7.4.

BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FACTS ABOUT POLYNOMIALS 133

For the time being, however, we wish to explore complex numbers in a different context. One of
the most common places that complex numbers arise in mathematics is as roots of polynomials,
even when those polynomials possess only real coefficients. Therefore, armed with the brief review
of complex numbers presented above, let us turn our attention in Section 7.4 to the theory of
polynomials, beginning with a brief review of the basic terminology. Then in Section 7.5, we will
explore AIME problems about polynomials with complex roots.

7.4 Basic Definitions and Facts about Polynomials

A polynomial in one variable x is a function of the form

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 ,
where a0 , a1 , . . . , an are constants. In the AIME competition, the values of these constants are
assumed to be real numbers unless otherwise specified. The largest integer j such that aj 6= 0 is
called the degree of p(x), written deg p(x), and this quantity plays a crucial role in the theory of
polynomials. If r is any number such that p(r) = 0, we call r a root5 of p(x). We have the following
cornerstone result concerning roots of p(x).
Theorem 7.4.1. (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra) If p(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then
p(x) has exactly n roots.

Of course, some (or all) of the roots of p(x) may be repeated or complex, even if all of the constants
a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real. It is also well known that if the coefficients of the polynomial p(x) are all
real and z = a + bi is a complex root of p(x), where a and b are real numbers and b is nonzero, then
z = a − bi is also a complex root of p(x). That is, the nonreal roots of a polynomial p(x) come in
complex conjugate pairs: a ± bi. This is expressed formally in the next theorem.
Theorem 7.4.2. Consider a polynomial p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 , where
a0 , a1 , . . . , an are real coefficients. If z is a complex number such that p(z) = 0, then p(z) = 0.

The basic justification behind Theorem 7.4.2 is that the complex conjugation operation respects
both addition and multiplication. This means that if z1 and z2 are complex numbers, then
z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 and z1 z2 = z1 z2 .
Since p(x) requires only the addition and multiplication of complex numbers, p(z) = p(z), from
which the conclusion follows. One nice consequence of Theorem 7.4.2 is that any polynomial of odd
degree must have at least one real root, since every polynomial must have an even number of nonreal
roots – they come in pairs of complex conjugates.
We can use the roots of a polynomial to manufacture a factorization of the polynomial. We observe
that a complex number r is a root of the polynomial p(x) if and only if p(x) = (x − r)q(x), where
q(x) is a polynomial with deg q(x) = deg p(x) − 1. The polynomial q(x) can be found by using long
division to divide p(x) by x − r. Therefore, by the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra, if
p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 (7.15)
5 Roots of a polynomial are sometimes alternatively referred to as zeros of the polynomial.
134 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

is a polynomial of degree n, it has n roots, say r1 , r2 , . . . , rn , and we can write

p(x) = an (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) . . . (x − rn ). (7.16)

In this way, the polynomial p(x) has been factored into a product of n linear (i.e. degree 1) factors.
In the case where the leading coefficient an is 1, we say that p(x) is a monic polynomial:

p(x) = xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 = (x − r1 )(x − r2 ) . . . (x − rn ). (7.17)

From the two expressions for p(x) in Equation (7.17), we can draw some further conclusions about
the roots of p(x). Note that since the roots of p(x) are unaffected by multiplying the polynomial
through by a constant, we may assume that p(x) is monic.

Proposition 7.4.3. Let p(x) be a monic polynomial of degree n with roots r1 , r2 , . . . , rn . Then
(a):

a0 , if n is even,
r1 r2 · · · rn =
−a0 , if n is odd.

(b):
X
ri = −an−1 .
1≤i≤n

(c):
X
ri rj = an−2 .
1≤i<j≤n

Part (a) of Proposition 7.4.3 follows from the fact that

a0 = p(0) = (−1)n r1 r2 . . . rn ,

while the second and third parts follow by comparing coefficients of xn−1 and xn−2 , respectively,
in the expressions appearing in (7.17). None of the results listed in Proposition 7.4.3 rely on p(x)
having real roots, and they may be applied just as well to polynomials with complex roots. A good
example of this is Problem #7 from the AIME 2010-2 competition, and it appears in the exercises
for this chapter.
Additional statements can also be made relating the roots of p(x) to the coefficients of xn−3 , xn−4 ,
and so on, but we will leave these for the reader to derive.
Let us now consider some examples from the AIME to illustrate some of these ideas.

Example 7.4.4. (2008 AIME-2, Problem #7) Let r, s, and t be the three roots of the equation

8x3 + 1001x + 2008 = 0.

Find (r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3 .

7.4. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FACTS ABOUT POLYNOMIALS 135

Solution: Let
p(x) = 8x3 + 1001x + 2008. (7.18)
Since r, s, and t are the roots of p(x), we can use Equation (7.16) to write

p(x) = 8(x − r)(x − s)(x − t) = 8x3 − 8(r + s + t)x2 + 8(rs + rt + st) − 8rst. (7.19)

Therefore, equating the coefficients in Equations (7.18) and (7.19), we find that

r + s + t = 0, (7.20)
1001
rs + rt + st = , (7.21)
8
and
2008
rst = − = −251. (7.22)
8
The solver should spend some moments to think carefully about how to proceed from here to compute

(r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3 .

On the one hand, Equations (7.20), (7.21), and (7.22) may provide enough information to solve the
system explicitly for r, s, and t. However, this appears to be a tedious task. On the other hand, we
could use these three equations to simplify the expression we are trying to find. In particular, by
using (7.20), we can write

(r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3 = (−t)3 + (−r)3 + (−s)3 = −(r3 + s3 + t3 ). (7.23)

We have replaced the original problem with a new problem, to determine r3 + s3 + t3 . But how can
we derive information about r3 + s3 + t3 from Equations (7.20) - (7.22)? The key observation is that
the expansion of (r + s + t)3 will include r3 + s3 + t3 as well as rst. While it may not yet be clear
exactly how this will be useful, let us try to expand this trinomial:

(r + s + t)3 = r3 + s3 + t3 + 3(r2 s + rs2 + r2 t + rt2 + s2 t + st2 ) + 6rst. (7.24)

We already know the value of r + s + t and rst. Therefore, the only part of Equation (7.24) standing
in the way of computing r3 + s3 + t3 is the expression r2 s + rs2 + r2 t + rt2 + s2 t + st2 . However, we
can work on this expression with factorization as follows:

r2 s + rs2 + r2 t + rt2 + s2 t + st2 = rs(r + s) + rt(r + t) + st(s + t)

= rs(−t) + rt(−s) + st(−r)
= −3rst.

Therefore, Equation (7.24) simplifies as follows:

03 = r3 + s3 + t3 + 3(−3rst) + 6rst = r3 + s3 + t3 − 3rst,

which implies that

r3 + s3 + t3 = 3rst = 3(−251) = −753.
Therefore,
(r + s)3 + (s + t)3 + (t + r)3 = −(r3 + s3 + t3 ) = 753.
136 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

ANSWER : 753. 2

Remark: This example illustrates an important idea for problem solvers. The entire solution may
not have been clear from the outset. This is no reason to give up. Instead, we recognized that by
computing (r + s + t)3 , there would be a lot of terms in the resulting expansion that are already
known or related to the terms we want to find. Thus, without seeing the end result in advance, we
push forward with that calculation, which gave us Equation (7.24) and a way to organize and use
the information that we had been previously given.
The next example has a great deal of similarity with the previous one. The reader is encouraged to
try it first on their own without reading the solution.
Example 7.4.5. (1996 AIME, Problem #5) The roots of
x3 + 3x2 + 4x − 11 = 0
are a, b, and c. The equation with roots a + b, a + c, and b + c is
x3 + rx2 + sx + t = 0.
Find t.

Solution: By Equation (7.16), we have

(x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = x3 + 3x2 + 4x − 11. (7.25)
Since
(x − a)(x − b)(x − c) = x3 − (a + b + c)x2 + (ab + ac + bc)x − abc, (7.26)
we can equate the coefficients of (7.25) and (7.26) to obtain
abc = 11, ab + ac + bc = 4, a + b + c = −3. (7.27)
By part (a) of Proposition 7.4.3, we know that
t = −(a + b)(a + c)(b + c).
Now for the crucial point – how best to compute t. Using the equations in (7.27), we can write
t = −(−3 − c)(−3 − b)(−3 − a)
= (a + 3)(b + 3)(c + 3)
= abc + 3(ab + ac + bc) + 9(a + b + c) + 27
= 11 + 3(4) + 9(−3) + 27
= 23 = 023.
ANSWER : 023. 2

The preceding example did not require us to determine the explicit values of the roots a, b, and
c. However, finding roots of polynomials is a common, central task in algebra at this level. The
determination of rational roots (i.e. roots that can be expressed as fractions of integers) can be
algorithmically carried out using the so-called Rational Roots Test in the case where the polynomial
has integer coefficients.
7.4. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FACTS ABOUT POLYNOMIALS 137

Theorem 7.4.6. (Rational Roots Test) Let p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a1 x + a0 be a

polynomial with integer coefficients a0 , a1 , . . . , an . Every rational root of p(x) can be expressed in
the form r/s, where r is a divisor of a0 and s is a divisor of an .

For instance, in Example 5.3.3, we needed to search for roots of the equation

8x3 − 8x2 + 1 = 0.

According to the Rational Roots Test, the candidates for rational roots to this equation take the
form r/s, where r divides 1 and s divides 8. Thus, the list of candidates is
1 1 1
±1, ± , ± , and ± .
2 4 8
In that example, we discovered only one rational root, r = 12 . On problems such as this, the finite list
of candidates turns a seemingly impossible task of searching for rational roots into a finite algorithm.
Of course, for polynomials with non-rational roots, such an algorithm will not be fruitful in locating
those roots.
Of course, even when it is not possible to locate the roots of a polynomial, such a polynomial can still
admit a non-trivial factorization. The analogue in number theory is the fact that positive integers
often have many possible factorizations, even though according to the Fundamental Theorem of
Arithmetic there is only one prime factorization. For example, we could choose to factorize 260
as 260 = 26 · 10. As an illustration with polynomials, we could factor p(x) = x4 + 2x2 + 1 as
p(x) = (x2 + 1)2 , which in and of itself is not directly tied to knowing the roots of p(x).
In fact, it may at first be surprising to learn that much of the basic theory of numbers (e.g. divisibility,
factorizations, congruences, etc.) has an analogue in the setting of polynomials. One example is the
Division Algorithm, which states that we can always divide a nonzero integer a by a positive integer
d to obtain a unique quotient q and unique remainder r with 0 ≤ r < d such that

a = qd + r.

The condition that d divides a is precisely saying that the remainder r obtained in the Division
Algorithm is 0. We can do something similar for polynomials:
Proposition 7.4.7. (Division Algorithm) Suppose that p(x) and d(x) are nonzero polynomials
with deg d(x) ≥ 1. Then there are unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) with deg r(x) < deg d(x) such
that
p(x) = q(x)d(x) + r(x).

We say that d(x) is a factor of p(x) (or that d(x) divides p(x)) if r(x) = 0 in the Division Algorithm.
Here are a couple more important facts in this case:
Proposition 7.4.8. Suppose that d(x) divides p(x) and write p(x) = q(x)d(x) as in the Division
Algorithm. Then
(a): If t is a root of d(x), then t is also a root of p(x).
(b): If deg q(x) = k and deg d(x) = ` then deg p(x) = k + `.
138 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

To prove part (a), suppose that t is a root of d(x). Thus, d(t) = 0. Hence, p(t) = q(t)d(t) = q(t) · 0 =
0, so that t is a root of p(x) as well. Part (b) follows quickly by expanding the product

q(x)d(x) = (ak xk + ak−1 xk−1 + · · · + a0 )(b` x` + b`−1 x`−1 + · · · + b0 ).

Many nice applications of Propositions 7.4.7 and 7.4.8 can be found in the AIME competition.
However, before we consider some AIME examples, here is a nice prelude contained in the AMC 12
competition.
Example 7.4.9. (AMC 12 A 2005, Problem #24) Let P (x) = (x − 1)(x − 2)(x − 3). For
how many polynomials Q(x) does there exist a polynomial R(x) of degree 3 such that P (Q(x)) =
P (x) · R(x)?

Solution: The roots of P (x) are clearly x = 1, x = 2, and x = 3. By part (a) of Proposition 7.4.8,
the given equation P (Q(x)) = P (x) · R(x) implies that any root of P (x) must also be a root of
P (Q(x)). Hence,
P (Q(1)) = P (Q(2)) = P (Q(3)) = 0.
Thus, Q(1), Q(2), and Q(3) are roots of P (x), and thus,

Q(1), Q(2), and Q(3) must belong to the set {1, 2, 3}. (7.28)

Since deg(P (x)) = deg(R(x)) = 3, part (b) of Proposition 7.4.8 implies that P (Q(x)) has degree
6. Moreover, if deg(Q(x)) = n, then deg(P (Q(x))) = 3n. (To see this, observe that if Q(x) = axn
(with a 6= 0), then P (Q(x)) = (axn )3 + · · · = a3 x3n + · · · . Details are left to the reader.) From this
we see that Q(x) has degree 2.
If we write Q(x) = ax2 + bx + c (with a 6= 0), then the three values Q(1), Q(2), and Q(3) will
completely determine the values of a, b, and c. This can be seen either algebraically by using
Q(1), Q(2), and Q(3) to set up three equations that can be uniquely solved for a, b, and c, or
geometrically from the fact that the points (1, Q(1)), (2, Q(2)), and (3, Q(3)) in the plane determine
a unique polynomial of degree 2 or less. Therefore, according to (7.28) and the Multiplication
Principle (Theorem 2.2.1), we have 33 = 27 possible polynomials Q(x) of degree 2 or less. However,
any of the 27 choices that results in a = 0 must be ignored, since in that case Q(x) = bx + c is no
longer quadratic. The values of Q(1), Q(2), and Q(3) for which Q(x) is not quadratic (i.e., Q(x) is
linear of degree 1 or less) are summarized in the table below:

Q(1) Q(2) Q(3) Q(x)

1 1 1 Q(x) = 1
2 2 2 Q(x) = 2
3 3 3 Q(x) = 3
1 2 3 Q(x) = x
3 2 1 Q(x) = 4 − x

We conclude that among the 27 possible values of (Q(1), Q(2), Q(3)), there are 27 − 5 = 22 that
result in quadratic polynomials Q(x). Therefore, we have 22 possible quadratic polynomials Q(x).
7.4. BASIC DEFINITIONS AND FACTS ABOUT POLYNOMIALS 139

ANSWER: 22. 2

Let us now conclude this section with a couple of examples from the AIME that demonstrate the
use of Propositions 7.4.7 and 7.4.8.
Example 7.4.10. (2010 AIME-2, Problem #6) Find the smallest positive integer n with the
property that the polynomial x4 − nx + 63 can be written as a product of two nonconstant polynomials
with integer coefficients.

Remark: We remind the reader here that if p(x) and q(x) are polynomials with real coefficients of
degree m and n, respectively, then p(x)q(x) is a polynomial of degree m + n. We will need this fact
in the solution below.
Solution: Since we must write the polynomial

p(x) = x4 − nx + 63 (7.29)

as a product of nonconstant polynomials, part (b) of Proposition 7.4.8 shows that we must either
express p(x) as a product of a polynomial of degree 1 and a polynomial of degree 3, or we must
express p(x) as a product of two quadratic polynomials. It is not clear at present which of these two
expressions can be achieved with the smallest integer n, so we will consider both cases:

Case 1: We can write p(x) as a product of a polynomial of degree 1 and a polynomial of

degree 3. Since the polynomial factors must contain integer coefficients, the degree 1 polynomial
must take the form x − a for some integer a. So we have

p(x) = (x − a)q(x), (7.30)

so that a is an integer root of p(x). It follows from Equations (7.29) and (7.30) that a must be a
divisor of 63. Thus, a = 1, 3, 7, 9, 21, or 63.
If a = 1, then
0 = p(1) = 64 − n,
so n = 64.
If a = 3, then
0 = p(3) = 81 − 3n + 63 = 144 − 3n,
so n = 48.
If a ≥ 7, then from
0 = p(a) = a4 − na + 63,
we solve for n to obtain
63
n = a3 + > 73 > 48.
a

Case 2: We can write p(x) as a product of two (monic) quadratic polynomials with
integer coefficients:
p(x) = (x2 + ax + b)(x2 + cx + d),
140 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

where a, b, c, d are integers. Expanding the right-hand side, we have

x4 − nx + 63 = x4 + (a + c)x3 + (b + d + ac)x2 + (ad + bc)x + bd.

Hence,
a + c = 0, b + d + ac = 0, ad + bc = −n, bd = 63.
This is a system of four equations and four (integer) unknowns. At first this may seem daunting,
but such calculations arise surprisingly often in algebra, and with some practice, they can be quite
tractable. In this instance, the trick is to reduce the number of variables in play by substituting
c = −a. The remaining equations become

b + d = a2 , a(b − d) = n, bd = 63.

Now since b and d are integers, we must have:

{b, d} = {1, 63} or {3, 21} or {7, 9}.

In the middle case, b + d = 24 is not a perfect square, contradicting b + d = a2 . In the first case,
b+d = 64, so a = ±8, from which we obtain n = a(b−d) = 8·62 = 496. In the third case, b+d = 16,
so a = ±4, from which we obtain n = 4 · 2 = 8.

Conclusion from Cases Analysis: The smallest value of n we have found in our analysis in either
case is n = 8, so this must be the answer. Indeed, we can factor p(x) as follows:

p(x) = (x2 + 4x + 9)(x2 − 4x + 7) = x4 − 8x + 63.

Thus, n = 8 = 008. ANSWER : 008.2

Example 7.4.11. (2003 AIME-2, Problem #9) Consider the polynomials

P (x) = x6 − x5 − x3 − x2 − x and Q(x) = x4 − x3 − x2 − 1.

Given that z1 , z2 , z3 , and z4 are roots of Q(x) = 0, find P (z1 ) + P (z2 ) + P (z3 ) + P (z4 ).

Solution: Using the Division Algorithm (Proposition 7.4.7), we divide P (x) by Q(x) via long
division to obtain
P (x) = (x2 + 1)Q(x) + (x2 − x + 1).
We are given that Q(zi ) = 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, 4, so that P (zi ) = zi2 − zi + 1 for each i = 1, 2, 3, 4.
Therefore,

P (z1 ) + P (z2 ) + P (z3 ) + P (z4 ) = z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 − z1 − z2 − z3 − z4 + 4.

Now we need to find

z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 and z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 .
By (7.16), we can write
Q(x) = (x − z1 )(x − z2 )(x − z3 )(x − z4 ),
and now we can use part (b) of Proposition 7.4.3 to compute

z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 = 1.
7.5. POLYNOMIALS WITH COMPLEX ROOTS 141

To find z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 , use part (c) of Proposition 7.4.3 as follows:

1 = (z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 )2
= (z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 ) + 2(z1 z2 + z1 z3 + z1 z4 + z2 z3 + z2 z4 + z3 z4 )
= (z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 ) + 2(−1).

Thus,
z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 = 3.
Hence,

P (z1 ) + P (z2 ) + P (z3 ) + P (z4 ) = (z12 + z22 + z32 + z42 ) − (z1 + z2 + z3 + z4 ) + 4 = 3 − 1 + 4 = 6 = 006.

ANSWER : 006.2

7.5 Polynomials with Complex Roots

The examples in the preceding section did not require us to consider complex-valued roots to the
polynomials in question. However, it would be a mistake to assume that this represents the majority
of problems related to roots of polynomials. With our study of complex numbers earlier in this
chapter, together with some good practice with polynomials, we are now well-equipped to tackle
problems about polynomials with complex roots in this section. Almost all of the background
material is already in place, so we will be able to pass quickly here to the problems. Recall that in
Section 7.4, we saw that the coefficients of a polynomial are related to the roots of the polynomial
(Proposition 7.4.3). We can use this basic information to solve the following problem.

Example 7.5.1. (1995 AIME, Problem #5) For certain real values of a, b, c, and d, the
equation x4 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 has four nonreal roots. √The product of two of these roots is
13 + i and the sum of the other two roots is 3 + 4i, where i = −1. Find b.

Solution: According to Theorem 7.4.2, all nonreal roots of a polynomial equation always occur in
complex conjugate pairs. Therefore, we can write the four nonreal roots of the given equation as
r1 , r1 , r2 , and r2 . We are given that the product of two of the roots is 13 + i, but according to
Equation (7.3), r1 r1 and r2 r2 are real. Therefore, we must have either r1 r2 = 13 + i or r1 r2 = 13 + i.
We may as well assume without loss of generality that the former holds: r1 r2 = 13 + i. The given
information then implies that r1 + r2 = 3 + 4i. Now we have

x2 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = (x − r1 )(x − r2 )(x − r1 )(x − r2 )

= (x2 − (r1 + r2 )x + r1 r2 )(x2 − (r1 + r2 )x + r1 r2 ).

Since r1 r2 = 13 + i, we have
r1 r2 = 13 + i = 13 − i,
and since r1 + r2 = 3 + 4i, we have
r1 + r2 = 3 − 4i.
142 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

Therefore, we have

x2 + ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = (x2 − (3 − 4i)x + (13 + i))(x2 − (3 + 4i)x + (13 − i)).

Expanding this expression, the coefficient of x2 is

b = (13 − i) + (3 − 4i)(3 + 4i) + (13 + i) = 51 = 051.

ANSWER : 051. 2
It is not unusual for problems involving complex roots of polynomial equations to require one to
express the roots in polar form. That is, it is often necessary to write the complex root z in the
form z = reiθ . This is not surprising in view of the fact that polynomial equations involving z will
require the use of powers z k of z, and these powers are much simpler to compute when z has been
rendered in polar form.

Example 7.5.2. (1984 AIME, Problem #8) The equation

p(z) = z 6 + z 3 + 1 = 0

has a root reiθ with 90◦ < θ < 180◦ . Find θ.

General Strategy Comment: When dealing with polynomials of relatively high degree, it is
sometimes possible to invoke a change of variables to reduce the degree. Lower degree polynomials
are usually much easier to work with. For example, the roots of a polynomial of degree 2 are easily
obtained from the quadratic formula.

Solution: We observe by Theorem 7.4.6 that the only possible rational roots are z = 1 and z = −1.
Since p(1) = 3 6= 0 and p(−1) = 1 6= 0, we conclude that p(z) has no rational roots. Proceeding more
generally, let us attempt to reduce the degree of the polynomial (in view of the General Strategy
Comment above) by using a substitution. We make the change of variables y = z 3 , so that, in terms
of y, the equation becomes y 2 + y + 1 = 0, whose solutions are readily found with the quadratic
formula: √ √
−1 ± −3 −1 ± 3i
y= = . (7.31)
2 2

Figure 7.4: The roots of the quadratic equation y 2 + y + 1 = 0 can be expressed in both Cartesian
and polar form.
7.5. POLYNOMIALS WITH COMPLEX ROOTS 143

Using a polar description of y in the form y = reiθ , note that both roots in (7.31) have r = 1,
and the values of θ are θ = 2π 4π
3 or θ = 3 (measured in radians). Allowing for multiples of 2π, we
conclude that
1 2
y = e2π(k+ 3 ) and y = e2π(k+ 3 ) .
√
Now using z = 3 y, we have
k 1 k 2
z = e2π( 3 + 9 ) and z = e2π( 3 + 9 ) .

We must find k such that 2π( k3 + 91 ) or 2π( k3 + 29 ) lies between π/2 and π. This, in turn, requires
that k3 + 19 or k3 + 29 lies between 41 and 12 . Only with k = 1 in the former case does the result lie in
the specified range, so the angle, in radians, is
1 1 4 8π
θ = 2π( + ) = 2π · = .
3 9 9 9
In degrees6 , we have θ = 160. ANSWER : 160. 2
Now let us study some additional examples of polynomial equations whose roots are complex.
Example 7.5.3. (2001 AIME-2, Problem #14) There are 2n complex numbers that satisfy
both z 28 − z 8 − 1 = 0 and |z| = 1. These numbers have the form zm = cos θm + i sin θm , where
0 ≤ θ1 < θ2 < · · · < θ2n < 360 and angles are measured in degrees. Find the value of θ2 +θ4 +· · ·+θ2n .

Solution: The only real numbers that satisfy |z| = 1 are ±1, and since 1 and −1 do not satisfy
z 28 − z 8 − 1 = 0, each of the 2n solutions to z 28 − z 8 − 1 = 0 with |z| = 1 is nonreal. These nonreal
solutions come in n complex conjugate pairs. Hence, we know that 0 < θ1 < θ2 < · · · < θn < 180,
and once these values are found, the remaining values θn+1 , θn+2 , . . . , θ2n are easily derived, since

θn + θn+1 = 360, θn−1 + θn+2 = 360, ..., θ1 + θ2n = 360.

Now let us proceed to find the values θi for i = 1, 2, . . . , n. We can write a complex number z with
|z| = 1 in polar form as z = eiθ . Therefore,

z 28 − z 8 − 1 = e28iθ − e8iθ − 1 = (cos(28θ) − cos(8θ) − 1) + i (sin(28θ) − sin(8θ)) .

Hence, z satisfies z 28 − z 8 − 1 = 0 if and only if

cos(28θ) = cos(8θ) + 1 and sin(28θ) = sin(8θ). (7.32)

If we sum the squares of both sides of both equations and using the identity sin2 x + cos2 x = 1, we
derive that
1 = 2 + 2 cos(8θ).
1
That is, cos(8θ) = − . Therefore,
2
8θ = ±120 + 360t,
6 Recall once more that to convert an angle measure from radians to degrees, one must multiply the radian measure
180 π
by π
, and conversely, conversion from degrees to radians is accomplished by multiplying by 180 .
144 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

for some integer t. That is,

θ = ±15 + 45t,

for some integer t. The values of θ that take one of these forms in the interval 0 < θ < 180 are
θ = 15, 30, 60, 75, 105, 120, 150, and 165. These values of θ are therefore the only candidates for valid
solutions to the system (7.32), but it still must be determined which of them are indeed solutions.
Directly plugging each of the eight values of θ into (7.32) shows that the only valid choices for θ
with 0 < θ < 180 are θ = 15, 75, 105, and 165. Hence, n = 4, and we have

θ1 = 15, θ2 = 75, θ3 = 105, θ4 = 165, θ5 = 195, θ6 = 255, θ7 = 285, θ8 = 345.

Therefore,
θ2 + θ4 + θ6 + θ8 = 75 + 165 + 255 + 345 = 840.

ANSWER : 840. 2

Example 7.5.4. (1996 AIME, Problem #11) Let P be the product of those roots of z 6 + z 4 +
z 3 + z 2 + 1 = 0 that have positive imaginary part, and suppose that P = r(cos θ◦ + i sin θ◦ ), where
0 < r and 0 ≤ θ < 360. Find θ.

Solution: The key to starting this problem is to recognize that

p(z) = z 6 + z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + 1 (7.33)

is very similar to the form of a finite geometric series introduced in the last chapter. One might
hope to modify p(z) in such a way as to exploit this, but the tricky part is to see how best to modify
it. For instance, one option is to write

z7 − 1
p(z) + z 5 + z =
z−1

and obtain a common denominator:

z 7 − 1 − z(z 4 + 1)(z − 1)
p(z) = . (7.34)
z−1

Another option is to write

p(z) = (z 6 + z 4 + z 2 + 1) + z 3

and use the formula for a finite geometric series with common ratio z 2 on the portion in parentheses
to obtain
z8 − 1 z 8 − 1 + (z 2 − 1)z 3
p(z) = 2 + z3 = . (7.35)
z −1 z2 − 1
However, attempts to simplify either (7.34) or (7.35) by factoring in the numerator simply bring the
solver back to the original expression (7.33).
7.6. EXERCISES 145

Still, the strategy of utilizing a geometric series will be successful if the reader will persist just a bit
further and try a different manipulation as follows. We write

p(z) = z 6 + z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + 1
= (z 6 − z) + (z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + z + 1)
z5 − 1
= z(z 5 − 1) +
z−1
z(z − 1)(z 5 − 1) + (z 5 − 1)
=
z−1
(z − z + 1)(z 5 − 1)
2
= .
z−1
The advantage of this latter expression over (7.34) and (7.35) is that we can completely determine
all roots of the numerator; they consist of the two roots of the quadratic equation z 2 − z + 1 = 0
and the 5th roots of unity. Therefore, the six roots of p(z) = z 6 + z 4 + z 3 + z 2 + 1 = 0 consist of the
four solutions of z 5 − 1 = 0 other than z = 1 and the two solutions to z 2 − z + 1 = 0.
Following the model in Example 7.3.4, suppose that z = reiθ is a root of the equation z 5 − 1 = 0.
Then r5 e5iθ = 1. This implies that r = 1 and that 5θ = 2πk for some integer k. Therefore, θ = 2πk 5 ,
where k is an integer. If k = 0, we obtain θ = 0 and z = 1. To obtain four roots of z 5 − 1 = 0 besides
z = 1, we set k = 1, 2, 3, and 4. This gives us

z1 = eiθ1 , z2 = eiθ2 , z3 = eiθ3 , z4 = eiθ4 ,

where
2π 4π 6π 8π
θ1 = = 72◦ , θ2 = = 144◦ , θ3 = = 216◦ ,
θ4 = = 288◦ .
5 5 5 5
√
1±i 3
By the quadratic formula, the two roots of z 2 − z + 1 = 0 are z = , whose polar forms are
2
z5 = eiπ/3 and z6 = e5iπ/3 . Therefore, the two additional roots have polar forms with angle θ5 = 60◦
and θ6 = 300◦ , respectively. The values θ1 , θ2 , and θ5 are in the interval 0◦ < θ < 180◦ , and hence
have positive imaginary part. Therefore,

P = z1 z2 z5 = eiθ1 eiθ2 eiθ5 = ei(θ1 +θ2 +θ5 ) = cos 276◦ + i sin 276◦ ,

since 72 + 144 + 60 = 276. Therefore, θ = 276. ANSWER : 276. 2

7.6 Exercises

Hints begin on Page 210. Solutions begin on Page 301.

1. (2009 AIME, Problem #2) There is a complex number z with imaginary part 164 and a
positive integer n such that
z
= 4i.
z+n
Find n.
146 CHAPTER 7. COMPLEX NUMBERS AND POLYNOMIALS

2. (1985 AIME, Problem #3) Find c if a, b, and c are positive integers which satisfy c =
(a + bi)3 − 107i, where i2 = −1.

3. (2001 AIME, Problem #3) Find the sum of all the roots, real and nonreal, of the equation

2001
x2001 + 12 − x = 0, given that there are no multiple roots.

4. (1993 AIME, Problem #5) Let P0 (x) = x3 + 313x2 − 77x − 8. For integers n ≥ 1, define
Pn (x) = Pn−1 (x − n). What is the coefficient of x in P20 (x).

5. (2005 AIME, Problem #6) Let P be the product of the nonreal roots of x4 −4x3 +6x2 −4x =
2005. Find bP c. (The notation bP c denotes the greatest integer that is less than or equal to
P .)

6. (2010 AIME-2, Problem #7) Let P (z) = z 3 + az 2 + bz + c, where a, b, and c are real.
There exists a complex number w such that the three roots of P (z) are w + 3i, w + 9i, and
2w − 4, where i2 = −1. Find |a + b + c|.

7. (2007 AIME, Problem #8) The polynomial P (x) is cubic. What is the largest value of k
for which the polynomials Q1 (x) = x2 + (k − 29)x − k and Q2 (x) = 2x2 + (2k − 43)x + k are
both factors of P (x)?

8. (2005 AIME-2, Problem #9) For how many positive integers n less than or equal to 1000
is
(sin t + i cos t)n = sin nt + i cos nt

true for all real t?

9. (1988 AIME, Problem #11) Let w1 , w2 , . . . , wn be complex numbers. A line L in the

complex plane is called a mean line for the points w1 , w2 , . . . , wn if L contains points (complex
numbers) z1 , z2 , . . . , zn such that
n
X
(zk − wk ) = 0.
k=1

For the numbers w1 = 32 + 170i, w2 = −7 + 64i, w3 = −9 + 200i, w4 = 1 + 27i, and

w5 = −14 + 43i there is a unique mean line with y-intercept 3. Find the slope of this mean
line.

10. (1998 AIME, Problem #13) If {a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an } is a set of real numbers, indexed so that
a1 < a2 < a3 < · · · < an , its complex power sum is defined to be a1 i + a2 i2 + a3 i3 + · · · + an in ,
where i2 = −1. Let Sn be the sum of the complex power sums of all nonempty subsets of
{1, 2, . . . , n}. Given that S8 = −176 − 64i and S9 = p + qi, where p and q are integers, find
|p| + |q|.

z+i
11. (2002 AIME, Problem #12) Let F (z) = for all complex numbers z 6= i, and let
z−i
1
zn = F (zn−1 ) for all positive integers n. Given that z0 = + i and z2002 = a + bi, where a
137
and b are real numbers, find a + b.
7.6. EXERCISES 147

12. (1989 AIME, Problem #14) Given a positive integer n, it can be shown that every complex
number of the form r + si, where r and s are integers, can be uniquely expressed in the base
−n + i using the integers 0, 1, 2, . . . , n2 as “digits”. That is, the equation

r + si = am (−n + i)m + am−1 (−n + i)m−1 + · · · + a1 (−n + i) + a0

is true for a unique choice of nonnegative integer m and digits a0 , a1 , . . . , am chosen from the
set {0, 1, 2, . . . , n2 }, with am 6= 0. We then write

r + si = (am am−1 . . . a1 a0 )−n+i

to denote the base −n + i expansion of r + si. There are only finitely many integers k + 0i
that have four-digit expansions

k = (a3 a2 a1 a0 )−3+i a3 6= 0.

Find the sum of all such k.

13. (1988 AIME, Problem #13) Find a if a and b are integers such that x2 − x − 1 is a factor
of ax17 + bx16 + 1.
14. (2005 AIME-2, Problem #13) Let P (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients that
satisfies P (17) = 10 and P (24) = 17. Given that the equation P (n) = n + 3 has two distinct
integer solutions n1 and n2 , find the product n1 · n2 .
15. (2011 AIME, Problem #15) For some integer m, the polynomial x3 − 2011x + m has the
three integer roots a, b, and c. Find |a| + |b| + |c|.