62 contemporary calculus

1.1 The Limit of a Function

Calculus has been called the study of continuous change, and the limit
is the basic concept that allows us to describe and analyze such change.
An understanding of limits is necessary to understand derivatives,
integrals and other fundamental topics of calculus.

The Idea (Informally)

The limit of a function at a point describes the behavior of the function
when the variable is near—but does not equal—a specified number (see
margin figure). If the values of f ( x ) get closer and closer—as close as
we want—to one number L as we take values of x very close to (but
not equal to) a number c, then

we say: “the limit of f ( x ), as x approaches c, is L”

and we write: lim f ( x ) = L
x →c
The symbol → means “approaches” or
“gets very close to.”
It is very important to note that:

f (c) is a single number that describes the behavior (value)

of f at the point x = c

while:

lim f ( x ) is a single number that describes the behavior

x →c
of f near, but not at the point x = c

If we have a graph of the function f ( x ) near x = c, then it is usually

easy to determine lim f ( x ).
x →c

Example 1. Use the graph of y = f ( x ) given in the margin to determine

the following limits:

(a) lim f ( x ) (b) lim f ( x ) (c) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x )

x →1 x →2 x →3 x →4

Solution. Each of these limits involves a different issue, as you may be

able to tell from the graph.

(a) lim f ( x ) = 2: When x is very close to 1, the values of f ( x ) are

x →1
very close to y = 2. In this example, it happens that f (1) = 2,
but that is irrelevant for the limit. The only thing that matters is
what happens for x close to 1 but with x 6= 1.
 limits and continuity 63

(b) f (2) is undefined, but we only care about the behavior of f ( x )

for x close to 2 and not equal to 2. When x is close to 2, the values
of f ( x ) are close to 3. If we restrict x close enough to 2, the
values of y will be as close to 3 as we want, so lim f ( x ) = 3.
x →2

(c) When x is close to 3, the values of f ( x ) are close to 1, so

lim f ( x ) = 1. For this limit it is completely irrelevant that
x →3
f (3) = 2: we only care about what happens to f ( x ) for x close
to and not equal to 3.

(d) This one is harder and we need to be careful. When x is close to

4 and slightly less than 4 (x is just to the left of 4 on the x-axis)
then the values of f ( x ) are close to 2. But if x is close to 4 and
slightly larger than 4 then the values of f ( x ) are close to 3.

If we only know that x is very close to 4, then we cannot say

whether y = f ( x ) will be close to 2 or close to 3—it depends
on whether x is on the right or the left side of 4. In this situa-
tion, the f ( x ) values are not close to a single number so we say
limx→4 f ( x ) does not exist.

In (d), it is irrelevant that f (4) = 1. The limit, as x approaches 4, would

still be undefined if f (4) was 3 or 2 or anything else. J

Practice 1. Use the graph of y = f ( x ) in the margin to determine the

following limits:

(a) lim f ( x ) (b) lim f (t) (c) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f (w)
x →1 t →2 x →3 w →4

2x2 − x − 1
Example 2. Determine the value of lim .
x →3 x−1

2
Solution. We need to investigate the values of f ( x ) = 2x x−−x1−1 when x
is close to 3. If the f ( x ) values get arbitrarily close to—or even equal
to—some number L, then L will be the limit.
One way to keep track of both the x and the f ( x ) values is to set up
a table and to pick several x values that get closer and closer (but not
equal) to 3.
We can pick some values of x that approach 3 from the left, say
x = 2.91, 2.9997, 2.999993 and 2.9999999, and some values of x that
approach 3 from the right, say x = 3.1, 3.004, 3.0001 and 3.000002. The
only thing important about these particular values for x is that they get
closer and closer to 3 without actually equaling 3. You should try some
other values “close to 3” to see what happens. Our table of values is:
64 contemporary calculus

x f (x) x f (x)
2.9 6.82 3.1 7.2
2.9997 6.9994 3.004 7.008
2.999993 6.999986 3.0001 7.0002
2.9999999 6.9999998 3.000002 7.000004
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
3 7 3 7

As the x values get closer and closer to 3, the f ( x ) values are getting
closer and closer to 7. In fact, we can get f ( x ) as close to 7 as we want
(“arbitrarily close”) by taking the values of x very close (“sufficiently
close”) to 3. We write:

2x2 − x − 1
lim =7
x →3 x−1

Instead of using a table of values, we could have graphed y = f ( x )

for x close to 3 (see margin) and used the graph to answer the limit
question. This graphical approach is easier, particularly if you have a
calculator or computer do the graphing work for you, but it is really
very similar to the “table of values” method: in each case you need to
evaluate y = f ( x ) at many values of x near 3. J

In the previous example, you might have noticed that if we just

evaluate f (3), then we get the correct answer, 7. That works for this
particular problem, but it often fails. The next example (identical to the
previous one, except x → 1) illustrates one such difficulty.

2x2 − x − 1
Example 3. Find lim .
x →1 x−1

2
Solution. You might try to evaluate f ( x ) = 2x x−−x1−1 at x = 1, but
f (1) = 00 , so f is not defined at x = 1.
It is tempting—but wrong—to conclude that this function does not
have a limit as x approaches 1.
Table Method: Trying some “test” values for x that get closer and
closer to 1 from both the left and the right, we get:

x f (x) x f (x)
0.9 2.82 1.1 3.2
0.9998 2.9996 1.003 3.006
0.999994 2.999988 1.0001 3.0002
0.9999999 2.9999998 1.000007 3.000014
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
1 3 1 3
 limits and continuity 65

The function f is not defined at x = 1, but when x gets close to 1, the

values of f ( x ) get very close to 3. We can get f ( x ) as close to 3 as we
want by taking x very close to 1, so:

2x2 − x − 1
lim =3
x →1 x−1
2
Graph Method: We can graph y = f ( x ) = 2x x−−x1−1 for x close to
1 (see margin) and notice that whenever x is close to 1, the values of
y = f ( x ) are close to 3; f is not defined at x = 1, so the graph has a
hole above x = 1, but we only care about what f ( x ) is doing for x close
to but not equal to 1.
Algebra Method: We could have found the same result by noting:

2x2 − x − 1 (2x + 1)( x − 1)

f (x) = = = 2x + 1
x−1 x−1
as long as x 6= 1. The “x → 1” part of the limit means that x is close to
1 but not equal to 1, so our division step is valid and:

2x2 − x − 1
lim = lim 2x + 1 = 3
x →1 x−1 x →1

which is the same answer we obtained using the first two methods. J

Three Methods for Evaluating Limits

The previous example utilized three different methods, each of which
led us to the same answer for the limit.

The Algebra Method

The algebra method involves algebraically simplifying the function
before trying to evaluate its limit. Often, this simplification just means
factoring and dividing, but sometimes more complicated algebraic or
even trigonometric steps are needed.

The Table Method

To evaluate a limit of a function f ( x ) as x approaches c, the table
method involves calculating the values of f ( x ) for “enough” values of
x very close to c so that we can “confidently” determine which value
f ( x ) is approaching. If f ( x ) is well behaved, we may not need to use
very many values for x. However, this method is usually used with
complicated functions, and then we need to evaluate f ( x ) for lots of
values of x.
A computer or calculator can often make the function evaluations
easier, but their calculations are subject to “round off” errors. The result
of any computer calculation that involves both large and small numbers
66 contemporary calculus

should be viewed with some suspicion. For example, the function

((0.1) x + 1) − 1 (0.1) x
f (x) = x
= =1
(0.1) (0.1) x
for every value of x, and my calculator gives the correct answer for
some values of x: f (3) = 1, and f (8) and f (9) both equal 1.
But my calculator says (0.1)10 + 1 − 1 = 0, so it evaluates f (10) to

be 0, definitely an incorrect value.

Your calculator may evaluate f (10) correctly, but try f (35) or f (107).

Calculators are too handy to be ignored, but they are too prone
to these types of errors to be believed uncritically. Be careful.

The Graph Method

The graph method is closely related to the table method, but we
create a graph of the function instead of a table of values, and then we
use the graph to determine which value f ( x ) is approaching.

Which Method Should You Use?

In general, the algebraic method is preferred because it is precise
and does not depend on which values of x we chose or the accuracy
of our graph or precision of our calculator. If you can evaluate a limit
algebraically, you should do so. Sometimes, however, it will be very
difficult to evaluate a limit algebraically, and the table or graph methods
offer worthwhile alternatives. Even when you can algebraically evaluate
the limit of a function, it is still a good idea to graph the function or
evaluate it at a few points just to verify your algebraic answer.
The table and graph methods have the same advantages and disad-
vantages. Both can be used on complicated functions that are difficult
to handle algebraically or whose algebraic properties you don’t know.
Often both methods can be easily programmed on a calculator or
computer. However, these two methods are very time-consuming by
hand and are prone to round-off errors on computers. You need to
know how to use these methods when you can’t figure out how to use
the algebraic method, but you need to use these two methods warily.
Example 4. Evaluate each limit.

x2 + 5x + 6 x2 + 5x + 6
(a) lim (b) lim
x →0 x2 + 3x + 2 x →−2 x2 + 3x + 2

Solution. The function in each limit is the same but x is approaching

a different number in each of them.
(a) Because x → 0, we know that x is getting closer and closer to
0, so the values of the x2 , 5x and 3x terms get as close to 0 as
 limits and continuity 67

we want. The numerator approaches 6 and the denominator

approaches 2, so the values of the whole function get arbitrarily
close to 62 = 3, the limit.

(b) As x approaches −2, the numerator and denominator approach

0, and a small number divided by a small number can be almost
anything—the ratio depends on the size of the top compared to
the size of the bottom. More investigation is needed.
Table Method: If we pick some values of x close to (but not
equal to) −2, we get the table:

x2 +5x +6
x x2 + 5x + 6 x2 + 3x + 2 x2 +3x +2

−1.97 0.0309 −0.0291 −1.061856

−2.005 −0.004975 0.005025 −0.990050
−1.9998 0.00020004 −0.00019996 −1.00040008
−2.00003 −0.00002999 0.0000300009 −0.9996666
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
−2 0 0 −1

Even though the numerator and denominator are each getting

closer and closer to 0, their ratio is getting arbitrarily close to −1,
which is the limit.
2
Graph Method: The graph of y = f ( x ) = xx2 + 5x +6
+3x +2
in the margin
shows that the values of f ( x ) are very close to −1 when the
x-values are close to −2.
Algebra Method: Factoring, the numerator and denominator:

x2 + 5x + 6 ( x + 2)( x + 3)
f (x) = =
x2 + 3x + 2 ( x + 2)( x + 1)

We know x → −2 so x 6= −2 and we can divide the top and

bottom by ( x + 2). Then

( x + 3) 1
f (x) = → = −1
( x + 1) −1

as x → −2. J

You should remember the technique used in the previous example:

polynomial 0
If lim = ,
x →canother polynomial 0
try dividing the top and bottom by x − c.
68 contemporary calculus

Practice 2. Evaluate each limit.

x2 − x − 2
(a) lim
x →0 x−2
t · sin(t)
(b) lim
t →0 t2 + 3t
w−2
(c) lim w
w→2 ln( 2 )

One-Sided Limits
Sometimes, what happens to us at a place depends on the direction
we use to approach that place. If we approach Niagara Falls from
the upstream side, then we will be 182 feet higher and have different
worries than if we approach from the downstream side. Similarly, the
values of a function near a point may depend on the direction we use
to approach that point.
If we let x approach 3 from the left (x is close to 3 and x < 3) then
the values of b x c = INT( x ) equal 2 (see margin).
If we let x approach 3 from the right (x is close to 3 and x > 3) then
the values of b x c = INT( x ) equal 3.
On the number line we can approach a point from the left or the
right, and that leads to one-sided limits.

Definition of Left and Right Limits:

The left limit as x approaches c of f ( x ) is L if the values of f ( x ) get
as close to L as we want when x is very close to but left of c (x < c):

lim f ( x ) = L
x →c−

The right limit, lim f ( x ), requires that x lie to the right of c (x > c).
x →c+

Example 5. Evaluate lim x − b x c and lim x − b x c.

x →2− x →2+

Solution. The left-limit notation x → 2− requires that x be close to 2

and that x be to the left of 2, so x < 2. If 1 < x < 2, then b x c = 1 and:

lim x − b x c = lim x − 1 = 2 − 1 = 1
x →2− x →2−

If x is close to 2 and is to the right of 2, then 2 < x < 3, so b x c = 2 and:

lim x − b x c = lim x − 2 = 2 − 2 = 0
x →2− x →2−

The graph of f ( x ) = x − b x c appears in the margin. J

 limits and continuity 69

If the left and right limits of f ( x ) have the same value at x = c:

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = L
x →c− x →c+

then the value of f ( x ) is close to L whenever x is close to c, and it does

not matter whether x is left or right of c, so

lim f ( x ) = L
x →c

Similarly, if:
lim f ( x ) = L
x →c

then f ( x ) is close to L whenever x is close to c and less than c, and

whenever x is close to c and greater than c, so:

lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = L
x →c− x →c+

We can combine these two statements into a single theorem.

One-Sided Limit Theorem:

lim f ( x ) = L if and only if lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = L

x →c x →c− x →c+

This theorem has an important corollary.

Corollary:

If lim f ( x ) 6= lim f ( x ), then lim f ( x ) does not exist.

x →c− x →c+ x →c

One-sided limits are particularly useful for describing the behavior

of functions that have steps or jumps.
To determine the limit of a function involving the greatest integer or
absolute value or a multiline definition, definitely consider both the left
and right limits.

Practice 3. Use the graph in the margin to evaluate the one- and two-
sided limits of f at x = 0, 1, 2 and 3.

Practice 4. Defining f ( x ) as:


 1 if x < 1

f (x) = x if 1 < x < 3

 2 if 3 < x

find the one- and two-sided limits of f at 1 and 3.

70 contemporary calculus

1.1 Problems

1. Use the graph below to determine the limits. 4. Use the graph below to determine the limits.

(a) lim f ( x ) (c) lim f ( x )

x →1 x →3 (a) lim f (3x ) (c) lim f (2x − 4)
x →1 x →3
(b) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x )
x →2 x →4 (b) lim f ( x + 1) (d) lim | f (4 + x )|
x →2 x →0

2. Use the graph below to determine the limits.

(a) lim f ( x ) (c) lim f ( x )

x →1 x →3
In Problems 5–11, evaluate each limit.
(b) lim f ( x ) (d) lim f ( x )
x →2 x →4

x2 + 3x + 3 x2 + 3x + 3
5. (a) lim (b) lim
x →1 x−2 x →2 x−2
x+7 x+7
6. (a) lim (c) lim
x →0 x2 + 9x + 14 x →−4x2 + 9x + 14
x+7 x+7
(b) lim 2 (d) lim 2
x →3 x + 9x + 14 x →−7 x + 9x + 14

cos( x ) cos( x )
7. (a) lim (c) lim
x →1 x x →−1 x
cos( x )
3. Use the graph below to determine the limits. (b) lim
x →π x
(a) lim f (2x ) (c) lim f (2x − 5) √ √
x →1 x →3 8. (a) lim x − 3 x−3
x →7 (c) lim
(b) lim f ( x − 1) (d) lim f (4 + x ) √ x →9 x−9
x →2 x →0 (b) lim x − 3
x →9

9. (a) lim | x | (c) lim | x |

x →0− x →0
(b) lim | x |
x →0+

|x| |x|
10. (a) lim (c) lim
x →0− x x →0 x

|x|
(b) lim
x →0+ x
 limits and continuity 71

11. (a) lim | x − 5| | x − 5| 19. Define A( x ) to be the area bounded by the t- and
x →5 (c) lim
x →5 x − 5 y-axes, the line y = 21 t + 2 and the vertical line t = x
| x − 5| (See figure below). For example, A(4) = 12.
(b) lim
x →3 x − 5
(a) Evaluate A(0), A(1), A(2) and A(3).
12. Find the one- and two-sided limits of f ( x ) as x → 0, (b) Graph y = A( x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
1 and 2, if f ( x ) is defined as: (c) What area does A(3) − A(1) represent?


 x if x < 0
f (x) = sin( x ) if 0 < x ≤ 3

 1 if 2 < x

13. Find the one- and two-sided limits of g( x ) as x → 1,

2, 4 and 5, if g( x ) is defined as:


 1 if x ≤ 2
g( x ) = 8
 x if 2 < x < 4
 6 − x if 4 < x

In 14—17 use a calculator or computer to get ap-

proximate answers accurate to 2 decimal places.
√
2x − 1 log10 ( x ) 20. Sketch the graph of f (t) = 4t − t2 for 0 ≤ t ≤ 4
14. (a) lim (b) lim
x →0 x x →1 x − 1 (you should get a semicircle). Define A( x ) to be
the area bounded below by the t-axis, above by the
3x − 1 ln( x ) graph y = f (t) and on the right by the vertical line
15. (a) lim (b) lim
x →0 x x →1 x−1 at t = x.
√ (a) Evaluate A(0), A(2) and A(4).
x−1−2 sin(3x )
16. (a) lim (b) lim (b) Sketch a graph y = A( x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
x →5 x−5 x →0 5x
(c) What area does A(3) − A(1) represent?
√
x−4 sin(7x )
17. (a) lim (b) lim
x →16 x − 16 x →0 2x

18. Define A( x ) to be the area bounded by the t- and

y-axes, the “bent line” in the figure below, and the
vertical line t = x. For example, A(4) = 10.
(a) Evaluate A(0), A(1), A(2) and A(3).
(b) Graph y = A( x ) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
(c) What area does A(3) − A(1) represent?
72 contemporary calculus

1.1 Practice Answers

1. (a) 2
(b) 2
(c) does not exist (no limit)
(d) 1
( x + 1)( x − 2)
2. (a) lim = lim ( x + 1) = 3
x →2 x−2 x →2

t sin(t) sin(t) 0
(b) lim = lim = =0
t →0 t ( t + 3) t →0 t + 3 3
w−2
(c) lim = 2 To see this, make a graph or a table:
w →2 ln( w2 )
w −2 w −2
w ln( w2 )
w ln( w2 )

2.2 2.098411737 1.9 1.949572575

2.01 2.004995844 1.99 1.994995823
2.003 2.001499625 1.9992 1.999599973
2.0001 2.00005 1.9999 1.99995
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
2 2 2 2

3. lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) = 2 lim f ( x ) DNE

x →0− x →0+ x →0

lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) = 1

x →1− x →1+ x →1

lim f ( x ) = −1 lim f ( x ) = −1 lim f ( x ) = −1

x →2− x →2+ x →2

lim f ( x ) = −1 lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) DNE

x →3− x →3+ x →3

4. lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) = 1 lim f ( x ) = 1

x →1− x →1+ x →1

lim f ( x ) = 3 lim f ( x ) = 2 lim f ( x ) DNE

x →3− x →3+ x →3