Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Multi-Year Program Plan | 2024

5 Fuel Cell Technologies

5.1 Overview
Goals and Objectives
The overarching goal of the Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram is to develop fuel cells that are
competitive with incumbent and emerging technologies across diverse applications with
emphasis on heavy-duty applications where significant reductions in both carbon emissions as
well as criteria pollutant emissions can be achieved. The subprogram pursues this goal through
its comprehensive portfolio of RD&D activities.

The Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram

supports key strategic priorities
identified in the U.S. National Clean
Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap 51 to
ensure that clean hydrogen is developed
and adopted as an effective
decarbonization tool for maximum
benefit by using highly efficient and zero
(or near-zero) emissions fuel cell
technology. The subprogram directly
supports the strategic priority to target
high-impact end uses in transportation, Fuel cells are a conversion technology offering exceptional
power, and industrial sectors; and it efficiency and reliability in converting clean hydrogen as
well as other fuels into electricity for high-impact end uses
coordinates closely with the other HFTO
such as heavy-duty transportation, stationary power
subprograms to support priorities generation, and energy storage.
targeting affordable fuel cell
technologies and enabling regional clean
hydrogen networks.

Specific objectives of the Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram include:

• Developing fuel cell systems with emphasis on near-term heavy-duty transportation

applications that are highly durable, efficient, and low cost, while meeting application-
specific constraints such as dynamic response, resiliency, packaging, and heat rejection.
• Developing new materials and components for next-generation fuel cell technologies in
diverse applications for power generation and long-duration grid-scale energy storage,
emphasizing innovative mid- to long-term approaches, including reversible fuel cells and

51
U.S. Department of Energy. U.S. National Clean Hydrogen Strategy and Roadmap. 2023.
https://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/library/roadmaps-vision/clean-hydrogen-strategy-roadmap.

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hybrid approaches such as tri-generation that can use fuel cells to coproduce power, heat,
and fuel.
Technology Description
Fuel cells efficiently convert the chemical energy of fuels such as clean hydrogen into electricity
and are an important part of a comprehensive portfolio of solutions to achieve a sustainable and
equitable clean energy future. As illustrated in Figure 5.1, fuel cells can convert a wide range of
fuels and feedstocks into electricity, with heat and water as additional coproducts. They can be
used for a variety of applications across multiple sectors, including transportation (road and
offroad vehicles, rail, marine, aviation), primary and backup stationary power (for industry, data
centers, commercial/residential buildings), and long-duration energy storage for the grid. In
addition, fuel cell technologies can be used for combined heat and power generation or in
innovative, hybrid approaches such as in tri-generation (power, heat, and hydrogen) applications.

• Proton Exchange Membrane

• Anion Exchange Membrane
• Emerging Technologies

ENERGY STORAGE &

POWER GENERATION

Figure 5.1. Versatility of diverse fuel cell technologies that convert clean hydrogen or other fuels into
electricity, heat, and water for various high-impact end uses
A fuel cell comprises electrically conducting anode and cathode electrodes separated by an ion-
conducting electrolyte or membrane. Typically, a fuel such as hydrogen is introduced at the
anode, air or oxygen is fed to the cathode, and the electrolyte, through ion-exchange, facilitates
the electrochemical reaction generating the electricity, heat, and water. Fuel cells are scalable, as
multiple cells can be combined in a stack to generate more power. A fuel cell is usually classified
by the specific type of electrolyte it employs, which determines the electrochemical reactions and
required anode- and cathode-catalysts, as well the operating temperature range, fuel
requirements, and other factors relevant to most suitable end uses. Table 5.1 gives examples of
some common fuel cell types.

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Table 5.1. Example Fuel Cell Types with Corresponding Electrolyte, Ionic Charge Carrier, and Operating
Temperature Range

Common Electrolyte / Charge

Fuel Cell Type Temperature Range
Carrier

Proton Exchange Membrane Perfluorosulfonic Acid / H+ <120°C

Alkaline Exchange Membrane Alkaline Polymer / OH- <100°C

Yttria-Stabilized Zirconia / O2- 500°–1,000°C

Solid Oxide
Yttria-Doped Barium Zirconate/ H+ 400°–700°C

Alkaline - Liquid Aqueous KOH / OH- <100°C

Molten Carbonate (Li,K,Na)2CO3 /CO32- 600°–700°C

H3PO4 /
Phosphoric Acid 150°–200°C
H+

Polymer Phosphoric Acid Polymer H3PO4 / H+ 150°–200°C

PEM fuel cells for diverse fuel cell vehicle and stationary applications are an important example.
As illustrated in Figure 5.2, the heart of a PEM fuel cell is the MEA, which includes the
electrolyte membrane, the catalyst layers, and gas diffusion layers. The anode catalyst enables
hydrogen molecules to be split into protons and electrons. The polymer membrane blocks
electrons while conducting the protons to the cathode. The cathode catalyst enables reduction of
the oxygen with the protons, coproducing water and heat, while the electrons driven through the
external circuit generate electricity. The gas diffusion layers are placed outside the catalyst layers
and facilitate transport of reactants into the catalyst layer, as well as removal of product water.
The catalyst layers are typically mixed with ionomer material to help facilitate proton
conduction. Bipolar plates play an important role in reactant distribution, allow water to be
removed from the cells, and provide electrical conductivity. All these components must be
addressed to enable better cost, performance, and durability of PEM fuel cells.

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Figure 5.2. Basic operation of a PEM fuel cell, important to near-term high-impact end uses. Additional cells
are stacked for more power in a fuel cell system.
Fuel cells offer several benefits over incumbent technologies in many vehicles and power
applications, including high efficiency in the direct conversion from chemical to electrical
energy. In fuel cells, power and energy are decoupled and can be tuned independently, which
means that for a fixed fuel cell stack, more hydrogen allows higher energy capacity without
changing the fuel cell size or power. Fuel cells are easily scalable, as individual cells can be
stacked to yield the desired power range, and thus address the power needs for multiple
applications, supporting the economies of scale required to bring down cost.

Hydrogen fuel cells are an attractive technology to power zero-emission medium- and heavy-
duty vehicles, including road vehicles such as trucks and buses. Advantages over incumbent
technologies such as diesel engines include higher efficiency, reduced emissions, higher torque,
and no noise pollution. Additionally, to complement battery electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cell
vehicles can alleviate dependence on critical minerals (e.g., lithium), and offer fast fueling and
adequate fuel storage for applications demanding longer range. Fuel cells also offer high
reliability, resiliency, and efficiencies for distributed power and long-duration storage
applications, with efficiencies of over 80% possible when fuel cells are used in combined heat
and power applications. Also, one potential advantage of fuel cells in the form of reversible or
hybrid systems is the flexibility to deploy produced hydrogen for other applications, such as
transportation fuel or industrial use, potentially at higher value than grid electricity.

5.2 Strategic Priorities

As shown in Figure 5.3, the Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram’s strategy incorporates near-,
mid-, and longer-term focus areas, aligned with national clean hydrogen priorities and consistent
with the overall HFTO strategic framework described in the Introduction. The near-term priority,
aligned with highest-impact opportunities identified in the U.S. National Clean Hydrogen
Strategy and Roadmap, is to develop PEM fuel cells for use in commercial fleets of heavy-duty,
zero-emission vehicles. In the mid- to longer term, the technology advances developed through
heavy-duty PEM fuel cell RD&D efforts, in concert with ongoing research and development of

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other fuel cell technologies (including reversible fuel cells), are expected to offer transferrable
benefits for diverse medium- to heavy-duty transportation applications (such as marine, rail, and
aviation), as well as stationary power generation and energy storage applications (such as
primary power, backup power, and combined heat and power).

Figure 5.3. Strategic priorities guiding Fuel Cell Technologies RD&D

Near- to Mid-Term Priorities
The subprogram’s near- to mid-term priorities are to improve the durability and efficiency,
reduce the cost, and enable scalable manufacturing of fuel cell technologies, with primary
emphasis on medium- to heavy-duty transportation applications using direct hydrogen-fueled
PEM fuel cells. The aim is to achieve these improvements while meeting application needs and
constraints such as transient response, duty cycles, and other parameters that will vary depending
on end use and operating conditions. As described in following sections, the subprogram’s PEM
fuel cell RD&D addresses the materials, component, system, manufacturing, and supply chain
challenges to accelerate the commercial liftoff of zero-emission heavy-duty vehicles. While the
focus is primarily on the hard-to-decarbonize heavy-duty applications with limited alternatives
(e.g., long haul, heavy-duty trucks, and other vehicles requiring long driving ranges, fast fueling,
and/or high payloads), the near-term RD&D in this focus will also enable emerging opportunities
in transportation applications such as buses, rail, aviation, marine, and offroad (mining and
construction), as well as stationary power and energy storage applications.

Mid- to Long-Term Priorities

The subprogram’s longer-term RD&D priorities include higher risk but potentially higher impact
approaches that can leap-frog the current fuel cell technologies that are expected to be

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commercial in the near term for heavy-duty transportation. This includes developing new
materials, components, and concepts for next-generation fuel cell technologies for applications
including distributed power, long-duration grid-scale energy storage, and polygeneration, as well
as additional transportation applications. Specific technology pathways for diverse mid- to
longer-term applications include fuel cells with PGM-free catalysts; anion exchange membrane
fuel cells; bipolar membrane fuel cells; direct liquid-fueled fuel cells; intermediate temperature
fuel cells; and reversible fuel cells especially targeted toward grid-scale energy storage.

These technologies are all at an early stage of RD&D but have the potential to dramatically
improve the competitiveness of fuel cell technologies by lowering cost, reducing dependence on
critical minerals such as platinum, and improving efficiency. Current RD&D efforts for these
next-generation technologies focus on smaller-scale exploratory activities in materials and
component development; over time, these will grow to encompass major subprogram efforts as
the technologies evolve.

Examples of next-generation fuel cell concepts include:

• PEM fuel cells containing PGM-free catalysts allow for significant cost reduction, as
the PGM catalyst is projected to be the most critical PEM fuel cell stack cost component.
The development of high-performing and durable PGM-free catalysts also alleviates
reliance on foreign imports for PGM materials.
• Anion-exchange membrane fuel cells present the opportunity to achieve the high power-
density of PEM fuel cells with alkaline conditions that are less harsh for many materials,
and therefore offer possible compatibility with less expensive catalyst and bipolar plate
materials.
• Bipolar membrane fuel cells offer the potential for integrating the high hydrogen-
electrode kinetics in acid systems with the advantages of anion-exchange membrane fuel
cells. Bipolar membranes also provide potential for self-humidifying membranes that can
operate under drier conditions.
• Direct liquid-fueled fuel cells operate by electrochemically converting liquid fuels (e.g.,
methanol, ammonia, dimethyl ether) directly to electricity, thereby alleviating hydrogen
delivery and storage challenges and offering fuel flexibility for a range of applications
(e.g., maritime, rail, data centers).
• Intermediate temperature fuel cells operate in the 150–500°C temperature range, which
is above the operating temperatures of PEM fuel cells but below those of solid oxide and
molten carbonate fuel cells, offering the potential advantages of high-efficiency, low-cost
materials, fuel flexibility, and effective heat rejection.
• Reversible fuel cells function under both fuel cell and electrolysis modes and offer a
promising technology to provide long-term energy storage, grid leveling and stabilization

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services, with the flexibility to deploy hydrogen for other applications. Unitized
reversible fuel cells, which use the same stack in either fuel cell or electrolyzer mode,
offer a pathway to lower cost and system simplification.
• Fuel cells and hybrid concepts for polygeneration, including cogeneration (combined
heat and power), present the opportunity to utilize diverse feedstocks to generate multiple
value streams. In tri-generation, power, heat, and hydrogen are produced with low
emissions and high efficiency.

5.3 RD&D Targets

Target-Setting
The Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram’s RD&D strategy is driven by application-specific
targets that reflect the performance, durability, cost, and scale needed to compete with existing
and other emerging technologies. The targets are developed holistically based on the ultimate life
cycle cost of using fuel cell systems in comparison with other technology options. They are
guided by analysis and fuel cell system modeling, including cost analysis and evaluation of
system designs and operating approaches. Publicly available and industry-vetted manufacturing
cost estimates are incorporated in the analysis to accurately gauge the status and future potential
of the technology.

As an example, specifically relevant to its near-term priorities, the subprogram has developed
interim and ultimate cost targets to enable market-competitiveness of hydrogen fuel cells for
heavy-duty hydrogen trucks. Recognizing that both technology advances and economies of scale
are needed, the subprogram’s RD&D addresses the materials, component, system,
manufacturing, scale-up, and supply chain challenges for meeting these targets. Figure 5.4 shows
these targets, along with examples of specific cost reductions achievable through economies of
scale and the technology development needed to achieve them. Detailed cost-breakdown
analysis, such as the breakdown for stack component costs for current PEM fuel cell (PEMFC)
technologies shown in the figure, is critical to the prioritization of RD&D efforts.

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Figure 5.4. A pathway to achieve the 2030 and ultimate cost targets for a heavy-duty fuel cell vehicle
system, specifically showing how RD&D can help achieve the target (based on recent analysis)

The waterfall chart in Figure 5.4 shows how addressing specific challenges can contribute to
overall cost reductions, providing guidance in conceptualizing the relative magnitude of these
challenges. For example, since the catalyst is the most significant cost component in the fuel cell
stack, reducing or eliminating the costly PGM catalyst could result in significant cost savings
with reduced reliance on sensitive supply chains, providing the fuel cell system performance is
not severely impacted.

It is important to emphasize that application-specific requirements on fuel cell performance and

durability along with needs based on manufacturing scale and supply chains must be maintained
in conjunction with the cost-reduction strategies. Spider charts such as the one illustrated in
Figure 5.5 highlight that several subtargets must be addressed simultaneously to achieve cost-
competitive fuel cell options for the specific example of heavy-duty applications. The spider
chart, along with the waterfall chart, shows the types of related improvements that need to be
made simultaneously through comprehensive RD&D to achieve subprogram targets. The
subprogram updates these charts annually for presentation at the DOE Hydrogen Program’s
Annual Merit Review and Peer Evaluation Meeting.

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Figure 5.5. Illustrative spider chart for fuel cell system status versus targets. The line indicates the status
as a fraction of the targets, from recent analysis assuming a stack oversized and overloaded with PGM
meeting the 25,000-hour lifetime.

End-Use Specific Targets

The Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram has set market-driven targets specific to diverse end-use
applications to enable commercial viability, including heavy-duty transportation applications
(e.g., long-haul trucks), stationary power, and reversible fuel cells for energy storage
applications. Some specific targets in these applications are highlighted below.

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Fuel Cells for Long-Haul Trucks

Targets developed by the subprogram for
long-haul fuel cell trucks—including a Fuel Cell Technologies:
2030 target of $80/kW and ultimate system Interim 2030 Targets Examples
cost target of $60/kW for high-volume
Fuel Cells for Long-Haul Trucks
production, while meeting 25,000 hours of
• $80/kW fuel cell system
durability (ultimate target 30,000 • 25,000-hour durability
hours) 52—guide RD&D priorities • 68% fuel cell peak efficiency
addressing fuel cell system cost, • 0.3 mg/cm2 PGM loading
performance, and durability needed for Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Manufacturing Capacity
cost-competitiveness and market liftoff. • 20,000 stacks/year (single manufacturing
system)
Lifetime fuel costs for heavy-duty vehicles • 370,000 m2/year membranes
are also important, making high fuel • 2,400 MEAs/hour
efficiency at the primary operating • 2,400 bipolar plates/hour
• 1,300 kg PGM catalysts/year
conditions critical. The subprogram has set
Fuel Cells for Stationary Power
peak efficiency targets of 68% in 2030 and
• $1,000/kW fuel cell system cost
72% ultimate. • 80,000-hour durability
Reversible Fuel Cells for Energy Storage
The RD&D priorities also address
• $1,800/kW system cost
opportunities to bridge the gap between • 60% round-trip efficiency
technology development and deployment • 40,000-hour durability
by pursuing manufacturing advances to
achieve economies of scale, in addition to
facilitating the reuse and recycling of fuel cell materials and components to address end-of-life
and critical supply chain challenges (including the dependence on PGM supply chains).

Heavy-Duty Fuel Cell Manufacturing Capacity

To facilitate scaled manufacturing technologies and processes—as directed by Clean Hydrogen
Manufacturing and Recycling provisions (Energy Policy Act sections 815[a] and 815[b])— the
subprogram has established capacity targets for heavy-duty fuel cell component and stack
production. This includes a target of 20,000 stacks per year in a single manufacturing system by
2030 to enable market lift-off. The needed production volumes will require a reliable supply of
components, automation of the cell and stack assembly, and manufacturing capabilities not seen
in the field to date.

Fuel Cells for Stationary Power Applications

RD&D advancements are needed to make fuel cells commercially competitive in the wide range
of stationary power markets. While some technical challenges are specific to each type of fuel
cell, reducing capital costs, extending durability, improving efficiency, and improving fuel

52
System cost is projected at a manufacturing volume of 100,000 systems per year. For purposes of measuring
progress in fuel cell durability, a 10% voltage degradation at rated power will be used to benchmark end-of-life.

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processing for fuel-flexibility are general challenges that apply across all types of stationary fuel
cells. A long-term target for stationary power system lifetime has been set at 130,000 hours,
reflecting requirements for data centers, where primary power systems must operate 24/7 for 365
days per year. Diverse fuel cell technologies and a range of fuels can be used for stationary
applications, depending on application-specific requirements. Targets are technology neutral and
make no assumption about the type of fuel cell technology. While achievement of some of the
individual targets has already been demonstrated for specific fuel cell technologies, concurrent
achievement of all targets remains a challenge. Eventually, the fuel cell system overall will still
need to be market competitive; for example, for distributed power generation, fuel cells need to
be able to demonstrate a competitive levelized cost of electricity. Fuel flexibility is also of
importance, as it enables the use of bioderived fuels (biogas, landfill gas) and can also further
enable tri-generation applications where power, heat, and hydrogen are produced from the same
plant.

Reversible Fuel Cells for Energy Storage Applications

Energy storage with reversible fuel cell systems is a promising technology to provide long-term
energy storage, grid-leveling and stabilization services, and to enable greater adoption of
intermittent renewable energy sources. Unitized reversible fuel cells, which use the same stack in
either fuel cell or electrolyzer mode, can be used in energy storage applications since they can
create hydrogen on demand for storage and convert it back to electricity when needed. Compared
with separate fuel cell and electrolyzer systems coupled for such a function, reversible cells offer
a smaller footprint with system simplifications that could provide significant cost savings.
Beyond grid-scale energy storage, there are other potential applications for reversible fuel cell
systems including backup power, satellites, and aircraft. Challenges include optimizing
performance and durability under both modes of operation. Achieving high stack and system
round-trip efficiencies is critical. Both high-temperature (e.g., solid oxide) and low-temperature
(e.g., PEM) technologies are of interest, with high-temperature reversible fuel cells offering
higher round-trip efficiency and low-temperature reversible fuel cells offering better operational
flexibility. With the aim of achieving a competitive levelized cost of storage, the subprogram has
set ultimate reversible fuel cell targets for a system round-trip efficiency of 70%, a system cost
of $1,300/kW, and a durability of 80,000 hours.

Interim and Ultimate Targets

In all application areas, the subprogram has developed both interim targets for early market
adoption and ultimate targets for competitive, widespread commercial viability for specific
technology parameters, reflecting improvements needed in the current baseline values for
achieving cost-competitiveness and commercial liftoff. Table 5.2 shows examples of both
interim and ultimate targets relative to current baselines for fuel cells in the three end-use areas,
illustrating a timeline for near-term RD&D in pathways with the potential to achieve commercial
liftoff.

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Table 5.2. Examples Showing Pathways from Baseline Technology Parameters toward Ultimate Targets

End Use 2023 Status 2030 Target Ultimate Target

• Cost $170/kW • Cost $80/kW • Cost $60/kW

Heavy-Duty • Durability >10,000 h • Durability 25,000 h • Durability 30,000 h
• Peak efficiency 64% • Peak efficiency 68% • Peak efficiency 72%
Transportation
• PGM loading >0.4 • PGM loading ≤0.3 • PGM loading ≤0.25
mg/cm2 mg/cm2 mg/cm2

• Cost $1,200–2,500/kW
Distributed Stationary • Cost $1,000/kW • Cost $750/kW
• Durability 40,000–
Power • Durability 80,000 h • Durability 130,000 h
80,000 h
• Efficiency 65% • Efficiency >65%
• Efficiency 40%–60%
• System round-trip • System round-trip • System round-trip
efficiency ~37% efficiency 60% efficiency 70%
Reversible Fuel Cells • Cost NA • Cost $1,800/kW • Cost <$1,300/kW
• Levelized cost of storage • Levelized cost of • Levelized cost of
$1.10/kWh storage $0.10/kWh storage $0.05/kWh
• Durability ~10,000 h • Durability 40,000 h • Durability 80,000 h

The technology baselines and targets are periodically assessed and adjusted as needed based on
updated information, analysis, and stakeholder feedback.

For the latest, most up-to-date information on technical targets and the status of the
technologies covered by HFTO, see:
www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/mypp

5.4 Addressing Challenges

The Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram has a balanced and integrated RD&D approach
addressing challenges to meeting the application-driven targets formulated to facilitate fuel cell
competitiveness. As illustrated in Figure 5.6, the critical overarching challenges are being
addressed at the Materials and Components and Systems and Manufacturing levels.

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High activity, durable catalysts & electrodes

Durability

Components
Materials &
Innovative membranes & ionomers
Durable high performance MEAs
Efficiency
Advanced bipolar plates, GDLs and coatings

Materials & System design & operating conditions

Component Cost

Manufacturing
Standardized stacks and modular systems

Systems &
Improved manufacturing & supply chain
Power Density
Advanced BOP components & subsystems
Recycling of components, stacks, & systems
Supply Chain
Supporting analysis & modeling

Figure 5.6. Comprehensive RD&D addressing fuel cell materials and components, as well as
systems and manufacturing

Materials and Components

Subprogram RD&D addresses materials and components challenges at the cell level for both
current and next-generation fuel cell technologies. The key challenges are to identify and
develop optimized materials and components that can reduce fuel cell cost while improving
durability, power density, and environmental sustainability. Examples include:

• Catalysts, including catalyst supports, are a key factor determining fuel cell performance
and efficiency, as well as the largest single contributor to the cost of PEM fuel cell stacks,
specifically based on costly and supply-chain-sensitive PGM materials used. The oxygen
reduction reaction is the primary challenge for catalysts in PEM fuel cells and requires a
significant amount of platinum-based catalyst on the fuel cell cathode. Catalyst
degradation is a major factor limiting durability in all fuel cell technologies. It also
contributes to cost, as catalyst degradation introduces the need for higher catalyst
loadings.
• Membranes and ionomers are critical fuel cell components that can limit performance
and durability, especially under high-power conditions with high temperature and low
relative humidity. Membranes need to suppress gas crossover to maintain high fuel cell
efficiency and performance. Membrane degradation is caused by mechanical stresses
from swelling and shrinking with varying humidity, and by chemical decomposition,
which can be accelerated by metal contaminants. The environmental sustainability of
polymer membrane materials, such as perfluorosulfonic acid, is a potential concern.
• MEAs require strategic integration of membranes, catalysts, ionomers, and electrodes,
accounting for component interactions, to optimize fuel cell stack performance (both

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efficiency and power density), robustness, and durability. All of these traits are crucial to
providing a competitive total cost of ownership for fuel cell applications. It is also critical
to understand how fuel cell operating conditions impact the performance and degradation
of the different interacting components.
• Bipolar plates play an important role in fuel cell performance through reactant
distribution and water management and can add significant cost to the fuel cell stack.
Metallic and carbon-based (carbon composites and flexible graphite) bipolar plates are
both potential options for transportation fuel cells. Metallic plates made thin to increase
power density are susceptible to corrosion. Carbon-based alternatives have lower
mechanical strength, leading to thicker plates—and thus, potentially lower stack power
density and high manufacturing costs.
• Gas diffusion layers play an important part in determining stack performance by
transporting reactants to, and water away from, the catalyst layers. Gas diffusion layers
typically consist of carbon fibers and carbon blacks with a hydrophobic coating. The
hydrophobicity of gas diffusion layers tends to degrade over the operational life of the
fuel cell, which may become problematic for the very long lifetimes of heavy-duty
applications.
Systems and Manufacturing
Subprogram RD&D also addresses systems and manufacturing challenges in fuel cell
technologies. To enable commercially viable systems across applications, advancements are
required for fuel cell stacks, BOP components, systems design and integration, and
manufacturing technologies and processes. The optimization of performance, efficiency,
durability, and cost for the different fuel cell technologies across diverse applications requires
addressing challenges such as:

• Development of durable and affordable stack designs optimized for power density and
efficiency to meet application-specific requirements, including air-, fuel-, water-, and
thermal-management considerations.
• Improvements in BOP component performance (e.g., in compressors/expanders, power
electronics, etc.) to decrease parasitic power losses and improvements to BOP component
durability for increased system reliability and decreased maintenance costs.
• For stationary power applications, development of a single cleanup and fuel processing
system capable of purifying and converting multiple fuels to enable fuel flexibility.
• Development of innovative system designs and operation strategies that optimize
performance while mitigating system degradation.
• Development of fuel cell systems that meet application-specific packaging requirements
with demonstrated durability and robustness including under dynamic load following,
start/stop operation, vibration/shock (for mobile applications), and ambient conditions.

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• Development of modular, scalable fuel cell systems with standardized stacks and BOP
components, designed with manufacturability and recyclability in mind, that could enable
significant cost reductions and potential for scale-up.
Advanced manufacturing applicable to fuel cell technologies is essential to strengthen the supply
chain and meet economies of scale, especially at lower production volumes, to lower fuel cell
costs for all end uses. Subprogram RD&D addresses challenges that industry either does not
have the technical capability to undertake or is too far from market realization to merit sufficient
industry focus and critical mass. An example is the development of low-cost, scalable
manufacturing processes to bring innovative, lab-demonstrated materials and components to the
market. This includes the development of best practices for material and component handling,
roll-to-roll manufacturing techniques, inline diagnostics and quality control/assurance methods,
and reduction of manufacturing defects to ensure high-throughput production of membranes,
electrodes, and MEAs. The subprogram RD&D also addresses challenges in the development of
efficient approaches to recycling/upcycling of critical materials, including PGMs, in support of a
transition to a circular economy.

Comprehensive Approach
To address the challenges across fuel cell technologies and end uses, the Fuel Cell Technologies
subprogram supports a portfolio of RD&D projects implemented through funding mechanisms
described in the Program Implementation section. To accelerate progress, the subprogram has
established RD&D consortia, which leverage the world-class capabilities, expertise, and research
activities of core national laboratories and foster collaborations among the labs, industry, and
universities. Currently, the subprogram supports three consortia and plans for additional support
of others. 53

• Million Mile Fuel Cell Truck Consortium (M2FCT) focuses on achieving an MEA
target by 2025 that combines efficiency, durability, and cost in a single goal: 2.5
kW/gPGM specific power (1.07 A/cm2 current density) at 0.7 V after a 25,000 hour-
equivalent accelerated durability test. The unique M2FCT capabilities include advanced
experimental techniques and characterization tools, as well as modeling and machine
learning approaches; capabilities include accelerated stress testing to address fuel cell
lifetime.
• Electrocatalysis Consortium (ElectroCat) focuses on PGM-free catalyst and electrode
RD&D for both fuel cells and electrolyzers, employing advanced high-performance
computing, unique synthesis and characterization tools, and high-throughput
combinatorial approaches in the development, processing, component integration, and
qualification of PGM-free MEAs.

53
Additional information on HFTO’s consortia approach to RD&D can be found in this report’s Program
Implementation chapter.

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• Roll-to-Roll Consortium (R2R)

focuses on advancing efficient, high- Fuel Cell Technologies Consortia
throughput, and high-quality Examples
manufacturing methods to accelerate
domestic manufacturing and reduce
the capital cost of clean hydrogen
M2FCT focuses on RD&D to improve fuel cell
technologies, specifically regarding durability, performance, and cost to better position
high-volume production of MEA fuel cells as a viable option in the long-haul
trucking market and other heavy-duty applications:
components for PEM fuel cells and M2FCT Consortium
electrolyzers. The consortium works
directly with industry via CRADA
and FOA support, and it addresses
scale-up of manufacturing
ElectroCat focuses on accelerating the R&D of
technologies for catalysts and catalysts made without platinum group metals for
ionomers, coating and drying for use in fuel cells and electrolyzers: ElectroCat
Consortium
membranes and electrodes, quality
tool development, and artificial
intelligence/machine learning tool
development for process modeling
and control. R2R is a collaboration R2R focuses on MEA manufacturing technology
advancements to reduce costs for fuel cells and
between the Advanced Materials electrolyzers.
and Manufacturing Technologies
Office and HFTO and coordinates
with M2FCT, as well as H2NEW, to ensure appropriate materials and test methods are
used.
• Recovery and Recycling Consortium: To address end-of-life and critical supply chain
challenges for PEM fuel cells, the subprogram will also pursue activities to sustainably
and efficiently recover and recycle critical materials for PEM-based systems, with
crosscutting application to PEM-based electrolyzers. Plans include establishing a
Recovery and Recycling Consortium that will include industry, academia, national labs,
and other key stakeholders. Subprogram activities will address critical barriers for
recovery and recycling related to PEM systems, components, and materials, including
activities in analysis, component recycling, and reuse of the systems, illustrated in Figure
5.7.

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Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technologies Office Multi-Year Program Plan | 2024

Figure 5.7. The holistic approach to address RD&D for recycling PEM fuel cells

To maximize resources, the Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram works closely with the other
HFTO subprograms and with other DOE offices, and it also collaborates with diverse
stakeholders from industry, academia, and the national labs in implementing approaches to
accelerate the commercialization of cutting-edge lab-demonstrated fuel cell materials and
components. These innovations can reduce costs and improve the durability of fuel cells,
creating a strong competitive edge for technology developers in an emerging industry. One
important example is the L’Innovator™ (“Lab Innovator”) program, 54 developed to enable a
robust domestic fuel cells industry by assembling bundles of unique, state-of-the-art national lab
intellectual property and facilitating their development by a commercialization partner.

5.5 RD&D Focus Areas

Technical and economic barriers common to the challenges being addressed in the Fuel Cell
Technologies subprogram include Cost, Durability/Reliability, Efficiency/Performance, Life
Cycle/Sustainability, Manufacturing/Scale-Up, and Safety. These barriers are summarized in
Table 5.3 with some specific examples of associated fuel cell technologies challenges in
materials, components, or systems.

54
U.S. Department of Energy. “DOE’s L’Innovator Pioneers a New Model for Jumpstarting Commercialization of
Cutting-Edge Fuel Cell Technologies.” February 23, 2024. https://www.energy.gov/eere/fuelcells/articles/does-
linnovator-pioneers-new-model-jumpstarting-commercialization-cutting.

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Table 5.3. Fuel Cell Technology Barriers and Associated Challenges

Barrier Associated Challenges

Capital costs of stack materials and components (e.g., membranes, MEAs, PGM
catalysts, gas diffusion layers, and bipolar plates)

C: Cost Capital costs of system BOP components (e.g., air-, water-, fuel-, and thermal-
management components; power electronics)
materials,
components, systems Operations, maintenance, and replacement costs of fuel cell stacks and systems

Standardized/modular designs needed to achieve economies of scale for multiple

applications

Durability of materials, components, and integrated systems

System reliability and robustness under dynamic and harsh operating conditions
D: Durability/ (e.g., start/stop, dynamic load, thermal cycles, shock, and vibration for
Reliability transportation applications, as well as mode cycling for reversible fuel cells)
Impurity tolerance (e.g., air impurities, fuel contaminants, and saline
contaminants)
Fuel cell stack fuel-conversion efficiency and BOP component operational
efficiency

Power density (to achieve high power within size/weight constraints)

E: Efficiency/
Performance Performance needs under realistic operating conditions (e.g., high power to haul
loads up inclines, sustained power under cold/hot conditions, and quick dynamic
response)
Round-trip efficiency in reversible fuel cells

Life cycle environmental impacts

Material resource availability (e.g., critical minerals and the potential reliance on
LC: Life Cycle/ precious metals) and supply chain
Sustainability
Materials environmental sustainability (membranes and ionomers)

Recovery and recycling of fuel cell components, including PGMs and membranes

Manufacturing materials, components, and systems using automation and high-

volume processes
M: Manufacturing,
Ensuring environmental justice in manufacturing, including specialized workforce
Scale-Up, and Supply
development, and reducing environmental impacts
Chain
Developing and expanding domestic supply chains, standardization, and
manufacturing processes

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Materials, components, and systems with adequate consideration given to all

safety issues
S: Safety
Safety regulations and standards
Education/training of users

The Fuel Cell Technologies subprogram’s comprehensive RD&D portfolio comprises projects
and collaborative activities in areas addressing one or more of the barriers described in Table 5.3.
Tables 5.4 through 5.6 provide a detailed summary of the subprogram’s RD&D focus areas that
address specific barriers and challenges for fuel cells in different end uses, along with examples
of key targeted milestones. These RD&D focus areas are aligned with the subprogram’s near-,
mid-, and longer-term priorities. Based on project results, along with continued analysis and
stakeholder engagement, the RD&D portfolio is assessed on a regular basis and is refined to
maximize impact.

Near- to Mid-Term
The subprogram’s near-term strategic priorities in electrolysis cover heavy- to medium-duty
transportation applications such as trucks, buses, maritime, rail, offroad, and aviation, as well as
primary and backup power for stationary applications. Specific RD&D focus areas addressing
barriers and challenges are described in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4. Fuel Cell Technologies RD&D Addressing Near- to Mid-Term Strategic Priorities

Barriers
RD&D Focus Areas Key Milestones
Addressed

Heavy-Duty Transportation

Coordinate RD&D efforts with the Million Mile Fuel Cell

C, D, E • Develop and disseminate
Truck consortium and industry/university projects to
accelerated stress testing
achieve fuel cell truck cost, durability, and efficiency
protocols for catalysts,
targets
membranes, and MEA
Develop extremely durable, high mass-activity low-PGM durability, to enable rapid
catalysts to enable competitive fuel cell lifetime, C, D, E, assessment of up to 25,000
efficiency, and cost hours operation for heavy-duty
truck applications (2024)
Improve the performance and durability of membranes
and ionomers under hot (up to 120°C) and dry • Demonstrate MEAs with 2.5
C, D, E, LC kW/gPGM at 0.7 V after
conditions to improve heat rejection, power density, and
efficiency accelerated durability test
equivalent to 25,000 hours
Develop low-cost, environmentally sustainable (2025)
membranes, suitable for heavy-duty applications, that
• Reduce heavy-duty fuel cell
improve efficiency by suppressing gas crossover and C, D, E, LC
system cost to $140/kW
improve durability by reducing chemical and mechanical
(50,000 systems/year) (2025)
degradation

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• Develop bipolar plates with area

Optimize electrode layer performance to improve specific resistance of <0.01
D, E
efficiency and durability for heavy-duty applications ohm cm2 and cathode corrosion
of <1 µA/m2 at a cost of $5/kW
Assess fuel cell truck component, stack, and system (2030)
durability through the development of accelerated stress D
• Demonstrate standardized fuel
testing protocols
cell stacks for heavy-duty
Develop strategies to mitigate degradation of MEAs applications with a durability of
D 25,000 hours at a projected
through materials integration and operating conditions
cost of $40/kW (2030)
Integrate materials and components to demonstrate
C, D, E, LC, • Demonstrate air compression
MEA efficiency, power density and durability compatible
M systems for heavy-duty vehicles
with the operating conditions, lifetime requirements, and
with a turndown ratio of 20 at a
drive cycles of trucks
cost of $12/kW (2030)
Develop innovative, low-cost bipolar plates with
C, D, M • Develop direct-hydrogen fuel
improved mechanical properties and manufacturability, cell systems at a projected cost
high corrosion resistance, and minimal degradation of $80/kW (at 100,000
systems per year) and 25,000-
Improve the microstructure, hydrophobic properties, hour durability (2030)
C, D, M
stability, and manufacturability of gas diffusion layers to • Demonstrate heavy-duty fuel
improve stack performance and water management cell manufacturing capacity of
20,000 stacks per year in a
Develop low-cost, easy-to-manufacture, and resilient
single manufacturing system
BOP components, including thermal management and C, D, M
(2030)
power electronics
• Demonstrate MEA
Develop low-cost air management systems suitable for manufacturing rates of 2,400
heavy-duty truck applications, with improved reliability, C, D, E MEAs/hour (2030)
reduced input power, extended durability, and high
• Demonstrate bipolar plate
turndown ratios
manufacturing rates of 2,400
bipolar plates/hour (2030)
Develop standardized low-cost stacks and BOP C, M
components • Develop membrane
manufacturing processes
Demonstrate modular, scalable fuel cell systems with C, M capable of meeting a
standardized stacks and BOP components production rate of 370,000 m2
per year (2030)
Pursue and optimize MEA material and a component • Develop gas diffusion layer
C, M, LC
manufacturing process that is low-cost and scalable, manufacturing processes
and design for recyclability capable of meeting a
Assess technical and cost status of current and production rate of 650,000 m2
C, M, LC per year (2030)
advanced (2025, 2030) fuel cell truck systems for a
range of production volumes • Develop sustainable process to
recover >50% of
Compare and assess alternative system designs and
C, D, E membrane/ionomer materials
operation strategies to inform optimization of
and >95% of PGMs from fuel
performance, efficiency, durability, and cost for heavy-
duty truck applications

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cell MEAs for

Develop high-throughput stack and component
recycling/upcycling (2029)
manufacturing approaches to strengthen the domestic C, M
supply chain and enable capacity expansion • Annually update the cost
estimate for fuel cell systems
LC for heavy-duty trucks
Develop and implement recovery and recycling of critical
materials, including PGMs and polymers

Near-Term Other Applications

(e.g., Medium-Duty Trucks, Buses, Maritime, Rail, Off-Road, Aviation, Primary and Backup Power for
Stationary Applications Including Data Centers and Combined Heat and Power)
Coordinate R&D efforts with the Million Mile Fuel Cell
Truck consortium and industry/university projects to C, D, E, LC, • Demonstrate fuel cell buses
achieve cost, durability, and efficiency targets across M with 25,000-hour fuel cell
medium- and heavy-duty applications durability (2030)
Leverage advancements in heavy-duty fuel cells to meet • Develop a 60% efficient (over
fuel cell cost, efficiency, and durability targets for C, D, E the duty cycle), direct hydrogen
medium-duty and stationary applications fuel cell power system (1–10
kW) for backup power
Develop environmentally sustainable electrode ionomers
applications at a cost of
that enable high-power performance with high oxygen D, E, LC
$1,000/kW with 10,000 hours
permeability, proton conductivity, and durability
of durability (2027)
Develop electrodes, MEAs and cells with improved power • Develop a 60% efficient (over
C, E
density and efficiency the duty cycle), direct hydrogen
Design flexible and modular fuel cell components to fuel cell power system (at the
lower costs, for use in multiple applications C, M MW scale) for distributed
power/energy storage
applications at a cost of
Integrate standardized, modular stacks into systems $1,000/kW with 40,000 hours
meeting heavy-duty application specific requirements D, E
of durability (2027)
(long lifetime, air impurity tolerance, shock and vibration
• Demonstrate medium-scale
tolerance)
combined heat and power fuel
Demonstrate low-cost fuel cell systems for diverse C, D, E, LC, cell power systems (100 kW-
heavy-duty applications (maritime, rail, mining) meeting M 3MW) that can achieve over
application specific targets and operation requirements 50% electrical efficiency, 90%
combined heat and power
Demonstrate cost-effective integrated stationary fuel cell efficiency and 80,000-hour
systems for application-specific stationary power durability at a cost of
C, D, E
generation (e.g., data centers, combined heat and $1,500/kW for operation on
power) biogas (2027).
• Develop medium-scale
Develop low-cost, durable cell and stack components for C, D distributed generation fuel cell
stationary fuel cells power systems (100 kW–3 MW)
that achieve 65% electrical
Develop and demonstrate megawatt-scale H2 stationary efficiency) and 80,000-hour
C, D, E
PEM fuel cells with cost, efficiency, and durability durability at a cost of
optimized for hydrogen energy-storage applications $1,000/kW (2030)

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• Demonstrate fuel cell power

systems with modular designs
and standardized stacks and
BOP components for medium-
duty vehicles, maritime, rail and
offroad applications meeting
application specific targets
(2030)

Longer Term
The subprogram’s longer-term strategic priorities include development of advanced materials,
components, and systems for next-generation fuel cells for diverse applications such as flexible
fuel use, reversible operations to enable energy storage, and others. Specific RD&D focus areas
addressing barriers and challenges are described in Table 5.5.

Table 5.5. Fuel Cell Technologies RD&D Addressing Longer-Term Strategic Priorities

Barriers
RD&D Focus Areas Key Milestones
Addressed
Next-Generation Fuel Cells
(e.g., PGM-free, Anion Exchange Membrane, Bipolar Membranes, Direct Liquid-Fueled, Intermediate
Temperature, Tri-Generation)
Develop high-performance, durable PGM-free catalysts
through the ElectroCat consortium and • Achieve PGM-free cathode MEA
C, D, LC
industry/university projects to reduce stack cost and performance in an H2/air fuel
alleviate dependence on precious metal imports cell of ≥100 mA/cm2 at 0.8 V
and ≥500 mA/cm2 at 0.675 V,
Improve performance of thick electrode layers to enable
with ≤10% loss in current
PGM-free catalysts C, E
density after accelerated testing
(2025)
Advance long-term membrane technologies including • Develop anion exchange
C, D, E, LC,
anion exchange membranes and intermediate- membrane MEAs with initial
M
temperature (150°–500°C) membranes performance of 1000 mW/cm2
Develop high-performing and durable PGM-free MEAs for under H2/air (CO2-free) with
anion exchange membrane fuel cells with improved D, E total PGM loading of ≤0.125 mg
water transport and performance in the presence of CO2 cm−2, at temperatures ≥80°C,
and pressures ≤250 kPa (2025)
Develop innovative durable intermediate-temperature C, D, E, LC, • Demonstrate direct liquid-fueled
(150°–500°C) fuel cells to allow for fuel flexibility and M PEM fuel cell MEAs with
low system cost for a range of applications maximum power >0.3 W/cm2 at

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Develop durable materials and components—including total catalyst loading of <3

low-PGM catalysts, membranes and MEAs—to enable mgPGM/cm2 (2030)
D, E
efficient electrochemical conversion of liquid fuels (e.g., • Demonstrate intermediate
ammonia, methanol, dimethyl ether, hydrogen carriers) temperature (150°–500°C)
for power generation membrane conductivity of
>0.05 S/cm at operating
Demonstrate innovative technologies including the use
temperature (>120°C , pH2O <
of fuel-flexible gas-cleanup reforming technologies for
40 kPa); and membrane
polygeneration including tri-generation (power, heat, and
hydrogen) durability >10,000 hours
(performance degradation
C, D, E, LC, <1%/1,000 hours under
M relevant operating conditions)
(2027)
• Develop anion exchange
membrane fuel cell PGM-free
MEAs with initial performance
exceeding 600 mW/cm2 under
H2/air (2030)

Advanced Energy Storage Concepts

(including Reversible Fuel Cells)

Develop bifunctional catalyst and electrode materials for • Conduct analysis to identify use
high- and low-temperature reversible fuel cells that C, D, E cases where reversible fuel
provide competitive performance, durability, and round- cells (discrete versus unitized)
trip efficiency will be competitive energy
storage solutions (2025)
Optimize efficiency, performance, and durability of
D, E • Achieve low-temperature
components, cells, and stacks for application-specific
energy storage reversible fuel cell
performance/round-trip electric
Develop cost-effective integrated systems—including efficiency of 55% at 0.5 A/cm2
C
BOP components such as power electronics—for (fuel cell); 1 A/cm2 (electrolyzer)
application-specific energy storage (2030)
• Achieve high-temperature
Demonstrate unitized reversible fuel cell systems with
D, E reversible fuel cell
high round-trip efficiency and lifetime, with the ability to
performance/round-trip electric
cycle repeatedly between fuel cell and electrolyzer mode
efficiency of 85% at 0.5 A/cm2
Design and demonstrate reversible fuel cell systems that (fuel cell); 1 A/cm2 (electrolyzer)
address thermal management issues specific to high- C, D, E (2030)
temperature reversible fuel cells • Develop reversible fuel cells
with a degradation rate of
Identify use cases where reversible fuel cells will be 0.25%/1,000 hours (2030)
competitive energy storage solutions
• Achieve a system round-trip
C, D, E, LC, efficiency of 60%, system cost
M of $1,800/kW, and lifetime of
40,000 hours (2030)

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Crosscutting
In addition to the focus areas described in Tables 5.4 and 5.5, the subprogram also conducts
crosscutting RD&D that is synergistic with activities in other HFTO subprograms and supports
broad strategic priorities relevant to the advancement of clean hydrogen and fuel cell
technologies. Examples are included in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6. Fuel Cell Technologies Crosscutting RD&D Activities

Barriers
Crosscutting RD&D Key Milestones
Addressed
Conduct assessments to benchmark
projected cost and technical status of Annually update the cost estimate for fuel cell
C, D, E
current and advanced fuel cell systems systems for diverse applications
for a range of applications
Identify key barriers to meeting system
Annually conduct key strategic analysis to assess
operating requirements, application-
needs for transportation and stationary
specific demands, and life cycle cost E, LC
applications, including power generation and long-
targets through fuel cell system analysis
duration energy storage
to guide R&D efforts.
Disseminate standardized test protocols, including
accelerated stress test protocols, addressing
Develop standardized fuel cell test
D, E performance and durability requirements for
protocols and best practices
transportation and stationary fuel cell applications
(2030)
Develop and standardize BOP Develop BOP components addressing air, thermal,
components including power electronics and water management for fuel cell systems
(e.g., DC/DC converters) across C contributing to meeting application-specific fuel
technologies and applications, to help cell system cost, performance, and durability
strengthen the supply chain targets (2030)
Investigate and develop high-throughput
manufacturing techniques including
Demonstrate heavy-duty fuel cell manufacturing
automated component and stack
M capacity of 20,000 stacks per year in a single
assembly, quality control, conditioning,
manufacturing system (2030)
and testing protocols to advance stack-
and system-level manufacturing
Develop efficient approaches to
Develop sustainable process to recover >50% of
recycling/upcycling of critical materials,
E membrane/ionomer materials and >95% of PGMs
to reduce environmental impacts and
from fuel cell MEAs for recycling/upcycling (2029)
support a “circular economy”
Develop and implement approaches to Expand the L’Innovator program by establishing at
streamline technology transfer and least three new national lab and industry
accelerate the commercialization of M partnership projects to commercialize national lab
cutting-edge laboratory-demonstrated demonstrated hydrogen and fuel cell technologies
materials and components (2027)

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Leverage activities and work in Provide training opportunities to over 50 minority-

partnership with minority-serving serving institution students, including from Tribal
institutions and Tribal Nations, and LC
Nations, on hydrogen and fuel cell technologies
engage with labor organizations for (2028)
workforce development
Coordinate R&D and leverage activities
Annually identify common RD&D areas of interest,
with other DOE offices, U.S. Government
coordinate stakeholder engagement activities, and
agencies, and domestic/international LC
compile solicitation topics on hydrogen conversion
stakeholders for high impact and to
technologies
avoid duplicated efforts
Foster DEIA as well as community
Conduct reviews of Community Benefits Plans and
engagement across diverse
LC support information-sharing for RD&D projects at
stakeholders to enable energy and
least annually
environmental justice

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