Behringer et al., 2011; Peitz et al., 2018). This
is a logical inference considering the ability of the neuro-
muscular pathways to develop and adapt, leading to children
being better able to move their bodies in different ways, both
Figure 2. Squat Jump mean for the treatment by time interaction
from a dynamic and static perspective. It is also therefore
between comparison and plyometric groups
reasonable to conclude that improvement in the FMS-Poly-
gon performance was likely a result of students’ neuromus-
paper, the change could likely be due to various neural or cular property changes.
neuromuscular adaptations as exhibited by enhanced mea- The results of this study also support the idea of exposing
sures of both upper and lower body muscular power. The students to plyometrics early in primary school. Early expo-
neuromuscular system is essential for performing motor per- sure can accelerate motor performance skills development
formance skills. Neuromuscular performance is governed at an earlier age (Pichardo et al., 2018). It can be suggested
by an effective and efficient interaction between both the from this work that enhanced motor performance skills at
nervous and muscular system. In children, the neuromuscu- an earlier age may result in students acquiring the level of
lar system is highly adaptable due to the heightened level proficiency appropriate for secondary PE, where more spe-
of plasticity (Yue et al., 2017). Neuromuscular adaptations cialised sports skills are taught (NESA, 2018). Furthermore,
as a consequence of plyometric training include changes based on the notion that middle childhood is a critical peri-
in motor unit recruitment, firing, and coordination, which od for the attainment of motor performance skill proficiency
are known factors that are vital for optimal movement, and (Farooq et al., 2018), plyometric training could support the
are likely to play a key role in reported motor performance achievement of PE curriculum objectives, such as moving
The Effects of an Eight Week Plyometric-based Program on Motor Performance Skills and Muscular Power in
7–8-Year-Old Primary School Students 9

Figure 3. Medicine ball chest throw mean for the treatment by Figure 6. Drop Jump (30cm) RSI mean for the treatment by time
time interaction between comparison and plyometric groups interaction between comparison and plyometric group

The current study is important for developing strategies in

PE to accelerate the development of motor performance skills
and muscular power. However, limitations of the present study
included: addressed whole-body plyometric training only in
seven and eight-year-old children, results do not provide in-
sight into long-term training adaptations, no collection of psy-
chological responses (i.e., motivation), and lastly, the study did
not include a no-PE comparison group in the school setting.
In the current study, a whole-body plyometric training pro-
tocol in PE improved motor performance skills and upper and
lower body muscular power of seven to eight-year-old prima-
ry school students. The protocol was delivered twice a week
during the PE lessons’ 10–15-minute warmup phase, during
Figure 4. Drop Jump (10cm) RSI mean for the treatment by time eight weeks. The data analysis showed that the plyometric in-
interaction between comparison and plyometric groups tervention over the eight weeks induced favourable changes
in motor performance skills, upper and lower body muscular
power, which was significant compared to the comparison
group. The findings support the importance of incorporating
teaching strategies that develop the underlying capabilities of
motor performance skills in PE (i.e., muscular power). The
implications of this for teaching practices are twofold. Firstly,
by engaging students in plyometric training during the war-
mup phase of the lesson rather than increasing class time or
changing teaching pedagogy, schools can provide their stu-
dents with an opportunity and stimulus to develop motor per-
formance skills during the warmup, while retaining valuable
class time. Secondly, teachers may implement in-class upper
and lower body plyometric exercises to enhance skill-related
fitness such as muscular power and performance (i.e., jump-
ing, throwing) in children aged seven and eight years.
Figure 5. Drop Jump (20cm) RSI mean for the treatment by time
interaction between comparison and plyometric groups CONCLUSION
While skill development drills and practice within a game-
with confidence and competence within and across physi- like environment are often part of the physical education
cal activities (NESA, 2018). As such, the study results are curriculum, our findings indicate that physical education
important for PE practitioners, in that they provide support infused with plyometric training can enhance motor perfor-
for the use of plyometrics in achieving a range of overar- mance skill proficiency, and muscular power in young pri-
ching objectives and outcomes. In practice, there is scope mary students. Hence, PE curriculum infused with explosive
for this approach to gain more traction in Australian primary strength exercises such as plyometrics can engage students
schools. in ways that develop their movement performance skills and
10 IJKSS 9(4):1-12

muscular fitness while still being sufficiently oriented to- mental movement skills in youth: a meta-analysis. Sports
ward the improvement of motor skills. Medicine - Open, 5(1), 17-17. https://doi.org/10.1186/
Collectively our findings suggest that plyometric training s40798-019-0188-x
may be a safe and valid physical education pedagogical strat- Davies, G., Riemann, B., & Manske, R. (2015). Current con-
egy to aid in the development of motor performance skills. cepts of plyometric exercise. International Journal of
Sports Physical Therapy, 10, 760-786.
Davis, K. L., Kang, M., Boswell, B. B., DuBose, K. D.,
REFERENCES
Altman, S. R., & Binkley, H. M. (2008). Validity
Alvarez-Pitti, J., Casajús-Mallén, J. A., Leis-Trabazo, R., and reliability of the medicine ball throw for kinder-
Lucía, A., López de Lara, D., Moreno-Aznar, L. A., & garten children. Journal Strength Conditioning Re-
Rodríguez-Martínez, G. (2020). Exercise as medicine search, 22(6), 1958-1963. https://doi.org/10.1519/
in chronic diseases during childhood and adolescence. JSC.0b013e3181821b20
Anales de Pediatría (English Edition), 92(3), 173.e171- Eraslan, L., Castelein, B., Spanhove, V., Orhan, C.,
173.e178. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.an- Duzgun, I., & Cools, A. (2021). Effect of Plyometric
pede.2020.01.001 Training on Sport Performance in Adolescent Overhead
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. (2020). Insuffi- Athletes: A Systematic Review. Sports Health, 13(1),
cient physical activity. https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/ 37-44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1941738120938007
risk-factors/insufficient-physical-activity Faigenbaum, A., Farrell, A., Radler, T., Zbojovsky, D.,
Barnett, L., Stodden, D., Cohen, K., Smith, J., Lubans, D., Chu, D., Ratamess, N., Kang, J., & Hoffman, J. (2009).
Lenoir, M., Iivonen, S., Miller, A., Laukkanen, A., Dud- “Plyo Play”: A Novel Program of Short Bouts of Mod-
ley, D., Lander, N., Brown, H., & Morgan, P. (2016). erate and High Intensity Exercise Improves Physical
Fundamental Movement Skills: An Important Focus. Fitness in Elementary School Children. The Physical
Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 35. https://doi. Educator, 66, 37-44.
org/10.1123/jtpe.2014-0209 Faigenbaum, A. D., Myer, G. D., Farrell, A., Radler, T.,
Bedoya, A. A., Miltenberger, M. R., & Lopez, R. M. (2015). Fabiano, M., Kang, J., Ratamess, N., Khoury, J., &
Plyometric Training Effects on Athletic Performance in Hewett, T. E. (2014). Integrative neuromuscular training
Youth Soccer Athletes: A Systematic Review. The Jour- and sex-specific fitness performance in 7-year-old chil-
nal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 29(8), 2351- dren: an exploratory investigation. J Athl Train, 49(2),
2360. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000877 145-153. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-49.1.08
Behrens, M., Mau-Moeller, A., Mueller, K., Heise, S., Farooq, M. A., Parkinson, K. N., Adamson, A. J.,
Gube, M., Beuster, N., Herlyn, P. K. E., Fischer, D.-C., Pearce, M. S., Reilly, J. K., Hughes, A. R., Janssen, X.,
& Bruhn, S. (2016). Plyometric training improves vol- Basterfield, L., & Reilly, J. J. (2018). Timing of the de-
untary activation and strength during isometric, concen- cline in physical activity in childhood and adolescence:
tric and eccentric contractions. Journal of Science and Gateshead Millennium Cohort Study. British Journal of
Medicine in Sport, 19(2), 170-176. https://doi.org/http:// Sports Medicine, 52(15), 1002. https://doi.org/10.1136/
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2015.01.011 bjsports-2016-096933
Behringer, M., Vom Heede, A., Matthews, M., & Mester, J. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A. G., & Buchner, A. (2007).
(2011). Effects of strength training on motor performance G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program
skills in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Pe- for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Be-
diatric Exercise Science, 23(2), 186-206. https://doi. haviour Research Methods, 39(2), 175-191. https://doi.
org/10.1123/pes.23.2.186 org/10.3758/bf03193146
Bozanic, A., Miletic, D., & Zuvela, F. (2011). POLYGON--a Ferguson, C. J. (2009). An effect size primer: A guide for
new fundamental movement skills test for 8 year old clinicians and researchers. Professional Psycholo-
children: construction and validation [Report]. Journal gy: Research and Practice, 40, 532-538. https://doi.
of Sports Science and Medicine, 10(1), 16. org/10.1037/a0015808
Chaouachi, A., Othman, A. B., Hammami, R., Drinkwater, E. J., Fernandez-Fernandez, J., Saez de Villarreal, E.,
& Behm, D. G. (2014). The combination of plyometric and Sanz-Rivas, D., & Moya, M. (2016). The Effects of
balance training improves sprint and shuttle run perfor- 8-Week Plyometric Training on Physical Performance
mances more often than plyometric-only training with chil- in Young Tennis Players. Pediatric Exercise Science,
dren. Journal of Strength Conditioning Research, 28(2), 28(1), 77-86. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0019
401-412. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3182987059 Fernandez-Santos, J. R., Ruiz, J. R., Cohen, D. D.,
Cherni, Y., Jlid, M. C., Mehrez, H., Shephard, R. J., Gonzalez-Montesinos, J. L., & Castro-Piñero, J. (2015).
Paillard, T., Chelly, M. S., & Hermassi, S. (2019). Reliability and Validity of Tests to Assess Lower-Body
Eight Weeks of Plyometric Training Improves Ability Muscular Power in Children. The Journal of Strength
to Change Direction and Dynamic Postural Control in & Conditioning Research, 29(8), 2277-2285. https://doi.
Female Basketball Players. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000864
726-726. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.00726 Gjinovci, B., Idrizovic, K., Uljevic, O., & Sekulic, D. (2017).
Collins, H., Booth, J. N., Duncan, A., & Fawkner, S. (2019). Plyometric Training Improves Sprinting, Jumping and
The effect of resistance training interventions on funda- Throwing Capacities of High Level Female Volleyball
The Effects of an Eight Week Plyometric-based Program on Motor Performance Skills and Muscular Power in
7–8-Year-Old Primary School Students 11

Players Better Than Skill-Based Conditioning. Journal Moher, D., Hopewell, S., Schulz, K. F., Montori, V.,
of Sports Science & Medicine, 16, 527-535. Gotzsche, P. C., Devereaux, P. J., Elbourne, D., Egger,
Granacher, U., Goesele, A., Roggo, K., Wischer, T., M., & Altman, D. G. (2010). CONSORT 2010 expla-
Fischer, S., Zuerny, C., Gollhofer, A., & Kriemler, S. nation and elaboration: updated guidelines for reporting
(2011). Effects and mechanisms of strength training in parallel group randomised trials. British Medical Jour-
children. International Journal Sports Medicine, 32(5), nal, 340, c869. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c869
357-364. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1271677 Moreno, S. D., Brown, L. E., Coburn, J. W., & Judelson, D. A.
Handley, M.A., Lyles, C. R., McCulloch, C., & Cattamanchi,A. (2014). Effect of cluster sets on plyometric jump power.
(2018). Selecting and Improving Quasi-Experimental Journal Strength Conditioning Research, 28(9), 2424-
Designs in Effectiveness and Implementation Research. 2428. https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000000585
Annual Review of Public Health, 39(1), 5-25. https://doi. NESA. (2018). Personal Development, Health and Physical
org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040617-014128 Education K–10 Syllabus. NSW Education Standards
Hardy, L. L., Mihrshahi, S., Drayton, B. A., & Bauman, A. E. Authority.
(2017). NSW Schools Physical Activity and Nutrition Nobre, G. G., de Almeida, M. B., Nobre, I. G.,
Survey (SPANS) (978-1-76000-638-9). NSW Depart- Dos Santos, F. K., Brinco, R. A., Arruda-Lima, T. R.,
ment of Health. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/16754 de-Vasconcelos, K. L., de-Lima, J. G., Borba-Neto, M. E.,
Harries, S. K., Lubans, D. R., & Callister, R. (2012). Re- Damasceno-Rodrigues, E. M., Santos-Silva, S. M., Lean-
sistance training to improve power and sports perfor- dro, C. G., & Moura-Dos-Santos, M. A. (2017). Twelve
mance in adolescent athletes: a systematic review and Weeks of Plyometric Training Improves Motor Perfor-
meta-analysis. Journal Science Medicine Sport, 15(6), mance of 7- to 9-Year-Old Boys Who Were Overweight/
532-540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsams.2012.02.005 Obese: A Randomized Controlled Intervention. Jour-
Hastie, P. A., & Casey, A. (2014). Fidelity in Models-Based nal Strength Conditioning Research, 31(8), 2091-2099.
Practice Research in Sport Pedagogy: A Guide for Fu- https://doi.org/10.1519/jsc.0000000000001684
ture Investigations. Journal of Teaching in Physical Pedersen, B. K., & Saltin, B. (2015). Exercise as medi-
Education, 33(3), 422-431. https://doi.org/10.1123/ cine - Evidence for prescribing exercise as therapy in
jtpe.2013-0141 26 different chronic diseases. Scandinavian Journal of
Jones, D., Innerd, A., Giles, E. L., & Azevedo, L. B. (2020). Medicine & Science in Sports, 25 Suppl 3, 1-72. https://
Association between fundamental motor skills and doi.org/10.1111/sms.12581
physical activity in the early years: A systematic review Peitz, M., Behringer, M., & Granacher, U. (2018). A system-
and meta-analysis. Journal of Sport and Health Science, atic review on the effects of resistance and plyometric
9(6), 542-552. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j. training on physical fitness in youth- What do com-
jshs.2020.03.001 parative studies tell us? PLoS One, 13(10), e0205525.
Lloyd, R., & Oliver, J. (2012). The Youth Physical Devel- https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205525
opment Model. Strength and Conditioning Journal, 34, Pichardo, A., Oliver, J., Harrison, C., Maulder, P., &
61-72. https://doi.org/10.1519/SSC.0b013e31825760ea Lloyd, R. (2018). Integrating models of long-term
Lloyd, R. S., Meyers, R. W., & Oliver, J. L. (2011). The athletic development to maximize the physical de-
Natural Development and Trainability of Plyomet- velopment of youth. International Journal of Sports
ric Ability During Childhood. Strength & Condition- Science & Coaching, 174795411878550. https://doi.
ing Journal, 33(2), 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1519/ org/10.1177/1747954118785503
SSC.0b013e3182093a27 Quatman, C. E., Ford, K. R., Myer, G. D., & Hewett, T. E.
Loflin, J. W. (2015). Relationship Between Teacher Fidelity (2006). Maturation Leads to Gender Differences in Land-
and Physical Education Student Outcomes. Physical Ed- ing Force and Vertical Jump Performance [Article].
ucator, 72(5), 359-383. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(5), 806-813.
MacNamara, Á., Collins, D., & Giblin, S. (2015). Just let https://doi.org/10.1177/0363546505281916
them play? Deliberate preparation as the most appro- Ramirez-Campillo, R., Alvarez, C., Garcia-Hermoso, A.,
priate foundation for lifelong physical activity. Fron- Ramirez-Velez, R., Gentil, P., Asadi, A., Chaabene, H.,
tiers in Psychology, 6, 1548. https://doi.org/10.3389/ Moran, J., Meylan, C., Garcia-de-Alcaraz, A., San-
fpsyg.2015.01548 chez-Sanchez, J., Nakamura, F. Y., Granacher, U., Krae-
McCarthy, N., Hall, A., Shoesmith, A., Sutherland, R., mer, W., & Izquierdo, M. (2018). Methodological Char-
Hodder, R., Campbell, E., & Nathan, N. (2021). Aus- acteristics and Future Directions for Plyometric Jump
tralian children are not meeting recommended physical Training Research: A Scoping Review. Sports Medicine,
activity levels at school: Analysis of objectively mea- 48(5), 1059-1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-
sured physical activity data from a cross sectional study. 0870-z
Preventive Medicine Reports, 23, 101418. https://doi. Schranz, N., Olds, T., Evans, J., Gomersall, S., Hardy, L.,
org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2021.101418 Hesketh, K., Lubans, D., Ridgers, N., Straker, L.,
Miller, M. G., Herniman, J. J., Ricard, M. D., Cheatham, C. C., Stylianou, M., Tomkinson, G., Vella, S., & Ziviani, J.
& Michael, T. J. (2006). The Effects of a 6-Week Plyo- (2018). Muscular fitness: it’s time for a jump start! The
metric Training Program on Agility. Journal of Sports 2018 Active Healthy Kids Australia report card on
Science & Medicine, 5(3), 459-465. physical activity for children and young people. Ac-
12 IJKSS 9(4):1-12

tive Healthy Kids Australia. https://doi.org/10.25954/ cle-Tendon and Neuromuscular Adaptations: A Narra-
5b862301479a1 tive Review. Sports, 9(5), 59. https://doi.org/10.3390/
Seefeldt, V. (1982). The concepts of readiness applied to motor sports9050059
skill acquisition. In R. Magill, Ash, MJ and Smoll, FL, eds Yue, G. H., Clark, B. C., Li, S., & Vaillancourt, D. E. (2017).
(Ed.), Children in sport (pp. 335-348). Human Kinetics. Understanding Neuromuscular System Plasticity to Im-
Tumkur Anil Kumar, N., Oliver, J. L., Lloyd, R. S., prove Motor Function in Health, Disease, and Injury.
Pedley, J. S., & Radnor, J. M. (2021). The Influence of Neural plasticity, 2017, 2425180-2425180. https://doi.
Growth, Maturation and Resistance Training on Mus- org/10.1155/2017/2425180