Impact of Air Frying On Food Lipids - Oxidative Evidence, Current Research

Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104465
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Trends in Food Science & Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tifs
Impact of air frying on food lipids: Oxidative evidence, current research,

and insights into domestic mitigation by natural antioxidants
Vanessa Sales de Oliveira a, Dayane Souza Barbosa Viana a, Laura Monteiro Keller a,
Marina Tavares Teixeira de Melo a, Otilio Fernando Mulandeza a,
Maria Ivone Martins Jacintho Barbosa a, b, José Lucena Barbosa Júnior a, b, Tatiana Saldanha a, b, *
a
Postgraduate Program in Food Science and Technology, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rodovia Br 465, Seropédica, RJ, 23890-000, Brazil
b
Department of Food Technology, Institute of Technology, Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, Rodovia Br 465, Seropédica, RJ, 23890-000, Brazil
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Handling Editor: Dr. J O’Brien Background: Air frying has garnered consumers’ attention as an alternative method to deep-fat frying as it does
not require oil addition. However, this technology provides a prooxidant environment for oxidative reactions in
Keywords: lipids. Therefore, in addition to industrial approaches, it is worth also considering domestic strategies such as the
Air fryer addition of natural antioxidants during home cooking to limit lipid oxidation.
Home cooking
Scope and approach: This study presents an overview of the main traits reported for air fryers. Furthermore, as an
Lipid oxidation
in-depth review was performed it provides scientifically accurate information on the impact of air frying on food
Natural antioxidants
Domestic strategies lipids. Given the importance of mitigating lipid oxidation during home cooking, the insights into the use of
natural antioxidants are also described.
Key findings and conclusions: Lipid oxidation during air frying is evidenced by the formation of oxidation products,
such as cholesterol oxides, and the degradation of bioactive lipids, like n3-fatty acids. Moreover, several studies
on the formation of secondary oxidation products and volatile compounds can be found. Most studies were
carried out with fish and fish products, indicating the need for considering other food matrices. Although using
natural antioxidants during cooking is an issue extensively reported, there are few studies regarding this practice
during air frying. The current trends underscore the use of herbs and condiments. Besides, following the growing
tendency, by-products have also been explored. Promising results were reported, but there are numerous op
portunities for further studies aiming to evaluate different natural materials, requiring deeper investigations.
1. Introduction bioactive properties, formation of advanced glycation end products,

aroma compounds, acrylamide, and hydroxymethylfurfural, sensory
Frying is traditionally performed by dipping the food in hot oil; properties, and lipid oxidation (de Oliveira et al., 2022; Qin et al., 2022;
however, over the last years, air frying has emerged as an alternative to Salamatullah et al., 2021; Verma et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2022).
deep-fat frying. Air frying technology was introduced on the market Despite the relevance of lipids for food flavor and human nutrition,
with the equipment called “air fryer”, whose mechanism is based on the they are chemically unstable and prone to oxidation (Domínguez et al.,
direct contact of food with circulating air at high temperatures without 2019; Shahidi & Zhong, 2010), which is one of the main causes of food
requiring oil addition (Liu et al., 2022; Téllez-Morales, 2023; Zaghi deterioration, where rancidity is easily identified due to the loss of color
et al., 2019). Thus, it has attracted the interest of health-conscious and development of off-flavors (Domínguez et al., 2019; Fang et al.,
consumers. Moreover, air fryers have shown advantages related to 2023). Furthermore, lipid oxidation may result in potentially toxic
practicality and convenience, providing fried foods with high sensory products and loss of nutrients and bioactive lipids (de Carvalho et al.,
acceptance (Cao et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2022). 2021; Liu et al., 2023; Wang et al., 2023). Thus, since during air frying
In contrast, the literature has demonstrated that air frying may elevated temperatures combined with oxygen exposure provide a
compromise food quality, describing its role in relevant issues such as prooxidant environment for lipid oxidation (de Carvalho et al., 2021; de
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (T. Saldanha).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104465
Received 5 November 2023; Received in revised form 8 March 2024; Accepted 23 March 2024
Available online 25 March 2024
0924-2244/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V.S. de Oliveira et al. Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104465
Oliveira et al., 2022; Ferreira et al., 2017), studying this process and Oatibi, 2016). Thus, consumers themselves must decide whether to use
mitigating it is of great importance. it or not.
Regarding the industrial scene, synthetic antioxidants have been In addition to health benefits related to low-fat consumption, the
successfully employed to limit lipid oxidation. However, although their rapid popularization of air fryers may be attributed to their practicality,
use is permitted and controlled by regulators, their possible carcinogenic versatility, and safety (Auyong et al., 2022; Téllez-Morales, 2023).
and toxicological effects have been the topic of intense debate (Jav Moreover, air-fried foods have shown taste and appearance character
aheri-Ghezeldizaj et al., 2023; Xu et al., 2021), suggesting the use of istics highly similar to those of deep-fat fried products (Cao et al., 2020;
natural alternatives (Nikoo & Gavlighi, 2022). Antioxidant compounds Wang et al., 2022). During air frying, heat transfer is extremely high and
are widely distributed in the plant kingdom (Embuscado, 2019; Raha evenly distributed throughout the food, minimizing variations in its
man et al., 2023). Moreover, most of them are found in natural materials quality. The food is dehydrated during the process, gradually forming a
that are already used during home cooking to confer sensory attributes, crust on its surface (Teruel et al., 2015; Zaghi et al., 2019). Fig. 1 pre
also representing a viable and suitable domestic strategy against lipid sents the air frying mechanism and some main advantages reported for
oxidation during air frying (de Oliveira et al., 2022; Ferreira et al., 2017, air fryers.
2022). Besides, in addition to the preservative effects, they may be Since air fryers are relatively new devices there is a lack of scientific
assimilated by the organism and present additional health benefits research on this technology compared to other cooking methods.
(Rahaman et al., 2023). However, this scenario is changing and the widespread use of air fryers
Although frying imparts undesirable consequences arising from lipid is drawing researchers’ interest.
oxidation, this technology has already gained consumers’ preference, The research carried out by Auyong et al. (2022) investigated what
and changing this scenario is a challenge. Therefore, in addition to in factors influence customers’ intention to buy an air fryer aiming at
dustrial approaches, which have been traditionally extensively providing information for enhancing marketing promotional programs
explored, it is worth also considering domestic practices to mitigate that will help air fryer manufacturing companies. Thus, when answering
oxidative processes and increase the quality and safety of air-fried foods, the questionaries the participants gave responses like: “using an air fryer
which are increasingly present in the human diet. is a space saver”, “food outcome is nice, especially for health-conscious”,
Using natural antioxidants during air frying has shown promising “makes cooking/frying quick and easy, and healthier without using any
results, revealing numerous opportunities for further studies regarding oil”, and “oil-less cooking results in a good and healthy fried food”,
this practice. Thus, it indicates the relevance of performing this in-depth which underscores the advantages related to convenience, practica
review to contribute to the knowledge required for moving forward with bility, and health benefits. Nevertheless, as behavioral studies are
such a current and pertinent issue. Scientifically accurate evidence on essential in terms of customer perception literature, further ones are
the impact of air frying on food lipids is comprehensively summarized, required to overcome the gaps, which can be achieved by using
while the trends, insights, and challenges concerning the addition of increased sample size and target population, for example.
natural sources of antioxidants are discussed.
2.1. No oil requirement
2. Air frying technology
Concerns regarding high-fat diets have increasingly grown since
The air frying technology was first introduced in some European consumers have become aware of the impact of excessive oil intake on
countries, being rapidly distributed throughout the world (Usman & human health (Feleke et al., 2022), underscoring the advantages of not
Vanhaverbeke, 2017). The global air fryer market is expected to achieve using oil during air frying.
USD 1150.9 million by 2026 (Stratview Research, 2023), where factors The overconsumption of fried foods increases the risk of developing
like the development of innovative products with improved design, the obesity and intestinal diseases (Qin et al., 2021). Health-damaging
increasing health consciousness, and the preference for automatic compounds can be formed during the heating of vegetable frying oils,
cooking devices support market growth. including non-polar compounds that are associated with endothelial
In contrast to deep-fat frying, in an air fryer hot air circulates in a dysfunction, hypertension, and the development of chronic diseases,
chamber, creating direct contact between a fine mist of oil droplets and especially those of the cardiovascular system (Chen et al., 2021; Sneha
the food. As the oil comes from the food itself and there is no necessity to et al., 2021). Therefore, as these compounds are ingested along with the
add extra sources, this process results in low-fat-containing products oil absorbed by the food, several studies in the literature report the risks
(Cao et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2022; Zaghi et al., 2019). However, oil of fried food consumption. Additionally, to reduce waste and cost,
addition has been suggested in low concentrations to obtain sensory vegetable oils are repeatedly reutilized, resulting in chemical reactions,
attributes more similar to those of conventionally fried foods (Basuny & such as lipid oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymerization, that lead to the
Fig. 1. Air frying mechanism and some main advantages reported for air fryers.
2
accumulation of harmful substances (Hu, Zhang, et al., 2023). 2.2. Practicability and convenience
The most coherent way to investigate any effects caused by air frying
on food is to perform it without using oil, since oil is not required and Lifestyle changes have compelled people to adopt different cooking
this is one of the main advantages presented by this technology. How habits due to the fast pace of life. Therefore, more convenient and
ever, some studies have described the addition of vegetable oils when practical methods have fitted consumer preferences, highlighting mod
using air fryers, even if in low quantity (Hu, Jiang, et al., 2023; Kim ern and automatic devices, such as air fryers.
et al., 2022; Verma et al., 2023). Air frying technology provides practicality to day-to-day life. Using
As air fryers are innovative devices to replace deep-fat frying, most an air fryer presents facilities as human monitoring is not required. Thus,
studies aim to compare both methods. Andrés et al. (2013) were the other activities can be performed during food preparation (Auyong
pioneers and compared the lipid content of french fries, showing that the et al., 2022; Zaghi et al., 2019). Air fryers are easy to use and clean.
oil absorption in air-fried samples was about ten times lower than in Additionally, they are compact, mobile, and space-saving appliances
samples submitted to hot oil frying during the same frying time, which that just require a plug to work, without the need for gas to cook the
may be explained by the higher oil amount used during deep-fat frying most varied types of food, which highlights the versatility of air fryers
(20 L of oil/kg of potato compared to 0.003 kg of oil/kg of potato for the (Auyong et al., 2022). Recipes that involve vegetables, meats, eggs, and
air frying treatment). Then, this finding was corroborated by other in even sweets can be prepared in air fryers (de Oliveira et al., 2022; Fang,
vestigations as the oil present in deep-fat fried foods is mostly derived Ting, & Sung, 2022; Fikry et al., 2021; Ghaitaranpour et al., 2018; Ngan
from the frying oil that penetrates due to moisture evaporation (Cao et al., 2023; Zhou et al., 2022).
et al., 2020; de Carvalho et al., 2021; Fikry et al., 2021). Furthermore, air fryer devices with advanced, improved, and tech
The oil level of air-fried chicken nuggets was 25% lower than that nological features are more attractive to consumers, contributing to the
determined in deep-fried ones (Cao et al., 2020). The lipid content of increasing demand (Téllez-Morales, 2023). According to Auyong et al.
falafel, a typical fried vegetable from the Middle East, was 45% lower (2022), product features are one influencing factor affecting customers’
than that found in samples prepared by deep frying (Fikry et al., 2021). intention to buy a premium household appliance. Air fryers have
Air-fried sardines showed a lipid content of 15.9 g/100 g, while a level of interesting attributes that people could benefit from. However, consid
28.9 g/100 g was assessed in samples after deep-fat frying (de Carvalho ering the current lack of time for food preparation, air frying shows a
et al., 2021). These results evidence the oil absorption during deep-fat disadvantage compared to deep-fat frying since it takes longer to fry
frying; however, it is a complex mechanism that depends on numerous (Cao et al., 2020; Castro-López et al., 2023; Fikry et al., 2021). A study
aspects such as the food matrix, the type of oil, and cooking conditions showed that when prepared at the same temperature (180 ◦ C), 9 min of
(e.g. temperature, oil/food ratio). air frying were necessary to produce similar sensory characteristics as
High-temperature frying may also produce toxic fumes that when those in chicken nuggets deep-fried for 3 min (Cao et al., 2020).
inhaled can irritate the respiratory system and cause difficulty breath
ing, dizziness, and nausea. Research on the links between cooking oil 2.3. Sensory aspects
fumes exposure and cancer has been conducted as they may contain a
mixture of cancer-causing volatile organic aldehydes (Prakasham et al., A decisive factor in choosing which cooking method to use is the
2023; Zhang et al., 2023). sensory characteristic developed. Compared to other processes, frying
Indeed, the formation of toxic volatile compounds during deep-fat produces distinctive and palatable flavor attributes. Therefore, com
frying highlights another advantage of air frying, where frying occurs parisons between air frying and deep-fat frying are inevitable, indicating
inside a closed chamber. Thus, even when these compounds are formed that the great challenge of using air fryers is to obtain foods with aspects
they do not spread through the domestic environment. Moreover, similar to those obtained by deep-fat frying as many of them, such as
different frying methods may result in distinctive volatile component crust formation, palatability, and color, are influenced by the lower oil
compositions (Liu et al., 2022; Zhou et al., 2022). content.
Not using oil also brings cleanliness, safety, and environmental ad Variable results can be found in the literature regarding the sensory
vantages. It reduces the oil emission and generates fewer effluents dis properties and consumer acceptance of air-fried and deep-fat fried foods
carded after frying (Carvalho et al., 2018). Air fryers may also be safer, (Cao et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2022; Fikry et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2022),
preventing domestic accidents caused by burns with hot oil and fire which is expected as different cooking conditions (e.g. cooking time,
(Spearpoint & Hopkin, 2021). Furthermore, inconvenient situations, temperature, type of oil), equipment, and food matrices are considered.
such as an environment impregnated with fat, oil splashes on the stove, The preference for air-fried or deep-fat fried foods may also depend on
and a strong frying smell around the house, are avoided, which also the parameters investigated. For fried shrimp meat, aroma and the color
saves consumers time since it minimizes the need for cleaning. indicator b* (yellow intensity) presented higher scores that reflect the
As the advantages of reducing oil usage during frying are evident, greater acceptability of samples prepared in an air fryer. However, when
other frying technologies have been considered in addition to air frying. texture was evaluated, the lowest scores were obtained (Zhou et al.,
These approaches include alternatives such as microwave frying, vac 2022).
uum frying, ultrasound frying, radiant frying, and g-frying or even their This variability calls attention to the importance of performing
combinations (Devi et al., 2021). Vacuum frying occurs at a pressure studies regarding each food matrix and process. Due to its healthiness
lower than atmospheric pressure, reducing the temperatures employed appeal, air frying has been explored for the development of new prod
to remove moisture from the food and the oil amount in the final ucts and as an alternative method to innovatively prepare traditional
product. Besides conventional vacuum frying, the inclusion of micro foods. Besides, air frying has been applied to different types of foods that
wave and ultrasound technologies may improve frying processes (Devi are not commonly eaten fried (Murillo et al., 2023; Ngan et al., 2023;
et al., 2018; Sosa-Morales et al., 2022). G-frying refers to the application Wang et al., 2022). However, a gap can be found in the literature as
of centrifugal forces, which leads to significant reductions in oil ab investigations on air frying are mostly about its comparison with
sorption (Khalilian et al., 2021). In radiant heating systems, there is an deep-fat frying. Thus, to achieve fried products with high-quality char
exposure of the heat through the material from an infrared source (Devi acteristics, studies on optimization techniques must be encouraged.
et al., 2021). Reducing the oil content of fried products without A recent study compared the differences between air frying and
compromising product quality is a challenge, which highlights the household oven baking on food quality and physicochemical properties
importance of understanding those mechanisms better to find out stra using a cupcake, revealing oven baking as the most suitable cooking
tegies to overcome the limitations of producing different food products. method from the sensory standpoint (Ngan et al., 2023). Aiming to
develop tilapia skin-based ready-to-eat snacks, different cooking
3
methods (deep-fat frying, air frying, rotatory baking, and infrared ra autooxidation (Johnson & Decker, 2015). Although the rate of oxygen
diation) were investigated, showing that air-fried samples were diffusion to unsaturated lipids is affected by aspects such as the food
preferred according to the general sensory impression observed (Wang matrix (Johnson & Decker, 2015), the constant contact of foods with the
et al., 2022). Indeed, the preference for air frying instead of other circulating air in the air fryer chamber is a critical point. Regarding food
cooking methods depends on the food matrix and is also influenced by composition, as unsaturated lipids are more prone to oxidation, high
traditional habits of consumption. levels of components like polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and
Regarding the sensory characteristics, the crispy crust of fried foods cholesterol may determine the oxidative stability of foods (de Carvalho
increases with the frying time during both air frying and deep-fat frying, et al., 2021; Domínguez et al., 2019; Wu et al., 2022).
showing a higher growth rate for the latter. Both treatments undergo a As lipid oxidation is induced by a wide variety of conditions observed
dehydration process; however, during air frying, there is only dehy during air frying, this technology may impact food lipids. Furthermore,
dration with loss of mass in the product, while deep-fat fried foods do the role that oxidation plays in food quality and safety highlights the
not present significant loss of mass due to the absorption of oil, influ importance of reviewing this issue, especially regarding popular and
encing the final hardness and texture of foods (Cao et al., 2020; Teruel emerging devices such as air fryers.
et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2022). Additionally, when evaluating crust
formation in doughnuts, a popular food snack around the world, Ghai 4. Research carried out on the development of oxidative
taranpour et al. (2018) showed that during deep-fat frying it was more processes during air frying
dependent on temperature than during air frying, and higher frying
temperatures resulted in a less crust roughness for both methods. The occurrence of oxidative reactions during air frying is evidenced
Color suffers great changes during frying due to moisture loss, oil by the studies described in Table 1. However, lipid oxidation involves
absorption, processing temperature and time, Mallaird reaction, and complex mechanisms, showing great challenges in its proper measure
others. The L* value (lightness) decreases during frying, which is more ment (Barriuso et al., 2013; Pérez-Palacios & Estévez, 2020). Thus,
pronounced in deep-fat frying, where nonenzymatic browning reactions combining different parameters to evaluate the oxidative status is the
are much faster (Cao et al., 2020; Santos et al., 2017; Teruel et al., 2015). most appropriate strategy.
The a* value (redness) usually gradually increases with frying, which is The current research on lipid oxidation in air-fried foods mainly
also more remarkable in deep-fried foods. The b* value (yellowness) reports methods based on the quantification of primary and secondary
increases at the beginning, and as foods gradually get darker it decreases oxidation products (Ding et al., 2022; Fang et al., 2023; Verma et al.,
(Cao et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2022; Fikry et al., 2021; Teruel et al., 2023). Changes in primary products are commonly determined by the
2015). Food aroma is mainly linked to the formation of volatile com formation of lipid hydroperoxides, which are the most important initial
pounds, which is more evident in deep-fat fried foods (Cao et al., 2020; oxidation products, and conjugated dienes/trienes, which can result
Jim et al., 2022; Liu et al., 2022). from the stabilization of the radical state via double-bond rearrange
ment during hydroperoxides formation. However, compounds of pri
3. General aspects of air frying on lipid oxidation mary oxidation are unstable and can further generate secondary
oxidation products that are usually evaluated by assessing aldehyde
Lipids are important food components as they are required for proper levels through analyses of p-anisidine and thiobarbituric acid reactive
human nutrition and play a role in sensory attributes. However, due to substances (TBARS). The latter determines the amount of malondial
their chemical instability, lipids are highly prone to oxidation, contrib dehyde (MDA), which is frequently used as an oxidation marker (Bar
uting to food quality deterioration (Domínguez et al., 2019; Wu et al., riuso et al., 2013).
2022). The role of odor in food quality has emphasized the importance of
Lipid oxidation occurs in the presence of catalytic systems such as investigating the formation of volatile compounds, which are mainly
light, heat, enzymes, metals, and microorganisms (Domínguez et al., represented by some secondary oxidation products (Ding et al., 2022;
2019; Shahidi & Zhong, 2010). Autooxidation, which is characterized as Zhao et al., 2021). Additionally, advantages in mass spectrometry,
the spontaneous reaction of unsaturated lipids with atmospheric oxygen chromatographic techniques, and computational methods have allowed
through a free radical mechanism, is the main pathway involved in food lipid analysis with high throughput, resolution, sensitivity, and ability
lipid oxidation (Domínguez et al., 2019). Thus, as air fryers are based on for structural identification of several lipids (Chen et al., 2017). Thus,
the circulation of hot air around the food, the environmental conditions lipidomics has been highlighted as a suitable tool for achieving
created during air frying exert a strong prooxidant effect (de Carvalho comprehensive studies on lipid oxidation during air frying (Li et al.,
et al., 2021; de Oliveira et al., 2022; Ferreira et al., 2017). 2021; Lu et al., 2021).
In food, lipids’ oxidative stability depends on intrinsic (food Lipid oxidation in air-fried surimi was revealed by lipidomics anal
composition) and extrinsic factors (processing and storage conditions) ysis using hydrophilic interaction chromatography-mass spectrometry
(Wu et al., 2022). Therefore, aspects related to frying temperature and (HILIC-MS), which showed that the level of polyunsaturated fatty acyl
time, heat transfer rate, oxygen concentration, food matrix, and other chains of phospholipids reduced after air frying, with higher degrada
factors may influence lipid oxidation rates, which further affect the tion when higher temperatures and longer cooking time were applied
quality of air-fried foods (de Oliveira et al., 2022; Ding et al., 2022). (Yu et al., 2020). Another method, based on iKnife-REIMS (rapid
Exposure to high temperatures accelerates oxidative reactions as it evaporative ionization mass spectrometry) analyses, was explored as a
reduces the energy required for the hydrogen abstraction that results in lipidomic approach to assess the lipid oxidation of prawn (Litopenaeus
free radical formation, initiating lipids autooxidation (Barriuso et al., vannamei) during air frying (Song et al., 2020).
2017). Therefore, heat intensity and time are marked factors affecting The simultaneous determination of aldehydes and ketones by HPLC-
lipid oxidation during air frying. Additionally, it may also result in the MS/MS demonstrated that the formation of these compounds is linked to
disruption of cell membranes and denaturation of heme-proteins, the fatty acid oxidative degradation observed in air-fried oysters (Zhao
liberating prooxidant elements from foods (e.g. myoglobin, hemoglo et al., 2021). Moreover, HILIC-MS analyses revealed the degradation of
bin, metallic ions) (Maqsood et al., 2014). plasmalogens, ether phospholipids with biological functions in the
The oxidative stability of food lipids is highly dependent on the human body, during air frying (Lu et al., 2021).
presence of oxygen. While singlet oxygen (1O2), which is the more
reactive form, can quickly promote lipid oxidation in foods containing 4.1. Primary and secondary oxidation products
photosensitizers in a process called photooxidation, the more common
form, triplet oxygen (3O2), reacts with fatty acids radicals during Lipid oxidation of tilapia (Oreochromis spp) skins was measured
4
Table 1
Studies regarding the effects of air frying on food lipids.
Reference Experimental conditions Main evidences of lipid oxidation Comparison with other methods
Shaker -Food matrix: potato. Increased values for peroxide index and free fatty acids, Higher degree of lipid oxidation during deep-fat
(2015) -Air frying: 180 ◦ C/40 min; oil addition. polar, and oxidized fatty acids contents after air frying. frying compared to air frying.
Basuny and -Food matrix: potato. Increased values for free fatty acids, peroxide, polar Acid and peroxide values, polar compounds,
Oatibi -Air frying: 180 ◦ C/40 min; oil addition. compounds, and oxidized fatty acids after air frying. polymer and oxidized fatty acids contents were
(2016) higher for deep-fat frying than for air and vacuum
frying processes.
Ferreira et al. -Food matrix: sardines (Sardinella brasiliensis). - Air frying caused a decrease of PUFAs (approximately –
(2017) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/10 min. 70%), including EPA and DHA.
- Air frying increased the levels of COPs from 61.2
(raw) to 283 μg/g.
Santos et al. - Food matrix: potato. Increased values of p-anisidine and polar compounds Lipid oxidation was more pronounced in deep-fat
(2017) - Air frying process: 20–25 min or 15–20 min; content. fried samples.
oil addition; temperatur not specified.
Vieira et al. - Food matrix: fish (Arapaima gigas) fillets. - Great influence of heating temperature as the highest Higher degree of lipid oxidation during deep-fat
(2018) - Air frying: conditions required for achieving TBARS value was determined in samples treated for frying.
70 ◦ C in the geometric center of samples. the shorter time.
- PUFAs degradation, with a loss of EPA and DHA
around 27%.
Cao et al. - Food matrix: chicken nuggets. - Increased values for free fatty acids and total polar The total amount of volatile compounds, peroxide
(2020) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/9 min. compounds contents after air frying; and p-anisidine values, and the total polar
− 74 volatile compounds were detected, with aldehydes compounds content in air-fried samples were lower
accounting for the largest proportion. than in the deep-fried ones.
Song et al. - Food matrix: prawn (Litopenaeus vannamei). Differences in fatty acid and phospholipid molecular –
(2020) - Air frying: 140, 160, 180, and 200 ◦ C/10 min. species due to air frying.
Yu et al. - Food matrix: surimi, - Reduced levels of polyunsaturated fatty acyl chains of Air frying was considered a healthier method,
(2020) - Air frying: 120, 160 ◦ C, and 200 ◦ C/10 and 15 phospholipids and increased TBARS values after air compared to deep-fat frying (same time and
min. frying, principally when higher temperatures and temperature process conditions).
longer cooking times were applied;
- A total of 41 volatile compounds were detected,
including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, hydrocarbons,
and aromatic compounds;
- Along with the increase in temperature and time, a
decrease of some volatile compounds and the
generation of new ones were observed.
Bi et al. - Food matrix: Gushi chicken breast. 43 types of volatile were detected, highlighting Stewing and air frying resulted in different profiles
(2021) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/15 min. aldehyde compounds as the main ones with the great of volatile compounds.
contribution of hexanal,
de Carvalho - Food matrix: sardines (Sardina pilchardus). - Air frying resulted in a degradação of 24.4 % for EPA Higher contents of COPs were determined in air-
et al. - Air frying: 220 ◦ C/20 min. and DHA. fried samples compared to sardines prepared by
(2021) - Air frying induced the formation of COPs. deep-fat frying and grilling.
Jin et al. - Food matrix: Giant Salamander (Andrias − 50 volatile compounds were detected: 22 aldehydes, Most volatile compounds showed higher contents
(2021) davidianus) meatballs. 11 ketones, 6 olefins, 4 acids, 3 esters, 3 alcohols, and after deep-fat frying, but it may vary.
- Air frying: 180 ◦ C/10 min. 1phenol.
- Increased levels of aldehydes and ketones after air
frying.
Lu et al. - Food matrix: oysters (Crassostrea gigas). Reduced levels of plasmalogens in oysters after the air –
(2021) - Air frying: 120, 140, 160, and 180 ◦ C/5 min. frying.
Negara et al. - Food matrix: Chub Mackerel (Scomber Increased TBARS values after air frying. Vacuum frying showed a lower impact on lipids
(2021) japonicus). than air frying and deep-fat frying.
- Air frying: 132 ◦ C/15 min, 140 ◦ C for 14 and
16 min, and 160 ◦ C for 13, 15, and 16 min,
180 ◦ C for 14 and 16 min, and 188 ◦ C for 15
min.
Zhao et al. - Food matrix: oysters (Crassostrea gigas). - Identification of secondary oxidation products like EPA and DHA contents were mostly affected by air
(2021) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/15 min. aldehydes and ketones in cooked oysters, showing the frying, followed by roasting, boiling, and deep-fat
predominance of aldehydes. frying.
- Lower levels of EPA and DHA in cooked samples.
Zhu et al. - Food matrix: Chicken breasts. - Increased TBARS values after air frying. Content of volatile compounds detected in air-fried
(2021) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/3 min. - Possitive correlation between TBARS values and AGE samples was lower than that in deep-fat fried ones.
formation.
de Oliveira - Food matrix: Omelettes. - PUFAs degradation, with great impact on DHA level, For PUFAs degradation, pan frying and air frying
et al. - Air frying: 220 ◦ C/10 min. - An increment of 95.05% was determined for total showed similar results, while microwaving caused
(2022) COPs after air frying. the lowest impact.
Ding et al. - Food matrix: hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus). - The higher the cooking time the higher the results -The effect of deep-fat frying was more pronounced
(2022) - Air frying: 190 ◦ C/12, 16, 20, and 24 min. obtained for peroxide and TBARS values; for the peroxide values, which was not observed for
- A total of 28 volatile compounds were detected, TBARS values.
including aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones. -Air frying and deep-fat frying resulted in different
aroma fingerprint due to the different volatile
compounds profile.
Kim et al. - Food matrix: corn oil. Increased values for conjugated dienoic acid and p- Air frying caused lower impact on lipid oxidation
(2022) - Air frying: 200 ◦ C/20, 40, 60, 80, 100, and anisidine value. concerning the evaluated parameters than infrared
120 min. cooking.
(continued on next page)
5
Table 1 (continued )
Reference Experimental conditions Main evidences of lipid oxidation Comparison with other methods
Liu et al. - Food matrix: sturgeon (Acipenser) steaks. Compared with raw sturgeon steaks, the aldehydes, Air frying produced more pleasant aromas than
(2022) - Air frying: 130, 16, and 190 ◦ C/15 min. alcohols, and hydrocarbons of air-fried samples carcinogens compared to deep-fat frying.
increased, while the acids and aromatics reduced.
Qin et al. - Food matrix: fish cakes. - Increased TBARS value after air frying. Regarding the interior of fish cake, air fried-samples
(2022) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C for 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 min; oil - Positive correlation between TBARS value and AGEs showed lower TBARS values compared to deep-far
addition. formation frying, pan frying, and baking. For the surface, pan
frying caused the highest impact on TBARS value.
Zhou et al. - Food matrix: shrimp. Gas chromatography-ion mobility spectrometry (GC- –
(2022) - Air frying: 160, 170, 180, and 190 ◦ C/10 min. IMS) identified 48 compounds.
Fang et al. - Food matrix: tilápia (Oreochromis spp.) skins, - Increased values for conjugated dienes and TBARS Air frying and vacuum frying presented milder lipid
(2023) pieces from different parts; after air frying, mainy after 12 min of cooking. oxidation compared to deep-fat frying.
- Air frying: 180 ◦ C/6 and 12 min. - Using different parts of tilapia skins showed that
initial lipid composition directly affects the rate of
oxidative processes.
- Higher contents of volatile compounds with
increasing frying time in air-fried fish skin.
Gao et al. - Food matrix: fish patties. - Increased values for peroxide value, p-anisidine value, –
(2023) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/7 min. and carbonyl valence, demonstrating increasing
degree of oxidation.
- Positive corretation between lipid oxidation and AGEs
formation.
Hu, Jiang, - Food matrix: grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon - Both TBARS and carbonyl values increased as the time Air frying and pan frying increased the TBARS and
et al. idella) fillets. progressed. carbonyl values in a greater extent compared to
(2023) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C/2, 4, 6, 8 min; oil addition. − 87 volatiles compounds, including 15 aldehydes, 14 roast frying.
alcohols, 7 ketones, 11 aromatic substances, 6
pyrazines, 7 furans, 5 acids, 5 esters, 5 alkanes, and 12
others volatiles were quantified after air frying.
Verma et al. - Food matrix: potato. - Air frying did not influence samples in terms of p- –
(2023) - Air frying: 180 ◦ C and 200 ◦ C for 8 and 16 min, anisidine, iodine, and peroxide values, total oxidation
respectively; oil addition. (TOTOX), and free fatty acids content.
- Positive correlation between lipid oxidation and
acryamide formation.
through conjugated dienes and TBARS analyses, which showed studies that evaluate the formation of oxidation products, in their ma
increased values for both parameters after air frying (180 ◦ C/6 and 12 jority, have prioritized comparisons between air frying and deep-fat
min), mainly when samples were heated for 12 min. In addition, two frying (Ding et al., 2022; Fang et al., 2023; Vieira et al., 2018). Never
types of tilapia skins, obtained from the belly and the back, were eval theless, other cooking methods that aim to reduce oil usage or absorp
uated, revealing that the initial lipid composition directly affects the tion, such as vacuum frying (Fang et al., 2023; Negara et al., 2021), are
oxidative processes. Since samples from the back muscle contained also considered. Moreover, due to the air fryers’ versatility which en
higher concentrations of PUFAs, hemo pigments, phospholipids, and ables the thermal preparation of a wide variety of foods, air frying has
myoglobin, they presented higher oxidation indexes (Fang et al., 2023). also been compared with other technologies (Kim et al., 2022; Qin et al.,
Thus, even when considering the same matrix, the influence of food 2022), but there are still numerous opportunities for further researches.
composition on lipid oxidation is evident. The time required to achieve the desired fried characteristics during
According to Ding et al. (2022), peroxide and TBARS formation was air frying is commonly higher than in deep-fat frying. For example, to
more pronounced when a longer cooking time was applied (24 min) prepare hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus) fillets, both methods were carried
during the air frying preparation of hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus). More out at 190 ◦ C but with periods varying from 3 to 9 min (deep-fat frying)
over, Yu et al. (2020) showed that air frying increased the TBARS value and from 12 to 24 min (air frying) (Ding et al., 2022). In general, when
of surimi principally when the temperature exceeded 160 ◦ C and the air frying is compared to deep-fat frying the latter shows a higher degree
highest cooking time was used, from 0.643 mg/kg found in raw samples of lipid oxidation, which was evidenced by TBARS and peroxides ana
to 2.837 mg/kg (200 ◦ C/15 min). lyses (Cao et al., 2020; Santos et al., 2017; Shaker, 2015; Vieira et al.,
Considering other perspectives, Vieira et al. (2018) evaluated 2018).
air-fried Arapaima gigas cubes prepared using different temperatures Thus, it is worth mentioning that oxidation products originating
during the time needed for the geometric center of the samples to reach from the oil oxidation during deep-fat frying contribute to the overall
70 ◦ C. As expected, lower temperatures required longer cooking time, results since food absorbs the frying oil. Additionally, the oil provides an
which was reflected in the greater influence of heating temperature as extra source of unsaturated lipids that form radicals and oxygenated
the highest TBARS value was assessed in samples treated for the shorter species with prooxidant properties. On the other hand, although oil is
time. not required during air frying, studies performed with oil addition
During air frying, different parameters of processing may be used, revealed its increased degradation, highlighting the influence of the type
affecting the extent of lipid oxidation in different ways. As important as of oil used and the heating time (Kim et al., 2022; Santos et al., 2017).
the temperature set in the air fryer and the cooking time selected, is the Regarding the TBARS analysis, Ding et al. (2022) reported an initial
internal temperature achieved in the food sample, which depends on increase in the TBARS value during deep-fat frying, but it decreased
other factors, such as heat transfer coefficient, loss of moisture, and food when the cooking time reached 5 min. It can be attributed to the MDA
composition. Therefore, previous studies have described that the higher reaction with protein and amino acids, which resulted in the loss of MDA
the temperature the higher the impact on the lipid fraction (de Carvalho and other carbonyl compounds that can react with thiobarbituric acid.
et al., 2021; de Oliveira et al., 2022). It underscores that to obtain more Although the TBARS analysis is widely used to quantify secondary
comprehensive information on the heating treatment, the internal oxidation products, these compounds are still reactive and can react
temperature must be measured during cooking. independently or with other food constituents (Fang et al., 2023). Thus,
Air frying represents an alternative to frying foods without oil. Thus, it is considered a deficiency of such a disseminated method. Moreover,
6
the migration of MDA from fried products to frying oils also difficult the loin (Yang et al., 2017), shrimp (Zhou et al., 2022), fish skin (Fang et al.,
quantification of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, as well as other 2023), hairtail (Ding et al., 2022), and other food matrices. As deter
oxidation products. Negara et al. (2021) reported that air frying mined by Cao et al. (2020), the levels of volatile compounds detected in
(160 ◦ C/15 min) and deep-fat frying (165 ◦ C/3 min) showed the same air-fried chicken nuggets (12,925.5–18,171.3 μg/g) were lower than
effect on TBARS values of chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), demon that in deep-fried samples (17,466.8–41,431.0 μg/g). This difference
strating the great differences in results available in the literature. might be due to the greater extent of lipid oxidation during deep frying
Therefore, it gives rise to some doubts about when secondary oxidation as the frying oil is presented.
products were not formed or if this analysis presented underestimated The main groups of volatile compounds determined in raw giant
results. salamander (Andrias davidianus) meatballs were aldehydes (30.25%),
Vacuum frying has shown a lower impact on lipids than air frying ketones (19.94%), esters (25.39%), and alkenes (16.05%). However,
and deep-fat frying due to the absence of air and the low content of oil after deep-fat frying and air frying, the contents of aldehydes increased
used (Basuny & Oatibi, 2016; Fang et al., 2023; Negara et al., 2021). Hu, by 37.85% and 53.38%, respectively, while ketone levels increased by
Jiang, et al. (2023) evaluated grass carp fillets prepared by air frying, 26.88% and 21.21%, respectively (Jim et al., 2021). These results
roast frying, and pan frying, demonstrating that as air frying and pan demonstrate that although most studies have reported higher formation
frying had higher oxygen concentration, oil content, and heat transfer of volatile compounds during deep-fat frying, there is not a fixed trend
rate, they increased the TBARS and carbonyl values in a greater extent for it, which can vary according to each volatile compound.
compared to roast frying. Moreover, corn oil heated using an air fryer Different profiles of volatile compounds were formed in sturgeon
presented the lowest degree of oxidation compared to samples treated in steaks during deep-fat frying and air frying, where the latter seems to be
an infrared cooker and in a cooking oven at similar temperatures for 120 a healthier process as air-fried samples presented a lot of pleasant
min (Kim et al., 2022). aromas and few carcinogens. For example, the level of toluene, an aro
Regardless of the cooking method used, lipid oxidation is a dynamic matic compound associated with toxicity damage to the central nervous
process that occurs by distinct pathways, leading to the formation of system, was significantly higher after deep-fat frying (Liu et al., 2022).
distinct products at different concentrations. Therefore, due to the par Differences were also observed by Fang et al. (2023) when preparing fish
ticularities of each experiment, each specific case requires proper skins, which presented a greater unpleasant oily odor after deep-fat
investigation to determine more accurate results. frying, while in air-fried samples the grilling flavor was more
These differences are evidenced by the variable findings present in pronounced.
the literature. While evaluating fresh and heated oil extracted from air- Air frying caused a minor impact on volatiles formation in corn oil
fried potatoes, Verma et al. (2023) observed that samples were similar in compared to infrared and oven cooking, resulting in the lowest values of
terms of p-anisidine, iodine, and peroxide values, total oxidation total volatile compounds (Kim et al., 2022). The authors also demon
(TOTOX), and free fatty acids content. In contrast, Basuny and Oatibi strated the impact of the heating time on oxidative processes by inves
(2016) reported increased values for free fatty acids, peroxide, polar tigating the formation of formaldehyde and acetaldehyde, which
compounds, and oxidized fatty acids analyses after air frying showed increased levels that reduced after 80 min of air frying, sug
(180 ◦ C/40 min). gesting the degradation of these compounds. Similarly, Yu et al. (2020)
reported a decrease in some volatile compounds in surimi during air
4.2. Volatile compounds frying along with the increase in temperature and time. Nevertheless,
there was also the formation of new volatile compounds, The flavor
The formation of volatile compounds during air frying is closely characteristics are crucial to food quality, directly influencing con
associated with lipid oxidation and odor, characterizing rancidity. sumers’ acceptance. Thus, as evaluating the sensory attribute by panel
Therefore, comparing their contents in raw and air-fried samples is an test shows few limitations, using electronic noses has been increasingly
effective strategy to evidence oxidative processes in food lipids. How considered in recent research. This technology has been applied in
ever, it is important to take into account that numerous volatile com addition to chromatography and mass spectrometry analyses to inves
pounds are also formed by other pathways, such as protein degradation tigate the impact of air frying on the volatile profile (Hong et al., 2022;
and the Maillard reaction (Bi et al., 2021; Zhou et al., 2022). Zhou et al., 2022). In a study carried out by Zhou et al. (2022), electronic
The volatile profile of Gushi chicken breast after air frying (180 ◦ C/ noses were effective tools for determining smell differences in raw,
15 min) showed aldehyde compounds as the main volatile ones, with the air-fried, and deep-fat fried shrimps, which was confirmed by the vol
great contribution of hexanal. Moreover, alcohols, esters, ketones, and atile composition determined by gas chromatography-ion mobility
acids were also detected, totaling forty-three types of volatile com spectrometry.
pounds (Bi et al., 2021). Aldehydes are the main secondary oxidation
products commonly found in air-fried samples (Bi et al., 2021; Ding 4.3. Impact on PUFAs degradation
et al., 2022; Jim et al., 2021), being derived from the oxidation of
PUFAs. Hexanal and heptanal, for example, are mostly formed through Foods’ nutritional quality is mostly affected by lipid oxidation due to
the oxidation of linoleic and arachidonic acids, respectively (Ding et al., the loss of important fatty acids during cooking, especially PUFAs.
2022). Regarding this group of fatty acids, those from the n3-serie have
An HPLC-MS/MS analytical method was optimized to quantify vol received increased attention as they present several biological activities,
atile compounds (aldehydes and ketones) in cooked oysters, showing the playing a role against inflammatory, cardiovascular, metabolic, and
predominance of aldehydes. Numerous compounds were only detected neurologic disorders (Chen et al., 2022). Therefore, investigating the
after air frying (e.g. acrolein, trans-2-hexenal, 4-hydroxy-2- hexenal, 2- degradation of these fatty acids during air frying is of great relevance.
butanone), and its great impact was evidenced by the highest level of As fish is one of the main sources of n3-PUFAs with great contents of
propanal and hexanal found in air-fried samples, which increased from eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA), most studies
5.06 to 144.12 μg/g and from 1.46 to 46.64 μg/g, respectively (Zhao have been performed on this matrix. There is an increasing appeal to the
et al., 2021). Fang et al. (2023) assessed significantly higher contents of functional properties of fish, which is commonly consumed with the
volatile compounds with increasing frying time in air-fried fish skin. direct intention of obtaining these essential fatty acids, highlighting the
As for other oxidative parameters, the literature has extensively importance of research on this issue.
considered the comparison between air frying and deep-fat frying, Ferreira et al. (2017) showed that air frying (180 ◦ C/10 min) caused
revealing the lower content of volatile compounds found in the air-fried significant degradation of PUFAs in sardine fillets (Sardinella brasi
samples. It was demonstrated in chicken nuggets (Cao et al., 2020), pork liensis), where their levels decreased from 17.17 (raw) to 5.53 g/100 g of
7
oil (air-fried samples). Regarding the n3-PUFAs, the highest impact was are processed and thermally prepared. However, COPs derived from the
observed for DHA, which presented 85% loss after air frying. Zhao et al. diet have been linked to numerous deleterious effects on health,
(2021) demonstrated that cooking reduced the levels of PUFAs in oys including alteration of cellular metabolism, development of cardiovas
ters, where EPA and DHA contents were mostly affected by air frying, cular and neurodegenerative diseases, inflammation, and cell death
followed by roasting, boiling, and deep-fat frying, respectively. (Garcia-Llatas et al., 2021; Uchikawa et al., 2022). Therefore, as
Lower contents of PUFAs were also determined in Arapaima gigas cholesterol oxides can be absorbed from food into the bloodstream and
cubes after air frying., where a higher degradation was observed when accumulate in human organs and tissues (Garcia-Llatas et al., 2021),
samples were treated at the highest temperature for the shortest time their formation during cooking is a concrete concern for public health.
(190 ◦ C/5 min), presenting a loss of EPA and DHA around 27%. More COPs formation in sardines prepared by air frying concomitantly
over, the samples were also deep-fat fried for comparison, showing that, with the decrease in cholesterol concentration was observed by Ferreira
from a nutritional standpoint, air-fried samples presented a better fatty et al. (2017). Although cholesterol oxides were also found in raw sam
acid profile, which was evaluated by determining the atherogenicity and ples, four different COPs were only determined after the thermal prep
the thrombogenicity indexes. However, the presence of vegetal oil aration (5,6β-epoxycholesterol, 20α-hydroxycholesterol, 22S-hydroxy
during deep-fat frying caused an exchange of lipids between the fish cholesterol, and 25R-hydroxycholesterol), indicating their formation
muscle and the frying oil and changed the fatty acid profile of fish during cooking. Moreover, the total content of COPs increased by 78.3%
samples (Vieira et al., 2018). Thus, valuable results cannot be obtained after air frying. The presence of cholesterol oxides is expected as these
under these conditions as the oil presence makes it difficult to investi compounds are metabolites arising from enzymatic processes of ani
gate PUFAs degradation. mals’ metabolism. However, processing conditions to which food is
PUFAs degradation was evidenced during sardine air frying (Sardina submitted may induce their formation.
pilchardus, 220 ◦ C/20 min) by a reduction from 20.6 (raw) to 16.9 g/ A similar trend was also observed in sardines by de Carvalho et al.
100 g oil. A degradation percentage of 24.4 % was determined for EPA (2021). They reported the great impact of air frying (220 ◦ C/20 min) on
and DHA, which was lower compared to deep-fat fried (79.1 %) and cholesterol oxidation compared to deep-fat frying and grill, which was
grilled (69.2 %) samples (de Carvalho et al., 2021). The greatest impact evidenced by the highest total COPs level assessed in sardines: deep-fat
observed during deep-fat frying may be related to the possible migration frying (472 μg/g) < grill (570 μg/g) < air fryer (700 μg/g). Moreover,
of these compounds to the oil, in addition to degradation. However, as described by Ferreira et al. (2017), 5.6α-epoxycholesterol and
regardless of the process, the nutritional value of fish may be affected by 5.6β-epoxycholesterol were the main COPs determined in air-fried
the loss of n3-PUFAs. In this case, evaluating the fatty acid composition samples, which can be correlated to the continuous circulation of hot
of the frying oil may also be a valuable strategy to help understand the air, as epoxidation is commonly associated with oxidation processes by
mechanisms involved. oxygen.
To compare the impact of air frying with other cooking methods In addition to fish, eggs also have high cholesterol content and may
(roast and pan frying) in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), Hu, Jiang, be potential sources of COPs when thermally prepared. It was demon
et al. (2023) added soybean oil to each treatment before cooking. strated by de Oliveira et al. (2022), who reported increased COPs levels
However, it impairs evaluating the lipid oxidation considering the in omelettes. By comparing microwave, pan frying, and air frying, the
degradation of fatty acids as the frying oil retained in the fillets, latter showed the greatest impact on COPs formation, which was
explaining some differences in fatty acid content between cooked and attributed to the more extreme conditions (temperature and cooking
raw samples. time) applied in this method, in accordance with the findings from the
The extensive search performed in this review allowed us to deter study presented above carried out by de Carvalho et al. (2021). The total
mine a gap in the current literature as most studies only considered fish COPs content increased from 40.69 (raw) to 821.05 μg/g (air-fried
species. Although fishes are remarkable sources of PUFAs, these com omelettes), corresponding to an increment of 95.05%.
pounds are also present in other food matrices. Additionally, it is worth Studying cholesterol oxidation in eggs is of great relevance.
mentioning that there is an increasing market for n3-enriched foods, Regarding egg constituents, cholesterol has been the focus of numerous
including eggs, poultry, and red meat, among other food products studies and debates since its high intake is commonly associated with
(Boncinelli et al., 2021; Ghelichi et al., 2021; Palmieri et al., 2022). several pathologies. However, controversial findings have been reported
De Oliveira et al. (2022) studied the fatty acid profile of omelettes, a in the literature (Kang & Zivkovic, 2022; Schade et al., 2022), indicating
popular dish of scrambled eggs, prepared in an air fryer (220 ◦ C/10 min) that this theme is not well elucidated to provide affirmatives on the
and revealed a degradation percentage of approximately 21% for relation between egg intake and serum cholesterol level. Therefore, it is
PUFAs, showing a great impact on DHA level. The results from air frying worth mentioning that the critical and legitimate point linked to
were compared to those obtained by microwaving and pan frying, where cholesterol content in eggs is the high susceptibility of this compound to
pan frying showed similar results and microwaving had little effect on oxidation, with the consequent formation of cholesterol oxides, mainly
PUFAs content. during cooking. Moreover, although cholesterol oxidation has been
extensively studied in cooked foods, there is a lack of research per
formed on air frying. Therefore, other food matrices that contain
4.4. Formation of cholesterol oxides
cholesterol and are widely prepared by air frying, such as red meat and
poultry, must be considered suggesting further studies.
As lipid oxidation occurs in unsaturated lipids, cholesterol is also
susceptible to oxidation. It presents a double bond located between C5
and C6 and may undergo oxidative reactions through a mechanism 4.5. The role of lipid oxidation in the formation of other harmful
similar to the autoxidation of unsaturated fatty acids, resulting in the compounds
formation of cholesterol oxidation products (COPs), also called choles
terol oxides (Barriuso et al., 2017). Another point that stands out in the current literature regarding air
Cholesterol is the main sterol found in foods of animal origin, which fryers is the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs),
have been reported as valuable sources of COPs, especially when they which may accumulate in the human organism and contribute to the
8
development of disorders such as diabetes, Alzheimer, and cardiovas stilbenes, and lignans, represent the main group and have a diversity of
cular disease (Jia, Guo, Zhang, & Shi, 2023; Li et al., 2022). AGEs are simple and complex chemical structures. The simple ones have a single
mainly produced by the Maillard reaction and lipid oxidation may phenolic molecule, while the more complexes are composed of an aro
induce this process by generating dicarbonyl compounds (Yu et al., matic ring with one or more hydroxyls and may present other substit
2018). Thus, studies have investigated the correlation between their uent groups in their structure, such as esters, methyl esters, and
contents and lipid indicators in air-fried foods. glycosides (de Oliveira et al., 2018).
Qin et al. (2022) proved the positive correlation between TBARS, The antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds are mainly
carbonyl contents, and AGE formation during the preparation of fish attributed to the reactivity of the phenolic hydroxyl groups, which are
cakes in air fryers, indicating that oxidative reactions may promote AGE capable of inactivating free radicals that initiate the oxidation process by
generation under high temperatures to a certain extent. Additionally, hydrogen atom transfer and electron transfer mechanisms. Besides, their
AGE content was positively correlated with acid, peroxide, and p-ani structures, aromatic rings, and substituent groups permit their stabili
sidine values in air-fried fish patties composed of surimi. As described by zation through resonance. Phenolic compounds may also act as reducing
Gao et al. (2023), the levels of AGE found in fish patties significantly agents and oxygen and metal ion scavengers (Albuquerque et al., 2021;
increased with the increasing degree of oil oxidation. Embuscado, 2019), in addition to presenting an indirect antioxidant
Oxidative processes in food lipids have also been linked to the for activity as they induce endogenous antioxidant enzymes and positively
mation of acrylamide, which is one of the threats to food safety as it has regulate signaling pathways (Kumar & Goel, 2019).
been reported as carcinogenic and toxic for several human organs Regarding vitamins, the ones that stand out the most are tocopherols
(Peivasteh-Roudsari et al., 2022; Zhao et al., 2021). Acrylamide is and ascorbic acid (de Oliveira et al., 2018; Sinbad et al., 2019). Carot
mainly formed by the Maillard reaction, but may also be generated by enoids contain a series of conjugated C–C bonds that impart their po
the acrolein pathway. Thus, lipid oxidation may influence acrylamide tential as singlet molecular oxygen quenchers and free radical
formation as carbonyl groups originating from it can react with aspar scavengers (Young & Lowe, 2018).
agine to form acrylamide. Moreover, acrolein can be produced by the Research on the use of natural antioxidants during cooking has been
degradation of glycerol during heating and further be oxidized to acrylic extensively reported (de Oliveira et al., 2022; Ferreira et al., 2022), with
acid, which induces the formation of acrylamide in the presence of few studies regarding this practice and air frying. Nevertheless, the
asparagine (Orsák et al., 2022). It is especially important regarding available literature shows promising results. Ferreira et al. (2017)
carbohydrate-rich foods, resulting in a great number of studies carried showed that the addition of fresh parsley (Petroselinum crispum), chives
out with potatoes. (Allium schoenoprasum L), and their mixture, popularly known as
Verma et al. (2023) showed a strong correlation between p-anisidine “cheiro-verde” in Brazil, minimized PUFAs and cholesterol oxidation in
values and free fatty acids levels with acrylamide formation in air-fried air-fried sardines. The protective effect of herbs was proved when they
French fries. In addition, these authors also reported air frying and were applied individually, but the highest protection was achieved in
vacuum frying as alternative frying technologies to the traditional samples treated with 4% cheiro-verde. It highlights a synergistic effect,
deep-fat frying, aiming at minimizing acrylamide formation. This trend which occurs when two or more materials show a combined action
was also observed by Ahmed et al. (2023) and Haddarah et al. (2021), higher than the sum of each one individually.
who found lower levels of acrylamide in air-fried potatoes. Parsley leaves also proved to be efficient against oxidation in air-
Air frying has shown numerous advantages, even in terms of lipid fried omelettes. As different concentrations of parsley were used (0.25,
oxidation. However, variable and contradictory results have been re 0.5, and 0.75%) the highesr one showed the best effect. For COPs, the
ported, showing that further investigations must be carried out to better amount determined in control samples (without antioxidants) was
elucidate such polemical discussion. Therefore, as the literature has 821.05 μg/g, while in air-fried samples containing parsley the contents
evidenced the occurrence of lipid oxidation during air frying, strategies varied from 150 to 294.56 μg/g. However, the authors also demon
to mitigate lipid oxidative reactions must be explored. strated the impact of air frying on parsley constituents. From a group of
eleven compounds, only two flavonoids (apigenin 7-apiosylglucoside
5. Natural antioxidants as a domestic strategy to mitigate lipid and apigenin-O-acetyl-pentosyl-hexoside) determined in the herb were
oxidation found in cooked omelettes added with parsley. Besides that, the anti
oxidant compounds that remained in samples even after air frying were
The main strategy employed to minimize or delay lipid oxidation in capable of minimizing lipid oxidation (de Oliveira et al., 2022).
foods is the addition of antioxidants, which can be synthetic or of natural In addition to lipids, antioxidant compounds may also be sensitive to
origin. However, aiming at reducing the levels of synthetic additives in conditions encountered during air frying, such as high temperatures and
foods, the exploitation of natural sources of antioxidant compounds has oxygen. The effect of air frying on the composition of plant materials has
been encouraged (Javaheri-Ghezeldizaj et al., 2023; Mariano et al., been investigated, but the conclusions are inconsistent. Early studies
2022; Xu et al., 2021). The effectiveness of different natural antioxidants evaluated the effects of air frying on the chemical composition of
has been proven and they are extensively distributed in nature being of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and showed that the concentration of
easy access, in contrast to the synthetic ones. Thus, their use in domestic antioxidant phenolic acids, like chlorogenic and caffeic acids, increased
environments must be explored. after the thermal treatment (Salamatullah et al., 2021). In contrast,
The plant kingdom is the principal source of natural antioxidants, when the impact of air frying was investigated by Fang, Yin, et al. (2022)
which are widely found in herbs, condiments, fruits, seeds, spices, and in different varieties of potatoes, the authors described significant re
others (Embuscado, 2019; Rahaman et al., 2023). In this regard, a large ductions in the levels of caffeic, chlorogenic, and p-Coumaric acids,
number of natural materials already used in the culinary contains while the concentration of ferulic acid increased or did not change.
antioxidant compounds that may contribute to reducing lipid oxidation In addition, changes in food composition due to the cooking pro
during cooking (de Oliveira et al., 2022; Ferreira et al., 2022; Mariano cesses may also include the generation of new degradation products,
et al., 2022). Antioxidant compounds convert radicals formed during the which may even result in positive impacts. Even after degradation
initiation and propagation phases into stable products, in addition to during heating, some compounds like flavonoids still have antioxidant
protecting lipids from initiators (Domínguez et al., 2019). activity (Ioannou et al., 2020). Indeed, determining the effects of heat
Among the classes of natural compounds with antioxidant proper ing on bioactive compounds and their antioxidant activity is a challenge
ties, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, and vitamins can be highlighted as many factors (e.g. chemical structure, cooking method/condition,
(de Oliveira et al., 2018; Embuscado, 2019; Rahaman et al., 2023). temperature achieved, and food matrix) may influence the evolution of
Phenolic compounds, which include phenolic acids, flavonoids, tannins, these parameters (Fang, Yin, et al., 2022; Salamatullah et al., 2021;
9
Sergio et al., 2020). It indicates the importance of also studying the interesting observance of material combination.
possible changes that air frying can cause in the antioxidant composition These findings call attention to the great number of opportunities
of natural materials. available in terms of natural antioxidants for application during air
Lee and Surh (2022) evaluated the oxidative stability of fish balls frying. However, studies must be performed to investigate the effec
prepared with turmeric (Curcuma longa) powder in an air fryer, followed tiveness of using each natural source of antioxidant compounds under
by their frozen storage (− 20 ◦ C) for four months. The TBARS value each air frying condition. Lipid oxidation is a complex process influ
increased with storage time in samples pre-treated in the air fryer or not; enced by numerous intrinsic and extrinsic aspects. In addition, the
however, the values achieved in samples containing turmeric were protective effect of natural antioxidants depends on diverse factors, such
significantly lower compared to control samples, mainly after 4 months as antioxidant composition, mechanisms of protection involved, and the
of storage. possible degradation of antioxidant compounds. Using natural antioxi
Chicken breasts were treated with sugar solutions (10 mL/100 g dants in foods also requires evaluating other aspects related to sensory
meat) added with commercial grape seed extract, which is a by-product acceptance and safety, specialty when new sources, which are not
of grape wine and juice production, showing that the natural antioxidant already applied in culinary processes, are used. Furthermore, concern
reduced the formation of secondary oxidation products during air frying ing industrialized food products, the addition of natural antioxidants
(180 ◦ C/3 min). As different levels of extract were used, the higher the during their manufacturing is indicated.
level applied the lower the TBARS value, revealing a concentration-
dependent trend. For the highest concentration, a TBARS value of 6. Conclusions
approximately 1.6 mg/kg was found in control samples, while the ones
treated with the extract showed around 1 mg/kg. Moreover, the for The impact of air frying on food lipids was evidenced. However, most
mation of AGEs was also evaluated, presenting a similar behavior (Zhu studies consider the formation of primary and secondary oxidation
et al., 2021). products, indicating a lack of research on the degradation of important
Extracts obtained from different legume seeds (acacia, black bean, fatty acids, such as the n3-serie, and COPs formation, which are
clove, fenugreek, and tamarind) reduced the TBARS values in air-fried important issues concerning human health. Most studies were also car
fish (Labeo rohit) fillets. The samples were marinated with the extracts ried out with fish and fish products, indicating the need for using other
(1, 2, 3, and 4 mg/mL) and fried (160 ◦ C/15 min), resulting in lower food matrices. Using oil during air frying is questionable, as it is not
TBARS values for all the marinade-pretreated samples compared to the required and this is one of the main advantages of air fryers. Further
control (0.91 mg/kg). Tamarind (0.76–0.50 mg/kg) and clove extracts more, comparisons with other cooking methods, in addition to deep-fat
(0.71–0.54 mg/kg) had the greatest effects, primarily when applied at 4 frying, must be considered, mainly methods that also aim to reduce oil
mg/mL level (Khan et al., 2023). usage or absorption. Thus, as air fryers are widely present in domestic
Although most findings reported in the literature show a positive environments, the use of natural sources of antioxidants during home
effect regarding the addition of natural materials that have been cooking must be encouraged. In this way, there are numerous oppor
described as potential sources of antioxidants, scientific investigations tunities for further studies, which must focus on evaluating the possible
must be performed for each specific case. It was demonstrated in a study protective effects of materials that have not been investigated yet, which
carried out by de Carvalho et al. (2021), where sardines were treated include natural materials that are usually discarded at home, such as
with Tahiti lemon (Citrus latifolia) juice and submitted to air frying. fruit peels. Moreover, other strategies based on controlling the air frying
Chromatographic analyses revealed the presence of antioxidant com process must be investigated. Thus, given the different points discussed
pounds in the juice extract, mainly flavonoids, and its antioxidant ca in this study, the scientific community must focus on moving forward
pacity was also determined by different in vitro assays. However, adding with a such relevant theme. People will not stop using air fryers, but they
lemon juice to samples induced cholesterol oxidation, showing must be warned about the undesirable consequences arising from lipid
increased levels of COPs. This result was attributed to the possible oxidation and guided to explore approaches to minimize it.
thermodegradation of antioxidant compounds from lemon juice and the
acid environment created that may exert prooxidant effects. Declaration of competing interest
All the studies presented above were conducted with natural anti
oxidants of easy acquisition and application. The culinary herbs, parsley, The authors have no conflicts of interest.
chives, and cheiro-verde, were added fresh to the food matrix. They were
only sanitized, chopped, and used, which are procedures similar to the Data availability
ones commonly applied by cookers. The application of turmeric, lemon
juice, and seed extracts was also easy to use. Thus, as noteworthy results Data will be made available on request.
were reported, their use as a domestic strategy against lipid oxidation in
food systems must be encouraged. Acknowledgment
The incorporation of other natural materials into foods was consid
ered during air frying to investigate their potential to reduce the for The authors thank the Natl. Brazilian Research Foundations (CAPES)
mation of acrylamide, which include borage, ginger, and fennel extracts for the scholarship.
(Haddarah et al., 2021) and grapefruit seed, guava seed extracts, and
their combination (Elsheshtawy et al., 2023). In addition, the antioxi References
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Impact of Air Frying On Food Lipids - Oxidative Evidence, Current Research

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Trends in Food Science & Technology 147 (2024) 104465

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Trends in Food Science & Technology

Impact of air frying on food lipids: Oxidative evidence, current research,

1. Introduction bioactive properties, formation of advanced glycation end products,

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