1.

3 examples of short(, medium and long) term energy storage

Depending on the discharge time, energy storage can be divided into:

Short-term (fractions of seconds < time < several dozen minutes)

Flywheel, superconducting magnetic coils, ultra capacitors.

Medium-term (a few seconds < time < several hours)

PHS, CAES, LAES (all medium and long to make the power grid more flexible)

Long-term (a few hours < time < several days)

Pumped hydro, liquid air, compressed air

2. Which elements and effects are responsible for the losses in FES(?) (like bearings)

The flywheel is placed on a shaft, coupled with an electric machine. To reduce rolling resistance,
magnetic bearings are used.

The main barriers that affect the FES energy density is the strength of the materials used, which
limits the maximum speed of the flywheel rotor. It should be added that when optimizing the
construction of a FES system, it is necessary to properly stabilize and support the rotor and shaft
bearings. Stabilization should affect the transmission of the least amount of vibration to the body.
Appropriate bearing of the shaft affects the distribution of lateral and longitudinal forces, which in
turn are directly related to losses and heat generation in the bearings, and affects the efficiency of
the entire system . Another important element in the FES system is proper mounting of the electric
machine on the shaft and ensuring an adequate air gap for the magnetic flux between the stator
and rotor as well as between the rotor and the body. Elements for FES are unified, therefore it is
very easy to scale the system.

3. Why do we avoid cobalt as a material for Li-ion

4. Comparison between characteristic of battery (2 wyklad slajd z jakims pudlem)?????????

5. Why do we connect batteries and ultracapacitos (BES-UC system)

Adavntages:

✓ availability of energy from low voltage values,

✓ acceptance of impulse loads (extension of the operating range)
, ✓ moreflexible battery operation,
✓ possibility of extending the battery life,
✓ higher gravimetric power density

red – uc, blue- uc+bat

6. What is the best type of electrolizer for FC ANS. Solid oxide electrolizer

There are three types of electrolysers can be used in PtG systems(powe-to-gas technology
assumes production of hydrogen on an industrial scale by electrolysis of water with electric
energy), of which the highest energy storage efficiency is obtained in installations with solid oxide
electrolyzers (SOE - solid oxide electrolyzer). This is the only type of electrolyser that can be
switched to fuel cell mode for electricity generation, without any change in the structure of the
electrochemical cell stack. For this reason, the possibilities of using chemical energy storage in
power-to-gas systems have been discussed on their example.
Operation in SOE mode is the operation of a SOFC cell with reversed polarity - instead of
generating electricity at the expense of the fuel supplied to the cell. The electrolyser produces fuel
using the supplied electricity.

Solid oxide cell operating in: solid oxide electrolyzer mode on left and solid oxide fuel cell on the
right

Should i add this or is the above enough?

In a system implementing the power-to-gas concept, it is necessary to supply electricity to the SOE
cell, while ensuring the reception of produced oxygen and hydrogen, which are produced only if
the supply of water or steam is constant. Hydrogen needs to be transported or stored to be used
as a fuel, for example in a SOFC fuel cell. The main difference is the direction of electricity flow in
the system.

The SOFC system produces electricity by consuming hydrogen fuel and oxygen from the air(a),
while the SOE system uses electricity(b) (here energy from a wind or solar power plant) producing
hydrogen and enriching the air with oxygen.
7. Typical type of hydrogen tank and which material is useful (indicate parameter, like:
operational pressure). ANS. Type 4 composite tanks

4 types of high-pressure hydrogen tanks can be differentiated, due to materials used and the
maximum operating pressure:

• type 1 - metal tanks: aluminum (pmax = 175 bar) or steel (pmax = 200 bar);

• type 2 - metal tanks with lagging: aluminum coated with glass fiber (pmax = 263 bar) or steel
covered with carbon fiber (pmax = 299 bar);

• type 3 - composite tanks: aramid-glass (pmax = 438 bar) or aluminum-carbon (pmax = 299 bar);

• type 4 - composite tanks: carbon-polymer (pmax = 700 bar).

Currently, high-pressure hydrogen tanks are most commonly used. FCEVs use tanks with
nominal pressures of up to 700 bar (type 4)

However, high pressure tanks do not meet all DOE requirements, especially the weight
criterion, despite use of specialized materials. The actual hydrogen content by weight in 350 bar
and 700 bar systems (i.e. including the weight of the tank itself) is 5.5% and 5.2%, respectively.
Despite not meeting all DOE criteria, high pressure tanks are the most reliable type of hydrogen
storage and are widely used in hydrogen powered vehicles.

8. Characteristic of PEMFC, SOFC

9. Losses for FC and battery

Losses for FC: The work of the fuel cell is accompanied by losses that can be divided into
electrochemical reaction activation losses, ohm losses and losses associated with transport
(supply) of reagents to the electrochemical reaction area.

There are three distinct regions of a fuel cell polarization curve:

At low power densities, the cell potential drops as a result of the activation polarization .

• At moderate current densities, the cell potential decreases linearly with current due to ohmic
losses

• At high current densities, the cell potential drop departs from the linear relationship with current
density as a result of a more pronounced concentration polarization .

I couldnt find specific losses of a battery in the presentation

10. Classification by temperature and electrolyte type

Fuel cells are classified by type of electrolyte or operating temperature. Classification

according to the first criterion distinguishes electrolyte cells in form of a proton exchange
membrane (PEM) in the form of molten carbonates (MCFC- molten carbonate fuel cell) or
solidified ceramic material (solid oxide fuel cell, SOFC).

Classification by the temperature criterion introduces the distinction between low

temperature cells, that make up PEM cells, and high temperature cells, including MCFC and SOFC.
The former operate at temperatures up to 80°C , while high-temperature cells operate in range of
620 670°Cand 550–1000° C, respectively

11. Explain main barrier connected with the sustainable hydrogen economy (like production cost
etc.)

12. Compare the same distance between EV and FCEV

13. Heat energy storage (nie wiem czy to bedzie chuja slychac bo wszyscy sie wierca)

14. Provide 3 examples of renewable nergy source and combined heat and power production
15. Who is prosumer, i cos cos tam ????????????

16. Main difference between on-grid and off-grid systems

17. Net metering and net billing (?)

The main difference between these two compensation programs is what you receive for your
energy exports. Net metering will compensate you at the retail rate, whereas net billing will
compensate you at the lesser supply or wholesale rate.

Net metering is typically more beneficial for residential users aiming to reduce utility costs directly.
Net billing, however, is advantageous for larger installations that generate substantial surplus
energy and are more focused on consistent compensation rather than bill reduction

Net metering

Definition: Net metering, a complex billing arrangement, gives power to owners of solar
panels to transfer solar-created electricity back into the power grid, shared with credits to make up
for future electricity expenses.
How It Operates: Within the net energy metering system, solar panels work continuously
throughout daylight hours. Any excess electricity, beyond real-time required consumption, trips
back to the grid. A bi-directional meter completely records both power imported from the grid and
electricity exported to it.
Billing: Net metering involves a two-way billing structure. The first level takes the
calculation of net electricity used and is subtracted from the electricity contributed to the grid. The
excess electricity added to the grid is credited for future use.

+ higher savings potential: Net metering credits surplus energy at the retail electricity rate, directly
offsetting your energy costs.(good for residential or small businesses)
+ Simplicity and Transparency: Net metering is straightforward, allowing users to see one credit
value for energy sent back to the grid and used later.
+ Encouragement for Solar Adoption: Because net metering can yield substantial savings, it’s an
appealing incentive for individuals considering solar installations

- dependence on local policies: Regulations on net metering can change, which might reduce the
credits available, as seen in regions that cap credits or reduce their value due to grid strain
- limited for larger systems: In some areas, net metering may only be available for smaller
installations, which can restrict its utility for commercial users with higher power demands

Net billing

Definition: Net billing unwraps as a detailed mixture, twisting together elements of net and
gross metering. It allows solar owners to sell the excess electricity to the grid while satisfying their
own needs.
How It Operates: In the net billing system, you can use the electricity for your own needs,
and any excess electricity is sent to the grid and credited at a predetermined rate. You will be billed
only for the electricity you consume from the grid.

+ guaranteed compensation for excess energy: Net billing compensates users at a predetermined
rate (often wholesale) for all surplus energy.(good for large solar arrays or comerical setups)
+ encourages efficient energy use: Since net billing pays for each kilowatt-hour produced rather
than crediting against usage, it can motivate users to manage energy consumption more carefully
and maximize earnings from excess production

- lower financial return per kWh: With net billing, users receive compensation at a wholesale rate,
which is generally lower than retail rates. Consequently, while the user still earns revenue, it
doesn’t offer the direct cost offsets seen in net metering
- more complex billing process: Net billing often involves separate calculations for energy exported
and energy imported, which can complicate monthly billing

18. Provide support program of renewable engergy XD (że dofinansowanie)

Supporting programs:
• My current 6 .0 (from 2024 IIQ) (https://mojprad.gov.pl/ calculator) )
• Clean air (https://www.czystepowietrze.gov.pl/ )
• Regional programs ( http://www.pvinfo.pl/dotacje-do-fotowoltaiki-z-rpo-pois-prow-2014-2020)

19.Characteristics of most commonly used BES

20. LIFePO4 - SOH, self discharge

21. Basic relationships: connecting cells

22. Why do we need battery pack and cell cooling

CALCULATIONS
Series:
1. Total voltage = ∑all voltages
2. Capacity: If all have the same capacity, that one is the equivalent capacity.
(IF THERE ARE MULTIPLE CAPACITITES the lowest rated capacity is the equivalent one ex. 1 bat
with 3Ah and 1 with 2Ah in series, the equivalent capacity is 2Ah)

Parallel:
Total voltage = remains the same as a single battery, no sum. (we DONT really connect different
voltages in parallel so if 2 batteries have the same 3.7V and are in parallel, then total voltage is
still 3.7V)
Capacity: = ∑all capacities

3. Capacity= Current [A] * Time [h] → Time = Capacity [Ah] / Current [A]
4. XsYp where: X is the number of cells in series. Y is the number of cells in parallel
1. SOC = Remaining capacity / Total capacity (Qn) → Capacity at SOC = SOC * Qn
Max capacity = SOC max * Qn = 0.9 * 3Ah = 2.7Ah
Min capacity = SOC min * Qn = 0.15 * 3Ah = 0.45Ah
Usable capacity = Max Capacity – Min Capacity
Usable capacity = 2.7 – 0.45 = 2.25 Ah

2. SOC min = 0.4

Min capacity = SOC min * Qn = 0.4 * 3Ah = 1.2 Ah
Usable capacity = Max Capacity – Min Capacity
Usable capacity = 2.7 – 1.2 = 1.5 Ah
Q=I*t → I = Q [Ah] / t [h]
Current so that the discharge occurs after 10 min (1/6 [h])
I= 1.5 [Ah] / 1/6 [h] = 9 [A]

3. Energy [kWh] = I [A] * U [V] * t [h]

E= 9 [A] * 1/6 [h] * 402.5 [V] = 0.604 [kWh]

Why are battery packs expensive

Electrochemical energy storage systems have a 10x longer lifespan But are too heavy to use on
vehicles Are also more expensive

Present the total energy [kWh] comparison of electrohechimal and Li ion (the graph appears in
the lectures but it's blurry)
Ultra capacitors: Easy to scale up ... Around 3 V... And 200 A? Why do we include a SC in a battery
system? To manage high currents We need to include a converter

H2 syngas -Works better at low loads, have better efficiency this way (Means that to have a higher
eff it needs to be an oversized system -Please provide the modes of operation of the fuel cell -
Please provide the types of tanks for fuel cells (types 1 to 4 and alternative)
-characteristics of V and W vs A from fuel cells -Analogy of the losses of fuel cells vs batteries
(ohmnic losses and stuff) -Types of fuel cells based on the electrolyte and the other thing, there
was a slide but i couldnt take the picture