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Andesite weathering and soil formation in a moderately humid climate: A case

study from the Western Carpathians (southern Poland)

Article in Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences · February 2018

DOI: 10.26471/cjees/2018/013/010

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Carpathian Journal of Earth and Environmental Sciences, February 2018, Vol. 13, No. 1, p. 93 - 105

ANDESITE WEATHERING AND SOIL FORMATION IN A MODERATELY

HUMID CLIMATE: A CASE STUDY FROM THE WESTERN
CARPATHIANS (SOUTHERN POLAND)

Wojciech SZYMAŃSKI & Małgorzata SZKARADEK

Jagiellonian University, Institute of Geography and Spatial Management, Department of Pedology and Soil Geography,
ul. Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Kraków, Poland [email protected]

Abstract: The main aim of this study was to describe andesite weathering and soil formation in a
moderately humid climate based on the physical, chemical, and micromorphologic properties of soil
profiles from the Western Carpathians in southern Poland. Andesite weathering and soil formation in a
moderately humid climate are reflected by significant depletion of SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and Na2O from soils
in relation to unweathered andesite bedrock. The chemical index of alteration and weathering (CIA and
CIW) and plagioclase index of alteration (PIA) as well as weathering index of Parker (WIP) all indicate
that soil material obtained from all the studied profiles (except the Jarmuta profile, which is enriched in
carbonate by meteoric water during the Holocene) is clearly more weathered in comparison with andesitic
bedrock. However, these chemical indexes do not show clear differences in weathering degree of soil
material between different soil horizons, which is most likely related to excessively thin soil profiles
and/or the occurrence of lithologic discontinuities in some of them. Micromorphologic observations
indicate that in the process of weathering many fragments of andesite undergo cracking and iron in the
phenocrysts of hornblende and augite undergoes oxidation. The crystals of hornblende exhibit very often
irregular linear alteration along lines of cleavage. Additionally, many fragments of andesite and coarser
mineral grains are characterized by the presence of weathering rims, which are composed mainly of iron
hydroxides, clay minerals together with iron hydroxides, and sometimes also organic matter.

Keywords: andesite, geochemistry, leaching, micromorphology, soil formation, weathering

1. INTRODUCTION hydrologic conditions, vegetation cover, and time

(Wilson, 2004). In addition, the rate of weathering
Weathering is one of the most important and varies in different parts of the weathering profile.
common processes operating on the Earth’s surface Usually, the most intense weathering occurs in the
due to the interaction of the lithosphere, atmosphere, uppermost soil horizons as a result of the highest
and biosphere. This vital process is responsible for content of organic acids and the highest activity of
the decomposition of rocks and minerals as well as biota (Righi et al., 1999; Egli et al., 2001, 2008;
soil formation. Weathering also affects the Wilson, 2004; Skiba, 2007) and gradually diminishes
transformation and neoformation of minerals as well with depth. The rate and nature of weathering in the
as release of elements essential for plant nutrition soil environment both also depend on the size,
(Wilson, 2004). Secondary minerals formed during internal structure, and occurrence of defects and
weathering such as clay minerals and iron and planes of weakness in crystals as well as the chemical
aluminum oxides can fix and neutralize many composition of primary minerals forming the parent
pollutants, making the soil environment healthier material of the soil (Wilson, 2004).
and more friendly to life (Wilson, 2004). Andesite is a fine-grained, extrusive igneous
The rate and nature of weathering as well as rock of volcanic origin, which often occurs in the form
the quality and quantity of weathering products of intrusions such as dykes and sills. It consists mainly
depend on many factors such as the nature of the of plagioclase, pyroxene, and hornblende. In addition,
given rock and its mineral composition, climate and andesite frequently contains accessory minerals such as

93
 Figure 1. Location of the studied soil profiles.

magnetite, biotite, apatite, ilmenite, and zircon (Best, Western Carpathians and is characterized by quite
2002; Gill, 2010; Winter, 2010). Andesite is complex geology. The northern and central parts of
characterized by aphanitic and porphyritic texture, and the study area are formed of interbedded sandstone,
according to the Total Alkali Silica (TAS) mudstone, and shale (so-called Carpathian flysch)
classification of volcanic rocks, it includes an average classified as the “Magura Nappe,” while the southern
amount of silica (57% to 63%), more than basalt and part is composed of Jurassic-Cretaceous calcareous
less than dacite (Best, 2002; Gill, 2010; Winter, 2010). rocks such as limestone and marl and covered by
In spite of the fact that the occurrence of Paleogene clastic rocks including sandstone and
andesite in the Earth’s surface is very common and conglomerates (Książkiewicz, 1972). The studied
among extrusive igneous rocks only basalts are more rocks became intruded by several andesitic dykes and
widespread (Bolewski & Parachoniak, 1988; Gill, sills during the Miocene (12.5-10.8 Ma) outcropping
2010; Winter, 2010), very little is known about the on Mt. Wżar (766 m a.s.l.), Mt. Bryjarka (679 m
weathering of andesite and soils formed from its a.s.l.), Mt. Jarmuta (795 m a.s.l.), and at many other
residue in a moderately humid climate (Colman, 1982; sites in close proximity to the small towns of
Glassman, 1982), as most studies on andesite Krościenko nad Dunajcem and Szczawnica
weathering are conducted in the tropics (Mulyanto et (Birkenmajer, 1956, 1957, 1962; Książkiewicz, 1972;
al., 1999; Mulyanto & Stoops, 2003; Patino et al., Birkenmajer & Pécskay, 2000). Cambisols and
2003; Sak et al., 2010; Schopka et al., 2011; Ma et al., Leptosols developed from Carpathian flysch residue
2012; Opfergelt et al., 2012a, 2012b), in arid or semi- prevail in the study area and its close vicinity (Skiba
arid climate conditions (Colman, 1982; Tonui et al., & Drewnik, 2003). The study area is characterized by
2003), and in Mediterranean climate areas (Hendricks moderately humid climate conditions, with mean
& Whittig, 1968; Colman, 1982). annual air temperature ranging from 5 to 6oC and total
The main aim of this study is to describe annual precipitation ranging from 700 to 850 mm
andesite weathering and soil formation in a (Obrębska-Starklowa et al., 1995). The landscape of
moderately humid climate area in the Western the study area is characterized by a mosaic of
Carpathians in southern Poland based on physical, broadleaf forests (mainly Dentario glandulosae-
chemical, and micromorphologic properties of Fagetum), grasslands (Anthylii - Trifolietum montani
selected soil profiles. or Gladiolo - Argostietum), and agricultural crops
(Balon et al., 1995; Towpasz & Zemanek, 1995).
2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
2.2. Field and laboratory methods
2.1. Study area
Six representative soil profiles were selected for
The study was conducted in the Western Carpathians detailed study. The geographic location of the studied
in southern Poland (Fig. 1). The study area is located soil profiles is shown in Figure 1.
along the boundary between the Outer and Central

94
 Table 1. Detailed information about study sites and classification of the soils
Classification according to
Profile Location Geomorphology Vegetation WRB a
49o56'42N; 20o56'51E; Gentle, concave, lower part Grassland (Anthylii - Eutric Leptic Cambisol
Wżar 1 225 m a.s.l. of slope (<5o); exposure W Trifolietum montani) Loamic
49o55'10N; 20o56'43E; Gentle, convex, upper part Grassland (Anthylii -
Wżar 2 255 m a.s.l. of slope (<5o); exposure NE Trifolietum montani) Eutric Leptic Regosol Siltic
49o55'20N; 20o56'35E; Gentle, concave, lower part Grassland (Anthylii -
Wżar 3 236 m a.s.l. of slope (<3o); exposure NE Trifolietum montani) Eutric Leptic Cambisol Siltic
49o55'50N; 20o57'50E; Almost flat summit of hill Grassland (Anthylii -
Wżar 4 345 m a.s.l. (<2o); exposure NW Trifolietum montani) Eutric Leptic Regosols Siltic
49o58’03N; Gentle, convex, middle part Forest (Dentario Eutric Umbric Lithic
Bryjarka 20o29’25E; 255m a.s.l. of slope (<5o); exposure S glandulosae-Fagetum) Leptosol Loamic Humic
49o58’15N; Gentle, convex, upper part Eutric Skeletic Leptic
20o29’05E; 260 m of slope (<5o); exposure Forest (Dentario Cambisol Loamic
Jarmuta a.s.l. NW glandulosae-Fagetum) Protocalcic
a
- IUSS Working Group WRB, 2014.

The profiles were described in the field and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (FAAS) after
sampled. In addition to standard samples, undisturbed extraction with 1M ammonium acetate at pH = 7
soil samples were collected using Kubiëna boxes for (Sumner & Miller, 1996), and the concentration of
the purpose of micromorphologic studies. exchangeable in 1M KCl H+ and Al3+ (Summer, 1992)
Unweathered rock samples from each of the study sites was determined by titration of extracts (after boiling
were collected as well. According to the Total Alkali for 10 s) with 0.1 M NaOH in the presence of
Silica (TAS) classification of volcanic rocks, samples phenolphthalein. Soils were classified according to the
collected from Mt. Wżar represent basaltic andesite, WRB system (IUSS Working Group WRB 2014).
while samples collected from Mt. Bryjarka and Mt. Micromorphologic observations were carried out under
Jarmuta represent andesite. The studied samples were a Nikon Eclipse 50iPOL polarizing microscope using
collected from each soil horizon and stored in plastic thin sections. In this study, terminology given by
bags and air dried upon arrival at the laboratory. The Stoops (2003) was used.
samples were later gently crushed, and sieved through
a 2 mm sieve. The texture of the fine earth material 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
(fraction < 2 mm) was determined using a set of sieves
(sand fractions) and via a hydrometer method (silt and 3.1. Soil morphology and classification
clay fractions) (Gee & Bauder, 1986). Soil pH was
measured potentiometrically in distilled water at a The location and classification of the studied
1:2.5 ratio (Thomas, 1996) and carbonate content was soil profiles according to the WRB system (IUSS
determined by means of a volumetric calcimeter Working Group WRB 2014) are shown in Table 1,
method (Loeppert & Suarez, 1996). Soil organic while a field description of the morphology of the
carbon content was determined using a modified studied soil profiles is summarized in Table 2. The
Tyurin titrimetric technique (Nelson & Sommers, majority of the soils are thin or very thin, with a
1996) and total nitrogen content was determined by thickness between 8 and 65 cm.
means of a Vario Micro Cube CHN elemental Only one profile (Wżar 3) was deeper, with a
analyzer. The chemical composition of the fine earth thickness of 100 cm. Two soil profiles (Wżar 4 and
material (fraction < 2 mm) and fresh rock fragments Jarmuta) exhibit lithologic discontinuities, which is a
was determined using Inductively Coupled Plasma- quite common occurrence in soils in the Carpathians
Emission Spectrometry (ICP − ES). The chemical (Kacprzak & Derkowski, 2007; Kacprzak et al., 2015)
index of alteration (CIA) was calculated according to as well as in other mountain areas (Lorz & Phillips,
Nesbitt & Young (1982). The chemical index of 2006; Phillips & Lorz, 2008). The surface soil horizons
weathering (CIW) was calculated according to Harnois of the studied soils (A, Ak) are characterized by fine
(1988). The plagioclase index of alteration (PIA) was and very fine granular and subangular blocky structure,
calculated according to Fedo et al., (1995). Finally, the soft or slightly hard consistence, presence of many
weathering index of Parker (WIP) was calculated roots, and usually low content of rock fragments – up
according to Parker (1970). Exchangeable cation (Ca2+, to 15%, with the exception of the Jarmuta profile
Mg2+, K+, Na+) content was measured using Flame where the rock fragment content in the surface horizon

95
is 40%. The boundary between the A or Ak horizons highly resistant to weathering andesitic bedrock.
and underlying AB, Bw or BC horizons is usually
clear. The AB, Bw, and BC horizons exhibit most 3.2. Physical and chemical properties
often subangular or angular blocky structure, slightly
hard or hard consistence, occurrence of many roots, Selected physical and chemical properties of
and higher content of rock fragments (up to 60%). The the studied soil profiles are shown in Table 3. Most of
boundaries between these horizons are usually gradual the studied soils are characterized by silt loam or
(Table 2). The lowermost C or Ck horizons exhibit a loam texture, but in selected cases (Bryjarka and
massive structure, hard or very hard consistence, Jarmuta profiles) also sandy loam texture (Table 3).
complete absence or presence of only a few roots, and Sand fraction content ranges from 32% to 63% and
variable content of rock fragments (from 10 to 70%). the silt fraction is between 28% and 65%. Clay
Three of the studied soils were classified as fraction content is low and ranges from 3% to 13%
Cambisols (Wżar 1, Wżar 3, Jarmuta profiles), while (Table 3). In general, the clay fraction exhibits a very
the next two profiles were classified as Regosols slight increasing trend with increasing soil depth. All
(Wżar 2 and 4 profiles), and the last studied soil the studied soils, with the exception of the Jarmuta
profile was classified as a Leptosol (Bryjarka profile, are characterized by acidic or slightly acidic
profile), which indicates that the studied soils are pH, which gradually increases with increasing depth.
relatively weakly developed due to their hard and
Table 2. Field description of morphology of the soils
Depth
Horizon (cm) Structure Consistence Roots Rock fragments (%) Boundary
Wżar 1
A 0-6 Granular and subangular blocky Slightly hard Many 15 Clear
Bw 6-40 Sub- and angular blocky Slightly hard Many 30 Gradual
BC 40-65 Sub- and angular blocky Hard Few 50 ---
R <65 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 2
A 0-10 Granular and subangular blocky Soft Many 15 Gradual
BC 10-35 Sub- and angular blocky Slightly hard Many 30 ---
R <35 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 3
Oi 0-3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 3-10 Granular and subangular blocky Soft Many 5 Clear
AB 10-22 Sub- and angular blocky Slightly hard Many 10 Gradual
Bw1 22-35 Sub- and angular blocky Slightly hard Many 20 Gradual
2Bw2 35-55 Sub- and angular blocky Hard Few 10 Gradual
2BC 55-70 Sub- and angular blocky Hard Few 10 Gradual
3C 70-100 Massive Hard Absence 10 ---
R <100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 4
Oi 0-4 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 4-14 Granular and subangular blocky Slightly hard Many 5 Clear
AB 14-35 Granular and angular blocky Slightly hard Many 30 Gradual
BC 35-60 Granular and angular blocky Slightly hard Few 40 ---
R <60 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Bryjarka
Oe 0-5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 5-8 Granular and subangular blocky Soft Many 15 ---
R <8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Jarmuta
Ak 0-8 Granular and single grain Soft Many 40 Clear
2Bwk 8-32 Sub- and angular blocky Slightly hard Many 60 Gradual
2Ck 32-48 Massive Very hard Few 70 ---
R <48 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
n.a. - Not analyzed.

96
 Values of pH of the soils range from 5.2 to 6.7 of calcite under low temperature conditions.
(Table 3). This is related to a lack of carbonate in the All the studied soils feature a quite high
parent material and a moderately humid climate, content of organic carbon (SOC) as well as low total
which is responsible for the leaching of soils. The nitrogen (Ntot) content in their uppermost horizons,
lowest pH of the surface soil horizons of the studied i.e. from 2.72 to 11.00% and from 0.24 to 0.78%,
soils is associated with the highest organic matter respectively (Table 3). In addition, lower soil
content (Table 3) and highest content of organic acids horizons in the Wżar 2, Wżar 3, and Wżar 4 profiles
in these particular horizons. On the other hand, the also feature considerable organic carbon content. The
Jarmuta profile features an alkaline pH (7.4 to 8.3) highest SOC and Ntot content in the uppermost
indicating the presence of carbonate in this profile. horizons of the studied soils is present and gradually
The carbonate content in this soil profile increases decreases with increasing soil depth. The C/N ratio
with increasing depth from 8.5% in the Ak horizon to for all the studied soils ranges from 6 to 14, indicating
11.0% in BCk horizon (Table 3). According to a high degree of organic matter decomposition. The
Jurewicz et al. (2007), the presence of carbonate in chemical composition of the soils and unweathered
the form of flowstone-like calcite filling the fractures andesitic rocks (R) obtained from Mt. Wżar, Mt.
of andesites in Mt. Jarmuta is related to tectonic Bryjarka, and Mt. Jarmuta is shown in Table 4.
activity in this area (~2.5 to 6.5 ka) and crystallization

Table 3. Physical and chemical properties of the soils

Depth Sand Silt Clay Texture according pH SOC b Ntot c C/N eqCaCO3
Horizon (cm) (%) to USDA a (H2O) (%) (%)
Wżar 1
A 0-6 48 45 7 Loam 5.8 3.39 0.26 13 0.0
Bw 6-40 51 41 8 Loam 6.4 0.74 0.05 14 0.0
BC 40-65 50 42 8 Loam 6.7 0.52 0.04 13 0.0
R <65 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 2
A 0-10 41 52 7 Silt loam 5.6 4.35 0.40 11 0.0
BC 10-35 34 57 9 Silt loam 6.0 2.18 0.21 10 0.0
R <35 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 3
Oi 0-3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 3-10 33 59 8 Silt loam 5.2 6.03 0.44 14 0.0
AB 10-22 37 56 7 Silt loam 5.4 3.88 0.31 12 0.0
Bw1 22-35 34 57 9 Silt loam 5.6 1.54 0.12 13 0.0
2Bw2 35-55 46 43 11 Loam 5.9 0.67 0.05 12 0.0
2BC 55-70 52 39 9 Loam 6.2 0.50 0.04 11 0.0
3C 70-100 37 50 13 Silt loam 6.2 0.71 0.08 10 0.0
R <100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 4
Oi 0-4 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 4-14 40 57 3 Silt loam 5.4 6.61 0.50 13 0.0
AB 14-35 32 65 3 Silt loam 5.6 3.76 0.28 13 0.0
BC 35-60 36 57 7 Silt loam 5.9 1.63 0.14 12 0.0
R <60 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Bryjarka
Oe 0-5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 5-8 59 38 3 Sandy loam 5.5 11.00 0.78 14 0.0
R <8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Jarmuta
Ak 0-8 52 39 9 Loam 7.4 2.72 0.24 11 8.5
2Bwk 8-32 63 28 9 Sandy loam 8.1 0.37 0.05 7 9.7
2Ck 32-48 58 30 12 Sandy loam 8.3 0.32 0.05 6 11.0
R <48 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
a
- United States Department of Agriculture; b - Soil organic carbon; c - Total nitrogen; n.a. - Not analyzed.

97
 Table 4. Chemical composition of the soils and their unweathered parent rocks, and chemical indexes of
weathering

Depth SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 CIAa CIWb PIAc WIPd
Horizon (cm) (%)
Wżar 1
A 0-6 54.1 14.8 6.2 2.5 3.8 1.9 1.8 0.8 66 72 70 3355
Bw 6-40 57.6 15.6 6.5 2.7 4.1 2.0 2.0 0.8 66 72 69 3594
BC 40-65 57.9 15.8 6.6 2.7 4.1 2.1 2.0 0.8 66 72 69 3674
R <65 54.6 18.6 7.2 2.9 7.9 3.7 1.7 0.7 58 62 59 4951
Wżar 2
A 0-10 46.0 16.7 7.6 3.0 4.3 2.0 1.7 0.9 67 73 70 3487
BC 10-35 47.4 17.7 7.9 3.2 4.5 2.1 1.8 0.9 68 73 71 3640
R <35 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 3
Oi 0-3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 3-10 50.46 14.5 6.2 2.1 2.9 1.7 1.7 0.9 70 76 74 3007
AB 10-22 52.5 15.4 6.5 2.2 3.1 1.8 1.8 0.9 70 76 74 3178
Bw1 22-35 54.2 16.3 7.0 2.5 3.5 2.0 1.9 0.9 69 75 72 3405
2Bw2 35-55 51.8 17.5 7.7 2.9 4.3 2.2 1.8 0.9 68 73 71 3652
2BC 55-70 51.8 17.6 7.7 3.0 4.4 2.2 1.7 0.9 68 73 71 3591
3C 70-100 52.7 17.4 7.5 2.7 3.7 2.1 1.8 0.9 70 75 73 3452
R <100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 4
Oi 0-4 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 4-14 47.9 15.8 6.3 1.8 3.3 2.2 1.6 0.8 69 74 72 3179
AB 14-35 50.8 17.2 6.8 1.9 3.5 2.4 1.7 0.9 69 75 73 3435
BC 35-60 53.5 18.0 7.0 1.9 3.6 2.5 1.8 0.9 69 75 73 3644
R <60 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Bryjarka
Oe 0-5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 5-8 46.7 13.7 4.6 0.9 2.5 2.1 1.2 0.5 70 75 73 2618
R <8 60.3 18.4 5.5 1.7 5.7 4.1 1.6 0.5 62 65 63 4612
Jarmuta
Ak 0-8 57.4 11.7 4.4 2.7 4.6 1.0 2.4 0.5 60 68 63 3394
2Bwk 8-32 60.0 13.9 5.2 2.0 5.7 1.8 2.1 0.5 59 65 61 3731
2Ck 32-48 57.2 13.6 5.0 2.3 7.3 1.6 2.2 0.5 55 61 56 3936
R <48 60.1 18.3 5.0 1.1 6.3 4.1 1.5 0.5 61 64 62 4514
a
- Chemical index of alteration; b - Chemical index of weathering; c - Plagioclase index of alteration; d - Weathering index of
Parker; n.a. - Not analyzed.

All the studied rocks and soil material are higher in soils than in unweathered andesitic rocks
composed mainly of three constituents: SiO2, from (i.e. 2.4 and 1.8% in soils, respectively, versus 1.9
46.0% to 60.0%, with a mean of 52.8% in soils, and and 1.6% in rocks, respectively). The content of TiO2,
from 54.6% to 60.3%, with a mean of 58.3% in P2O5, and MnO as well as other oxides remains below
unweathered rocks; Al2O3, from 11.7% to 18.0%, 1% (Table 4), and differences in the mean content of
with a mean of 15.8% in soils, and from 18.3% to these oxides in soils and unweathered andesites are
18.6%, with a mean of 18.4% in unweathered rocks; very similar, with the exception of TiO2, whose mean
Fe2O3, from 4.4% to 7.9%, with a mean of 6.5% in content is clearly higher in soils than in unweathered
soils, and from 5.0% to 7.2%, with a mean of 5.9% in andesites. The chemical composition of unweathered
unweathered rocks. Magnesium oxide, CaO, Na2O, andesites and soils clearly indicates that during the
and K2O are present in lower amounts. The mean weathering of andesites in a soil environment, certain
content of CaO and Na2O in unweathered andesites is elements such as Si, Al, Ca, and Na become depleted
higher than the mean content of these oxides in soil due to leaching in a humid climate (Colman, 1982;
profiles (i.e. 6.7 and 4.0% in andesites, respectively, Ma et al., 2012; Opfergelt et al., 2012a; Musielok &
versus 4.1 and 2.0% in soil material, respectively). On Drewnik, 2016). According to Fraysse et al., (2006,
the other hand, the mean content of MgO and K2O is 2009), Si previously taken up by plants and then

98
returned to the soil after the death of the plant is more water during the Holocene (Jurewicz et al., 2007).
soluble than Si from minerals, and can be easily Weathering is most frequently evidenced by WIP
leached from the soil. On the other hand, weathering and CIW, whose mean values for bedrock are 4692
is responsible for increasing TiO2 content in soils in and 61, respectively, and for soil material, 3443 and
comparison with unweathered andesites, as this 72, respectively. The mean value of CIA is 60 for
particular oxide, even in humid climate conditions, andesitic bedrock and 67 for soil profiles.
remains relatively immobile due to its occurrence in The mean value of PIA is 61 for andesitic
highly resistant minerals such as rutile, ilmenite, and bedrock and 70 for soil profiles, indicating that
anatase (Ma et al., 2012; Musielok & Drewnik, 2016). plagioclases are more strongly weathered in soils in
Chemical composition, chemical index of comparison with andesitic rocks (Table 4). The
alteration and weathering (CIA and CIW), mean value of WIP is 3443 for soils and 4692 for
plagioclase index of alteration (PIA), and weathering unweathered andesite bedrock. Differences between
index of Parker (WIP) all indicate that the soil the values of CIA, CIW, PIA, and WIP for different
material from all the studied profiles (except the soil horizons are negligible, which is most likely
Jarmuta profile) is more weathered in comparison related to the thin or very thin soil profiles studied.
with andesitic bedrock (Table 4). All the studied soils exhibit high base
This is not true of the Jarmuta profile, because saturation throughout the entire profile, which ranges
this soil profile is enriched in carbonate by meteoric from 74% to 100% (Table 5). Calcium (Ca2+) clearly

Table 5. Exchangeable cations, exchangeable acidity, cation exchange capacity, and base saturation of the soils

Horizon Depth Ca2+ Mg2+ K+ Na+ Hw a H+ Al3+ CEC b BS c

(cm) cmol (+) * kg-1 (%)
Wżar 1
A 0-6 17.98 3.53 0.29 0.07 0.61 0.35 0.26 22.48 97
Bw 6-40 17.77 2.85 0.10 0.11 0.44 0.22 0.22 21.27 98
BC 40-65 16.90 2.95 0.06 0.16 0.22 0.18 0.04 20.29 99
R <65 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 2
A 0-10 18.32 3.51 0.49 0.09 1.31 0.57 0.74 23.72 94
BC 10-35 21.23 3.39 0.16 0.13 1.44 0.48 0.96 26.34 95
R <35 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 3
Oi 0-3 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 3-10 15.52 3.69 0.49 0.06 1.72 0.48 1.24 21.47 92
AB 10-22 16.82 3.83 0.39 0.08 1.09 0.44 0.65 22.21 95
Bw1 22-35 19.83 3.57 0.06 0.13 0.48 0.31 0.17 24.08 98
2Bw2 35-55 24.18 4.32 0.04 0.17 0.39 0.39 0.00 29.10 99
2BC 55-70 24.71 4.84 0.04 0.17 0.39 0.39 0.00 30.15 99
3C 70-100 23.49 4.86 0.03 0.17 0.39 0.39 0.00 28.95 99
R <100 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Wżar 4
Oi 0-4 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 4-14 12.15 2.44 0.21 0.07 0.48 0.09 0.39 15.35 97
AB 14-35 13.45 1.83 0.10 0.14 0.22 0.09 0.13 15.74 99
BC 35-60 13.28 1.75 0.04 0.17 0.13 0.04 0.09 15.37 99
R <60 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Bryjarka
Oe 0-5 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
A 5-8 8.75 1.34 0.45 0.06 3.68 3.06 0.62 14.29 74
R <8 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
Jarmuta
Ak 0-8 19.62 1.80 0.35 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.00 21.83 100
2Bwk 8-32 17.68 1.41 0.17 0.02 <0.04 <0.04 <0.04 19.28 100
2Ck 32-48 20.04 1.31 0.18 0.02 <0.04 <0.04 <0.04 21.56 100
R <48 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.
a
- Exchangeable acidity; b - Cation exchange capacity; c - Base saturation; n.a. - Not analyzed.

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prevails as the exchangeable cation (8.75 to 24.71 Ak) and fine to medium subangular blocky
cmolc kg-1), and its content generally increases with microstructure in Bw and BC horizons (Figs. 2A,
depth (Wżar 2 and Wżar 3 profiles) or remains almost 2B). In certain cases, in Bw and BC horizons, a fine
evenly distributed throughout the soil profile (Wżar 1, to medium angular blocky microstructure is also
Wżar 4, and Jarmuta profiles). The prevalence of Ca2+ present (Figs. 2C, 2D). According to the literature
is most likely associated with the weathering of (Stoops 2007), the origin of the granular
plagioclase, hornblende, and augite and the liberation microstructure may be related to high biological
of this cation from their crystal lattices. The amount of activity and/or physical processes such as
exchangeable Mg2+ is clearly lower than the available wetting/drying or freezing/thawing cycles. The
Ca2+ content, and ranges from 1.31 to 4.86 cmolc kg-1 presence of many roots and organic residues indicates
(Table 5). The Mg2+ content is the highest in the that biological activity in the studied soils is very
uppermost horizons and decreases with depth, with the high. All the studied soil profiles exhibit high
exception of the Wżar 4 profile where an opposite porosity, especially in the upper soil horizons (A,
trend occurs, and this may be related to biocycling. AB). Prevailing types of voids in A, Bw, and BC
Most likely, the lower content of Mg2+ in comparison horizons are complex packing voids with occasionally
with Ca2+ is related to the fact that Mg2+ is present only occurring fissures, channels, and chambers (Fig. 2).
in hornblende and augite, and not in plagioclase. The coarse mineral material of the groundmass
Micromorphologic studies (see below) have shown is composed of slightly, moderately, and strongly
that the content of plagioclase is higher than the weathered fragments and angular fragments of
content of hornblende and augite in the studied soils andesite as well as grains of plagioclase sometimes
and andesitic bedrock. This is in accordance with the characterized by strong zonality and lower amounts
mineral composition of andesite from Mt. Wżar of hornblende and augite. In addition, there occur a
discussed by Youssef (1978). The content of few grains of quartz and very few flakes of biotite as
exchangeable K+ and Na+ is very low and ranges from well as opaque minerals. Such mineral composition is
0.03 to 0.49 and from 0.02 to 0.17 cmolc kg-1, inherited from andesitic bedrock, because the same
respectively (Table 5). The highest content of K+ minerals – and in similar proportions – were
occurs in the uppermost horizons, and this may be also determined by Youssef (1978) in andesite from Mt.
related to biocycling (Jobbágy & Jackson, 2001; 2004; Wżar. In surface soil horizons, fragments of andesite
Musielok & Drewnik, 2016) as it is likely in the case exhibit the strongest evidence of physical and
of Mg2+. The highest content of Na+ occurs in the chemical weathering, with many cracks and rusty
lowermost horizons, except for the Jarmuta profile, and/or brownish-red crystals of hornblende and augite
where the content of Na+ is the same throughout the indicating oxidation of iron (Colman 1982) (Fig. 3).
entire profile, as this particular cation is not very Crystals of hornblende exhibit very often irregular
important in plant nutrition, and it is the most mobile in linear alteration along lines of cleavage (Fig. 4).
the soil environment (Colman, 1982; Sposito, 1989; Additionally, many fragments of andesite and
Jobbágy & Jackson, 2001; 2004). Exchangeable coarser mineral grains indicate the presence of
acidity in the studied soil profiles ranges from <0.04 to weathering rims, which are composed mainly of iron
3.68 cmolc kg-1, being the highest in the uppermost hydroxides, clay minerals together with iron
horizons and then regularly decreasing with depth hydroxides, and sometimes also organic matter –
(except for Wżar 2 and Jarmuta profiles) (Table V). especially in the A horizons (Figs. 3 and 5). This is
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) ranges between consistent with Colman (1982) who observed similar
14.29 and 30.15 cmolc kg-1 and does not exhibit a rims on weathered fragments of andesites and basalts
consistent trend in the studied soil profiles (Table 5). In in Western USA.
certain profiles, the highest CEC occurs in the The micromass of the studied soils is
uppermost horizon (Wżar 1 profile), but in other soils composed mainly of brown or brownish-gray humus,
(Wżar 2 and Wżar 3 profiles), the highest CEC occurs rusty or brownish-rusty iron hydroxides, and small
in the lower part of the profile. CEC for the Wżar 4 and amount of yellowish clay minerals characterized by
Jarmuta profiles is almost the same throughout the undifferentiated and speckled b-fabric in A horizons,
entire profile (Table 5). and rusty or brownish-rusty iron hydroxides and
yellowish clay minerals characterized by speckled
3.3. Micromorphologic properties and granostriated b-fabric in Bw and BC horizons.
All the studied soils are characterized by a
Soils developed from andesite residue are high amount of plant and animal residue indicating
characterized mainly by fine and very fine granular high biological activity of the soils. The organic
and crumb microstructure in surface soil horizons (A, residues exhibit various types of alteration including

100
deformation, browning, blackening, and impregnation addition, in certain profiles (Wżar 2 and Bryjarka 1),
with iron hydroxides. This indicates that the organic many fragments of charcoal are also present.
fragments show various stages of decomposition. In

Figure 2. Granular and crumb microstructure in A horizon of the Bryjarka profile (A, B); angular and subangular blocky
microstructure in BC horizon of the Wżar 2 profile (C, D); A, C - plane polarized light; B, D – crossed polarized light.

Figure 3. Physically and chemically weathered andesite fragments in the A horizon of the Wżar 1 profile (A, B) and in
A horizon of the Bryjarka profile (C-F); A, C, E - plane polarized light; B, D, F - crossed polarized light.

101
 Figure 4. Physically and chemically weathered crystals of hornblende in the A horizon of the Wżar 1 profile; A, C, E -
plane polarized light; B, D, F - crossed polarized light.

Figure 5. Iron hydroxide-clay coating on andesite fragments (arrow) in A horizon of the Wżar 2 profile (A, B) and clay
coating in BC horizon of the Wżar 2 profile (C, D); A, C - plane polarized light; B, D – crossed polarized light.

Iron hydroxide and iron hydroxide-clay the Wżar 2 profiles, very few clay coatings were
coatings occurring on andesite fragments and coarse observed, indicating that some part of the finest
mineral grains are the most common pedofeatures in particles is translocated downward due to a
all of the studied soils (Figs. 5A, 5B). In addition, in moderately humid climate and lack of carbonate in
the Bw horizon of the Wżar 1 and the BC horizon of the soils (Figs. 5C, 5D) (Szymański et al., 2011,

102
2012; Drewnik et al., 2014; Nikorych et al., 2014). W. & Ziaja, W., 1995. Physico-geographical
regions of the Polish Carpathians. In: The Polish
4. CONCLUSIONS Carpathians – Nature, Man and his Activities (ed. J.
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Soils developed from andesite in the Best, M.G., 2002. Igneous and metamorphic petrology.
Carpathians are characterized by variable thickness, Wiley, 2nd edition, 752 pp.
but usually are thin or very thin, show weak Birkenmajer, K., 1956. Occurrence of mineral waters
against geology of Szczawnica area. Przegląd
development due to hard and highly resistant to
Geologiczny, 4(11), 499-502.
weathering andesitic bedrock, and are classified as Birkenmajer, K., 1957. Andesitic dykes of the Bryjarka
Cambisols, Regosols, and/or Leptosols according to Mt. in Szczwnica. Przegląd Geologiczny, 5(2), 62-
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usually exhibit loamy texture, acidic or slightly acidic Birkenmajer, K., 1962. Geological form of andesites of
pH, lack of carbonates, quite high content of organic the Wżar Mt. Acta Geologica Polonica 12(2), 201-
carbon, and low content of total nitrogen. 213.
All the studied soils exhibit high base saturation Birkenmajer, K. & Pécskay, Z., 2000. K-Ar dating of the
throughout the entire profile, and Ca2+ clearly prevails Miocene andesite intrusions, Pieniny Mts, West
as the exchangeable cation, which is most likely related Carpathians, Poland: a supplement. Studia
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Bolewski, A. & Parachoniak, W., 1988. Petrography.
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depletion of SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, and Na2O from soils in andesites: evidence from weathering rinds.
relation to unweathered andesite bedrock. The Geological Survey Professional Paper, 1246, 51 pp.
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as weathering index of Parker (WIP) all indicate that processes in loess soils — a case study from
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carbonate by meteoric water during the Holocene, is
in the Swiss Alps. Geoderma, 104, 145–175.
distinctively more weathered in comparison with Egli, M., Mirabella, A. & Sartori, G., 2008. The role of
andesitic bedrock. However, these chemical indexes do climate and vegetation in weathering and clay
not show distinctive differences in weathering degree mineral formation in late Quaternary soils of the
of soil material between different soil horizons, which Swiss and Italian Alps. Geomorphology, 102, 307–
is most likely related to the excessively thin soil 324.
profiles used in this study and/or the occurrence of Fedo, C.M, Nesbitt, H.W. & Young, G.M., 1995.
lithologic discontinuities in selected profiles. Unraveling the effects of potassium metasomatism
Micromorphologic observations indicate that during in sedimentary rocks and paleosols, with
the process of weathering, many fragments of andesite implications for paleoweathering conditions and
provenance. Geology, 23, 921–924.
undergo cracking and iron in the phenocrysts of
Fraysse, F., Pokrovsky, O.S., Schott, J. & Meunier,
hornblende and augite undergoes oxidation. The J.D., 2006. Surface properties, solubility and
crystals of hornblende exhibit very often irregular dissolution kinetics of bamboo phytoliths.
linear alteration along lines of cleavage. Additionally, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 70, 1939–1951.
many fragments of andesite and coarser mineral grains Fraysse, F., Pokrovsky, O.S., Schott. J. & Meunier, J.D.
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Received at: 08. 02. 2017

Revised at: 24. 05. 2017
Accepted for publication at: 27. 06. 2017
Published online at: 08.07. 2017

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