FSM 102 Food Preservation Lesson 3

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PART I
Introduction
to Food
Preparation
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2 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION

Part I presents the basic principles of food preparation and
related information necessary for the development of desirable
food preparation standards. Fundamental knowl edge and under-
standing of cooking and measuring tech niques, cooking equip-
ment, tools and utensils, and kitchen lay-out are necessary to achieve
the basic skills of food preparation. Likewise, the ability to follow and
standardize a recipe will add to one’s skills in achieving excellent results
in the preparation of food. The following essentials are presented in
this chapter:
• a vocabulary of cooking and food preparation terms with
precise definitions;
• a working knowledge of kitchen equipment and lay-out
commonly used in today’s homes; and
• a thorough yet simple procedure in constructing and standard-
izing a recipe.

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Introduction to Food Preparation 3
METHODS OF COOKING FOOD

Cooking is the term applied when heat is used in preparing foods.
The different methods of cooking can be grouped according to the way
heat is applied to food. Two methods are commonly identified as using
Moist Heat Cooking and Dry Heat Cooking. Heat is transferred by water,
water-based liquid or steam in Moist Heat Cooking; while heat is transferred
by air, radiation, fat or metal in Dry Heat Cooking. The following diagram
shows the different classifications of cooking methods:
COOKING
Using Moist Heat Using Dry Heat
Scalding Baking
Simmering Broiling
Braising Frying
Parboiling Stir Frying
Steaming Deep-frying
Poaching Roasting
Stewing Grilling
Boiling Sauteing
Blanching Pan Broiling
USE OF HEAT IN COOKING

Heat is used in preparing food by cooking and toasting. Cooking
is the term applied when heating affects the entire mass of food, while
toasting concerns primarily the effects of heat on the surface. Without
heat, foods that are unpalatable or unsanitary when raw could not be in-
cluded in the daily diet. The changes produced in foods by heat depend
upon the methods of heat transfer, the time of heating, the temperature
reached in the surface and within the mass of food, and the nature of
food itself.

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Method of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer from the sources of heat to the food are by convec-
tion, conduction, radiation and microwave emission. These factors affect
the intensity and the rate of cooking.
• Convection is the transfer of thermal energy from electricity,
gas or solid fuel to the vapor molecules of the air, which in turn
heat the food or the utensil it comes in contact with.
• Conduction is the direct transfer of heat via metals or any heat-
conducing materials containing the food. In the conduction,
heat penetrates the center of the food. Good conductor of heat
are metals, copper, water and steam, and air.
• Radiation is the transfer of heat from a red hot coil to the
food. It immediately heats the food it strokes on. The process
can be blocked by an obstacle between the source and the object
to be heated.
Many foods are cooked by conduction when heat flows from one
material to another. Metals are good conductor of heat, thus metal pots
and pans are widely used in food preparation. Foods are also cooked
by convection currents (as in food processing) and by radiation. With
radiation, only the surface is cooked by the waves of energy, the
interior is cooked by conduction. Heat, a form of energy, increases
the molecular motion of a substance. The temperature of a substance is
the measure of the vigor of this motion. Freezing and boiling points are
related to molecular structure. The substance with the higher molecular
weights requires a higher temperature for a change of state to occur.
The heat required to change a substance from frozen to liquid state is
known as the heat of fusion.
Measurement of Heat or Temperature

The usual result of an increase in temperature is an expansion in
size. Hence, a convenient way of measuring temperature is by noting
the expansion of a column of mercury in a thermometer scale. Mer-
cury expands uniformly at different temperature and has an extensive
range between the freezing point -39°F and its boiling point 675°F. There
are two kinds of scale in a thermometer: the Fahrenheit and the Centi-
grade.
Heat is measured by degrees Centigrade or Celsius (°C) or degrees
Fahrenheit (°F).

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The degree of hotness or intensity of heat is expressed as the tem-

perature of the object (food). To express cooking temperatures, the Met-
ric System using °C and °F are used.
The Fahrenheit scale is named after a German Physicist. It has
32° for its freezing point and 212° for its boiling point. There are 212
equal divisions between 0° and the boiling point. The Centigrade Scale
gets its name from Centum, Latin for “hundred” and Grade which means
“step.” In the Centigrade Scale, the freezing point is marked 0° and the
boiling point is marked 100°. The scale between these two points is
marked off into 10 equal divisions or degrees.
There are 9 Fahrenheit degrees for every 5 Centigrade degrees.
Thus, when a temperature reading is to be changed into centigrade, sub-
tract 32 from the Fahrenheit degrees, multiply it by 5 and divide by 9.
°C = (°F – 32) x 5. If the change is from Centigrade into Fahrenheit, mul-
9
tiply the number of Centigrade degrees by 9, divide by 5 and add 32.
°F =(°C x 9)/5 + 32.

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IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN PREPARING FOODS

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PURPOSE OF COOKING
Some foods, such as fruits and vegetables, are highly palatable
when eaten raw. However, most foods must be cooked to be acceptable
to the human palate. The main purposes of cooking food are:
• to improve its natural flavor and palatability;
• to destroy pathogenic organisms and injurious substances which
may be found on raw foods;
• to improve its digestibility; and
• to make its maximum nutritive value available in a palatable
form.
Natural Flavor and Palatability

Some fruits and vegetables are highly palatable when eaten raw
because uncooked and unsoaked foods retain a good portion of their
nutritive value and natural texture and color. The effect of cooking on
the color and texture is important on its influence in flavor. When the
object is to maintain the original flavor of the food, the cooking process
used should be as short as possible without adding any flavoring materi-
als. For example, fresh and young vegetables should be cooked in a small
amount of boiling water.
When several foods are cooked together, an interesting blend of fla-
vor is developed. The cooking process in this case is often comparatively
long to allow time enough for the new flavor to develop. For example,
casserole dishes, pudding, and the local Sinigang and Nilaga are enjoyed
for their interesting blend of different flavors. Overcooking, however, is
destructive of flavors and food may become soggy or stringy.
The effect of cooking on the color and texture of food has a great in-
fluence on flavor. The methods of cooking used must be those which are
conserving of the natural color of food or developing the new, desired
color.
Pathogenic Organisms and Injurious Substances on Food

All foods in their natural state are subject to spoilage or deteriora-
tion because of pathogenic organisms and injurious substances found
in them. Microorganisms, such as molds, yeasts, and bacteria, grow at
certain temperature generally between 0 degree to 75 degrees. However,
with heat application or exposure to temperatures near the boiling point
of water, microorganisms are easily killed.

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Illness may be caused by foods that naturally contain poisonous

substances and foods that are contaminated with pathogenic microor-
ganisms and toxins. Cooking, through application of heat, destroys the
injurious substances in raw food and renders the food in wholesome and
safe form.
Most cooking methods produce an interior temperature of 140
degrees to 185 degrees Fahrenheit. Some baked products may reach a
temperature close to 21 degrees Centigrade. This temperature range is
one in which many harmful organisms do not grow. All portions of food
must reach and maintain a certain temperature within this range.
Digestibility of Food
All foods undergo softening as a result of cooking, which may ren-
der food more digestible. Some cooking processes are identical with the
processes involved in the breakdown of food during digestion. For ex-
ample: the transformation of starch into dextrins and the hydrolyses that
takes place during the cooking of meat break down the protein
collagen in connective tissues. Digestibility to a layman, refers not
only to the completeness of digestion and absorption but also the general
feeling and after effect of eating. When food is hard to digest, it is easily
manifested by a feeling of discomfort. Some fruits and vegetables have to
be cooked to be palatable, soft and easy to digest.
Maximum Nutritive Value

Some foods, like fruits and vegetables group, are highly palatable
when eaten raw because uncooked and unsoaked foods retain a good
portion of their nutritive value. However, in time of food poisoning outbreak,
people are warned not to eat raw or half-cooked food.
The most important nutritive change, which occurs in natural food
through cooking, is the loss of its water soluble nutrients, hence, the
retention of these nutrients in foods is directly related to the amount
of water used in cooking. Destruction of vitamins may also be brought
about by the action of heat. Studies have shown that Ascorbic acid and
Thiamine are unfavorably affected by heat. All these, however, are small
losses if compared to the significance of the effects of cooking to assure
safety from food-borne diseases.
There are some raw foods that have to be cooked in order that their
nutritive value can be used by the body. For example, root crops have to
be cooked to fully enjoy their carbohydrates content. The protein con-
tent of most fish and meat are fully utilized when cooked. To develop,

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enhance, or alter the flavor of foods and to maximize its nutritive value,
control must be exercised by the method of cooking used and the length
of cooking time.
COOKING MEDIUMS
The methods of cooking are classified according to the cooking
medium, namely, air, water, steam, fat, and a combination of one or
more of these mediums.
Air and Heat as Cooking Mediums

Boiling, roasting, and baking are examples of cooking meth-
ods with heat as the medium. Without heat, foods that are unpalatable
or insanitary when raw cannot be included in the daily diet. Many foods
are cooked by conduction or the flow of heat from one material to
another. Metals are conductors of heat, thus metal pans are widely
used in cooking. Foods are also cooked by convection currents or the
transfer of kinetic energy by heated air or liquid, and by radiation or
transfer of kinetic energy by means of waves.
Broiling is cooking over or under a source of direct heat such
as coals, a gas burner, or a glowing electric unit. Much of the heat is
derived from radiant energy; some is conducted from the air and
from the broiler rack.
Roasting is cooking on a spit before an open fire or by covering
with hot coals. Nowadays, the term is used synonymously with baking
in meat cookery.
Baking is cooking in an oven, whereby, convection cur rents aid
in heating the air and equalizing the oven temperature.
Water as a Cooking Medium

The methods of cooking with water as the medium are: boiling,
simmering, and stewing.
Boiling is cooking in water at boiling point. This temperature may
be recognized by the presence of many bubbles of steam rises to the top
and breaks. Incomplete cooking by boiling is called parboiling. It is used
when another method is to be employed for the remainder of the cook-
ing time, or when strongly flavored or other water soluble constituents
are to be removed and fresh water is added for continued cooking by
boiling.

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Simmering is cooking in a bath of water somewhat below the boiling

point, 180 to 210 degrees F (82-99 degrees C). The presence of bubbles
of steam, which disappears before they reach the surface, is an education
of this range.
Stewing is simmering or boiling in water enough to cover the ingre-
dient.
Bubble size and movement differ
during poaching, simmering, and boiling.
a. Poach b. Simmer c. Boil
Poaching – Water is heated to a temperature of 160° to 180°F (71°

to 82°C). Small motionless bubbles appear in the bottom of the
pan. Poaching is used to prepare delicate foods like fish and eggs.
Simmering – Water is heated just below the boiling point not less
than 180°F (82°C). It is characterized by gently rising bubbles that
barely break the surface. Simmering is used for cooking tough cuts
of meat to make it tender.
Boiling – Water is heated to reach 212°F (100°C), a temperature
at which water bubbles rapidly. The high temperature of boiling
water is used to cook paste and tougher-textured vegetables like
dried beans.
Steam as a Cooking Medium
The methods of cooking with steam as the cooking medium are:
steaming, waterless cooking, and pressure cooking.
Steaming refers to cooking in steam arising from added water.
Waterless cooking is cooking with steam formed from the water origi-
nally present in food.

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Pressure cooking is cooking with steam under pressure; since the heat
of vaporization does not escape, the temperature rises steadily to a high
point. This type of cooking requires the use of a pressure cooker, a spe-
cial type of cooking utensil.
Fat as a Cooking Medium

Fat is used as the cooking medium in sautéing, deep-fat frying,
and pan broiling.
Sautéing is cooking in a lightly greased pan allowing the product to
be turned over or “flipped” for complete cooking.
Deep-Fat Frying refers to cooking in an amount of fat sufficient for
immersion of the food. The temperature required for frying runs as high
as 385 degrees F or 196 degrees C.
Combination of Cooking Mediums

A combination of more than one method is used in braising,
fricasseeing, and pot roasting.
Braising represents a combination of sautéing and subsequent cook-
ing in a small amount of liquid in a covered utensil.
Fricasseeing is almost similar to braising. Braising and fricasseeing
are in fact synonymously applied to meat and poultry.
Pot roasting is the term commonly used when a large piece of meat
is cooked by the preceding methods.
Electronic Cooking
Electronic cooking or microwave cooking is done on an electronic
range. Electronic cooking does not involve a cooking medium. In an
electronic oven, a magnetron tube is used to change electricity to high
frequency microwaves; the microwaves are absorbed by the food, caus-
ing agitation of the molecules or friction. By creating molecular friction,
energy is produced in food. This action results in heating of the food.
The food cooks, as in conventional cooking, by becoming hot first. The
interior of the food mass is cooked by heat conducted to it from the
surface. Aluminum, tin and stainless steel utensils and vessels are
not used in microwave cooking because they cut down its efficiency
by shielding the food. Paper, glass, china, and earthware are preferable.
Much time is saved in microwave cooking; and food will not burn.

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THE STANDARDIZED RECIPE

A recipe is a set of instructions for making a food dish from various
ingredients. When a recipe is one in which the amounts and proportions
of the ingredients and the methods of procedure will consistently pro-
duce a high quality product, it becomes a standardized recipe.
A recipe has two important parts:
• a list of ingredients and
• a description of the method for putting them together.
Principles to be Followed in Recipe Construction
Good recipes are constructed not only to obtain a good product but
also to be sure of an efficient and orderly procedure that will minimize
the time of preparation. Here are certain principles to follow:
1. The recipe should be simple, easy to read, and interesting to
the reader.
2. The ingredients should be listed in the order they are to be
used.
3. Exact measurements should be indicated; if possible abbrevia-
tions should be avoided.
For example: 1/2 cup chopped onion
not
1.2 c. onion, chopped
4. Descriptive terms should be placed before the ingredient if the
process is to be carried out before measurement.
For example: 2 cups sifted flour
If the process is carried out after measurement, the terms are
placed under the ingredient.
For example: 2 cups flour, sifted
5. Whenever possible, it is desirable to use simple measure-
ments.
• Fractional measurements in a cup (1/2, 1/4, 1/3 cups);
• Weight of uncooked meat, poultry, fish (1/2 kilo, 4 lbs.)
etc.; and
• Measure and weight of canned packaged products (5 oz.
can tomato sauce, 1 lb. cheese).
6. Specify the particular type of ingredient to be used. Thus, if
cake flour is the preferred ingredient, specify as 2 cups cake
flour instead of 2 cups flour.

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7. Use the generic names of the ingredients rather than brand

names.
8. Short and clear sentences that give the necessary information
help to make directions understandable.
9. Use the precise term to describe a cooking process or a prepa-
ration method. Do not say mix when you mean fold or beat.
10. Specify the size of the baking pan or utensils needed. State
clearly how preparation should be made.
For example: oiling
greasing
lining with wax paper
11. State information regarding temperature and cooking time to
insure successful results. A statement to describe the stage is
most helpful.
For example: Bake for 25 minutes at 350°F, until it is
golden brown.
12. Every recipe should indicate its yield in terms of average serv-
ings.
A SAMPLE RECIPE
Fish Escabeche
2 medium-sized fish (lapu-lapu, talakitok or pampano)
1 large onion
1 large sweet pepper, cut into long narrow pieces
2 cloves garlic
2 tablespoons cornstarch
2 cups water
2 tablespoons vinegar
4 tablespoons sugar
3 tablespoons soy sauce
1 large carrot cut into strips
Clean the fish. Sprinkle with 1 teaspoon salt. Fry until brown
and set aside. Saute garlic, onion, and sweet pepper. Add the
carrot and cook until crisp and tender. Make medium thick gravy
by mixing water, sugar, soy sauce, salt, and cornstarch. Boil 5
minutes before adding the vinegar. Then add garlic, onion-
carrot-pepper mixture into this gravy. Pour over the fish. Makes
12 servings.

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THE KITCHEN: ITS STRUCTURE,

USE, AND CARE
Food preparation is greatly related to the kitchen lay-out, the equip-
ment, the utensils, and the other items in it. Every kitchen is made up
of three main activity centers: (1) the storage and preparation center, (2)
the cooking center, and (3) the clean-up or washing center. The work
involved in all three is so interrelated that these must not be too widely
separated but must form a compact work unit. An effective use of the
kitchen space and equipment is achieved when range, sink, and refrig-
erator are fairly close to each other, with sufficient working surface and
storage cabinets interspersed among them.
The Work Triangle
Situating the three main activity centers in a convenient work tri-
angle is essential to achieve a workable kitchen. The following distances
are recommended:
sink to refrigerator – 4 feet to 7 feet
range to refrigerator – 4 feet to 9 feet
sink to range – 4 feet to 6 feet
Total triangle perimeter – 12 feet to 22 feet
To achieve maximum efficiency with the work triangle factors, the
following four basic kitchen arrangements are recommended by kitchen
planners:
1. The U-shaped Kitchen
The U-shaped Kitchen is generally considered the most effi-
cient arrangement. The three major advantages are: 1) traffic cross-
ing the basic work triangle is prevented; 2) a continuous counter
area exists; and 3) distances between appliances are short.

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2. The L-shaped Kitchen

In the L-shaped Kitchen, the work centers are placed along
two adjacent walls. A natural eating corner is created without
sacrificing space from the work area. An easy flow of work from
refrigerator to sink to range is possible in this arrangement of work
centers.
3. The Island Kitchen

The Island Kitchen is usually a modified U-shaped or L-
shaped arrangement of activity centers. An excellent use of the
island is as a cooking or mixing center. The addition of a chop-
ping-block-top and a utensil-hanging-rack makes the design of the
kitchen island attractive.

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4. The Corridor Kitchen

The Corridor Kitchen is the simplest and most economical
arrangement. The corridor must be at least four feet wide and
should have a dead end to prevent traffic through the work triangle.
THE KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

The necessary large equipment for the proper preparation of food
includes a range, a refrigerator, and a sink. Proper use and care of the
equipment will not only make food preparation quicker and easier but
also insure their lasting service.
The Range
The range provides the necessary heat in cooking food. The fuel
used for a range may be electricity, gas, kerosene, gasoline, coal, or
wood. Ranges differ in size, shape, and special features, but all of them
are equipped with surface units for top of the range cooking, an oven for
baking and roasting, and a broiler. Both surface burners and ovens have
various temperature control features. On a gas range, the source of heat
is the “burner”; on an electric range, it is the “Unit” or a coil. The heat
of either gas or electric range should be regulated according to the food
being cooked and the size of the utensil. Ranges can provide low heat
for simmering, medium heat for gentle cooking, and high heat for rapid
cooking. The low, medium, and high may each be adjusted to a higher
or lower degree.
Use and Care of the Range

When using the range, remember to
• Use utensils that are large enough to prevent the boiling food
from spilling over the range top or oven;
• Keep a dish on the range top for the spoon that you use in stir-
ring food;

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• Avoid putting anything hot on porcelain enameled surfaces

or putting cooking utensils across them because the heat may
cause the surface to chirp or crack;
• Arrange pans in the oven so that the air can circulate around
them; and
• Wipe the chromium trimming with a damp cloth and polish it
with a dry cloth.
Cleaning the Top of a Gas Range
1. Remove the burners and the rack, and scrub them with warm,
soapy water and scouring pad.
2. Clean the holes with a hairpin or wire. Do not use a toothpick.
3. Rinse with clear, hot water, and dry the rack; turn the burners of
the oven upside down.
4. Return the burners and the rack to the range as soon as they are dry.
Cleaning the Units of an Electric Range
1. Turn on the high heat so that any food on the units will burn off.
2. Cool, and then brush each unit with a soft non-metallic brush.
Never clean the unit with a metal brush, a fork, a knife, or a sharp
metal tool.
3. Use steel wool or a cloth for units which are enclosed.
Cleaning the Oven
1. Use a pancake turner to remove food immediately after it has
spilled on the oven.
2. Clean the oven thoroughly with a special cleaner when it is cool.
3. Wipe the oven with soapy water. Rinse with clean water and dry.
4. Turn on the oven for a few minutes to dry all parts so that they will
not rust.
Cleaning the Broiler
1. Remove fat from the broiler pan. Then, wipe the pan and the rack
with paper.
2. Wash the broiler rack and the pan with hot soapy water using a
scouring pad.
3. Rinse and dry thoroughly.
4. Wipe the walls of the broiler. Then, return the broiler pan on the
rack.

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Proper Use and Care of Microwave Oven

1. Close the oven door properly. Never operate the oven when it is
empty or while door is open. An open door results in harmful ex-
posure to microwave energy.
2. The microwave oven has no temperature control. Cooking is regu-
lated by time alone. The time required to cook food by microwave
depends on the types of food and amount of food.
3. Microwave oven should be cleaned, especially around the seal, af-
ter each use. Food particles and grease that collect around the seal
should be wiped out by paper towels.
4. Glass, china, some plastic, paper, plastic wrap and wax paper are
satisfactory materials that can be used in cooking foods in the mi-
crowave oven. Do not use utensils with metal bands, clips, screws,
delicate glasswares and dishes.
5. Metal containers and materials should not be used in microwave
ovens because the metal iron blocks microwave and prevents them
from entering the food.
6. Don’t be afraid to watch your food through the oven door. The dif-
fused light inside a microwave oven is due to the finely perforated
metal screen embedded in the door. This screen prevents the es-
cape of microwave energy, while it allows you to look as you cook.
7. If food is ready to boil over, stop the cooking immediately by push-
ing the stop button and by opening the oven door.
8. Use dry paper towel to cover bacon or foods which are cooked
uncovered but tend to spatter.
9. Round shape of casserole dishes microwave more easily than
squares or rectangles.
10. The oven should not be adjusted or repaired by anyone except
properly qualified service personnel.
The Refrigerator
Every food preparation area should be equipped with a refrigerator
so that perishable foods may be quickly cooled and spoilage prevented.
A refrigerator must be well constructed and well insulated, if it is to
perform efficiently. Many modern refrigerators are of the combination
refrigerator-freezer type, but individual freezer cabinets are also available
for home use. There are two types of individual freezer cabinets: the up-
right type and the chest type. The upright freezer is like the refrigerator
in appearance and takes up minimum of floor space. Refrigerators and

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freezer are available in size from 4 cubic feet to 16 cubic feet. The size
purchased for a particular food preparation unit depends on the number
of persons to be serviced by it and the space available.
Food that is used frequently should be placed in the refrigerator
where it may easily be reached. The coldest part of the refrigerator or
the freezing unit is used for storing perishable foods such as meat, fish,
and poultry. Milk, cream, butter, and eggs should be kept near the freez-
ing unit. Cooked foods, which contain milk and eggs, should be placed
near the freezing unit, too. Other foods should be kept in the center of
the refrigerator. Fruits and vegetables are usually kept in the crisper, the
lowest part of the refrigerator.
Care of the Refrigerator

Refrigerators with automatic defrost should be thoroughly cleaned
every week by wiping off food containers and removing all unneeded
foods. Whereas, refrigerators without automatic defrost should be de-
frosted whenever the frost is over 1/4 inch thick.
Defrosting the Refrigerator

1. Turn off the electric current.
2. Remove all ice trays and frozen foods from the freezing unit.
3. Wrap frozen foods in a newspaper to keep them from thawing.
4. Put the drip tray in the proper place to catch the melted ice.
5. Place pans of hot water in the lower part of the freezing unit. Allow
the ice to melt. Never use a sharp or pointed object to remove the ice.
6. Remove the food in the lower part of the refrigerator.
7. Wipe the inside portion of the freezing unit as well as the refrigera-
tor with water to which 1 teaspoon baking soda has been added for
each quart.
8. Turn on the current and return the food to the refrigerator.
Proper Use of the Refrigerator

1. Study the booklet supplied by the manufacturer.
2. Keep the temperature between 35°F and 45°F.
3. Allow hot food to cool before putting it in the refrigerator.
4. Open the door only when absolutely necessary and keep it open as
short time as possible.

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5. Put leftovers in small dishes and use them as soon as possible to

avoid overcrowding the refrigerator.
6. Remove food from paper bags before storing in the refrigerator.
7. Do not store unopened cans of food in the refrigerator unless they
are to be chilled for the next meal.
8. Store foods in covered dishes or glass jars to prevent odors from
spreading.
9. Avoid getting grease on the gasket around the door.
10. Decide on a definite place in which to keep each kind of food, and
put the foods in the same places each time so that you will not
waste time in looking for them.
The Sink
A great deal of food preparation is spent at the sink: cleaning, peel-
ing, cutting food, removing waste, and dishwashing. It is central to all
food operations that require water, and therefore, it should be placed
where it will be easily accessible. The proper height of the sink is im-
portant — too high a sink means stretching. All supplies and equipment
that are used for scraping, washing, rinsing, and drying dishes should be
near the sink. Sinks are available in various sizes and finish with a single,
double, or triple bowl. They are usually either with a stainless finish or
porcelain enamel, which comes in white or several colors.
Care of the Sink

1. Fill the sink or the dishpan half-full with water when washing the
dishes. Put only a few dishes into the sink at one time.
2. Pour the dishwashing through a sink strainer to avoid clogging the
sink.
3. Use soapy water to clean the sink, rubbing it hard. If the sink is
very dirty, use a fine scouring powder and a bleach to remove the
stains.
Equipment and Tools

The use of proper equipment in top condition is of primary impor-
tance in the production of good food. Standardized equipment, a variety
of knives, the right kitchen tools, utensils, and appliances are all contrib-
ute to good quality food.

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SUGGESTED BASIC KITCHEN

UTENSILS AND TOOLS
A. Cooking Utensils
tea kettle
saucepan (2 quarts, 3 quarts, 4 quarts)
1 native carajay or frying pan (10 inches in diameter)
1 small skillet (6 to 7 inches in diameter)
1 double boiler
1 large casserole
B. Oven Utensils
1 muffin pan (6 to 12 cups)
1 pie pan (9 inches)
2 layer-cake pans (8 x 1 1/2 inches)
1 square cake pan (8 x 8 x 2 inches)
1 tube pan (10 x 4 inches)
1 loaf pan (8 1/2 x 2 1/2 inches)
1 baking sheet
C. Tools
1 paring knife (3 1/2 inches wide with a blade)
1 large knife (5 to 7 inches wide with a blade)
2 or 3 mixing spoons
2 long-handled cooking spoons
1 long-handled cooking fork
1 spatula
1 can opener
1 kneading board
2 chopping boards
1 rotary egg beater or white beater
measuring spoons and cups
mixing bowls (1 qt, 2 qts, 3 qts, 4 qts)
strainer or sieve
colander

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D. Suggested Additions
a pressure cooker
a meat grinder
a juice extractor
a pancake griddle
kitchen shears
a Dutch oven with cover
tongs for hot foods and ice cubes
1 dozen dishtowels
4 pot holders
an omelet pan
an ice pick

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SMALL EQUIPMENT FOR FOOD PREPARATION

Small items of equipment are referred to as kitchen utensils. These
are used in cleaning, cutting, chopping, and cooking.
Equipment for cooking on the range
sauce pan heavy skillet or carajay
sauce pot skillet or frying pan
kettle pressure cooker
double boiler tea kettle
Dutch oven coffeemaker
Cutting and chopping equipment

butcher knife scissors
french or chopping knife meat grinders
bread knife pastry blender
cutting board biscuit cutter
paring knife grater
peeler can opener
mallet
mashes
Mixing and preparation equipment
mixing bowls blending fork
sifter rubber scrapper
wire whip strainer
wooden spoon tongs
mixing spoon chopping board
slotted spoon

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USEFUL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT
Rotary beater
Wire whisks
Can opener
Mixing bowls
Bottle opener
Mallet Vegetable peeler

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Metal spatula Wooden spoons
Kitchen scissors Tongs
Strainer Funnel
Colander

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Metal spatula Sifter
Utility spoon
Utility spoon
Slotted spoon
Ladle
Kitchen fork
Grater
Slotted turner
Garlic press
Pancake turner

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BAKE WARE
Tube pan Loaf pan
Round pan
Rectangular pan
Pie pan Spring-form pan

(Removable bottom)
Jelly roll pan
Baking sheet
Muffin pan
Square pan
Tart pans Bundt pan

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KNIVES: THE BASIC CUTTING TOOLS
Butt
Tip Blade
Rivets
Bolster Heel
Paring knife Utility knife
Boning knife
Slicing knife
Butcher
French knife
Bread knife
Knife Sharpening Steel

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POTS AND PANS
3-quart pan
2-quart pan
1-quart pan
Frying pan with lid
Omelet pan
Stock pot
Double-boiler
Cast-iron frying pan Dutch oven

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BAKEWARE ACCESSORIES
Souffle Dish
Custard cups
Biscuit cutter
Wire racks

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PASTRY TOOLS
Pastry blender
Pastry bag and tips
Pastry brushes
Rolling pins
Slicing wheel
Pastry wheel

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MEASURING TECHNIQUES
Dry Ingredients
Liquid
Shortening
Brown Sugar
Butter or Margarine
Shredded Cheese

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MEASURING FOOD MATERIALS

The use of standard measuring equipment and standard measuring
techniques will help to ensure successful products. To achieve consis-
tent results each time a particular recipe is used, identical measur-
ing procedures must be followed. Every major ingredient, dry
or liquid, requires a special measuring technique. Liquids are mea-
sured in standard glass or clear plastic cups that hold the exact capacity
specified in a recipe. If it is necessary to weigh foods, use a weighing
scale.
Measuring Techniques
How to measure
Liquids: Use a liquid measuring cup and place it on level surface.
Have the measuring line at eye level to be sure of the exact measure-
ment.
Dry Ingredients or Powdered Materials: Gently spoon the ingredient into
the cup, piling high or filling cup to overflowing; then level off with a
metal spatula or straight-edged knife. Powdered materials such as baking
powder, baking soda, salt etc. must be stirred first to break up any lump.
Dip a dry spoon in the powder and level off with the edge of the spatula
or the knife.
Sugar: Sift granulated or refined sugar if lumpy. Spoon into the
measuring cup and level off. Do not pack or tap the sugar down. Brown
sugar is packed firmly into the cup with a finger until it is even with the
rim. When the cup is inverted, brown sugar will hold its shape.
Solid shortening: With a rubber spatula, pack into cup. Run spatula
through shortening to release air; pack again and level off.
Butter or margarine: When using a bar or stick or butter, cut the de-
sired amount. Use these equivalents: 1/2 lb. — 1 cup; 1/4 lb. — 1/2 cup.
Shredded cheese: Lightly place the shreds in a dry measuring cup until
even with its rim. Do not pack the cheese into the cup.
Spices: To measure less than 1/4 teaspoon, use your finger or divide
1/4 teaspoon in half. This is usually referred to as a dash or a pinch.
Abbreviations used in measuring ingredients.
t or tsp. (teaspoon) lb. (pound)
T or tbsp. (tablespoon) oz. (ounce)

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MEASUREMENTS AND CONVERSIONS

Heat Fahrenheit Centigrade/Celsius
Very Cool 230 110
Cool or Slow 275-300 135-150
Moderate 350 175
Hot 425 220
Very Hot 450 230
Conversion of Temperature Measurement
CENTIGRADE = 5/9 (°F – 32) or (°F – 32) x 5
9
FAHRENHEIT = (9 x °C)/5 + 32 or 1.8 x °C – 32
Weight and Measure Equivalent
Dash = less than 1/8 teaspoon
3 Teaspoons (tsp.) = 1 Tablespoon (Tbsp.)
2 Tbsp. = 1/8 cup (1 fl. oz)
4 Tbsp. = 1/4 cup (2 fl. oz)
8 Tbsp. = 1/2 cup (4 fl. oz)
16 Tbsp. = 1 cup (8 fl. oz)
1 gill = 1/2 cup
2 cups = 1 pint
2 pints = 1 quart
4 quarts = 1 gallon
8 quarts = 1 peck
4 pecks = 1 bushel
Approximate Mass and Measures
Ingredients Handy Measures
(Rounded)
1 Teacup 1 Tablespoon
Flour 100 grams 25 grams
Raisins 100 grams 25 grams
Cornflour (Cornstarch) 100 grams 25 grams
Rice 100 grams 25 grams
Cheese (grated) 50 grams 25 grams
Liquid (Milk, Water) 150 ml. 15 ml.

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CUTTING TECHNIQUES
Chopping Mincing
Slicing Diagonal Slicing
Julienne Strips Dicing

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COOKING TERMS
Bake — Cook in an oven.
Barbecue — Baste meat from time to time with a highly-seasoned sauce
as it cooks by direct heat over coals, in an oven or under a broiler.
Baste — Moisten food while it is being baked to prevent it from drying
out.
Blanch or Scald — Put boiling water over food or dip the food into boiling
water and then into cold water.
Boil — Cook in liquid until bubbles appear and rise to the top and break
on the surface.
Broil — Cook by direct heat.
Braise — Brown meat or vegetable in a small amount of liquid.
Fry — Cook in hot fat without cover.
Fricassee — Cook by braising.
Melt — Change a solid to liquid by boiling.
Poach — Cook food in hot liquid just below the boiling point.
Roast — Cook meat or poultry uncovered in oven without added moisture.
Scald — Heat liquid in the upper part of a double boiler until tiny bubbles
appear around the edge.
Steam — Cook food by steam in a covered steamer rather than in boiling
water.
Steep — Cover tea leaves with boiling water and allow to stand, to extract
the flavor, color, and aroma from the leaves.
Simmer — Cook just below boiling point.
Sear — Brown meat quickly on all sides at high temperature to develop
flavor and improve its appearance.
Stew — Cook food for a long time in a small amount of liquid at simmer-
ing temperature.

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FOOD PREPARATION TERMS

Beat — Make the mixture smooth and light by lifting it over and over.
Blend — Mix two or more ingredients until one ingredient cannot be dis-
tinguished from the other.
Break — Divide into pieces.
Chop — Cut into small, uneven pieces.
Cream — Rub, mash or work shortening against the side of a bowl with
the back of a spoon until it is smooth and creamy.
Cut-in — Combine shortening and dry ingredients when making biscuits
or pastry.
Cube — Cut into pieces of uniform size and shapes, first, lengthwise then
crosswise to make cubes.
Dice — Cut into small pieces of uniform size and shapes, first, lengthwise
then crosswise to make cubes.
Dredge — Coat solid food with a dry ingredient such as flour, bread-
crumbs or sugar by sprinkling, dipping or rolling it in one of these
ingredients.
Flake — Separate fish into small pieces.
Fold — Add beaten egg whites or whipped cream to a mixture without
losing what has been beaten into them.
Grate — Cut into fine pieces by rubbing against a grater in circular or
back and forth motion.
Julienne — Cut into thin, match-like strips.
Marinate — Let food stand in French dressing or an oil acid mixture to
add flavor.
Mash — Press food from small pieces into a pulp with an up and down or
beating action of a fork.
Mince — Cut or chop into tiny pieces.
Pare — Cut off the outer skin or rind with a knife.
Peel — Pull off the outer skin or rind.
Puree — Rub food through a sieve to make a smooth semi-liquid mixture
for use in soups or sauces, or food for babies.

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Scrape — Remove the skin by rubbing it with the sharp edge of the knife.
Slice — Cut across into flat pieces.
Soften — Cream butter, margarine, or shortening until it is smooth and
creamy or to let it stand at room temperature until it is soft.
Stir — Mix the ingredients in a bowl by circular movement of a spoon.
Sprinkle — Scatter sugar, flour, and salt over food.
Toss — Mix lightly by lifting the ingredients for salad with a spoon and
fork with two forks to avoid braising the ingredients.
Wedge — Cut into shape of a wedge, each piece thick at one and thin at
the other end.
Whip — Beat rapidly with a whisk beater to incorporate air and increase
volume of egg white.

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2 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PREPARATION

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Introduction to Food Preparation 3

METHODS OF COOKING FOOD

Using Moist Heat Using Dry Heat

USE OF HEAT IN COOKING

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4 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

Method of Heat Transfer

Measurement of Heat or Temperature

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Introduction to Food Preparation 5

The degree of hotness or intensity of heat is expressed as the tem-

°F =(°C x 9)/5 + 32.

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6 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

IMPORTANT TEMPERATURES IN PREPARING FOODS

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Introduction to Food Preparation 7

Natural Flavor and Palatability

Pathogenic Organisms and Injurious Substances on Food

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8 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

Illness may be caused by foods that naturally contain poisonous

Maximum Nutritive Value

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Introduction to Food Preparation 9

Air and Heat as Cooking Mediums

Water as a Cooking Medium

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10 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

Simmering is cooking in a bath of water somewhat below the boiling

a. Poach b. Simmer c. Boil

Poaching – Water is heated to a temperature of 160° to 180°F (71°

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Introduction to Food Preparation 11

Fat as a Cooking Medium

Combination of Cooking Mediums

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12 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

THE STANDARDIZED RECIPE

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Introduction to Food Preparation 13

7. Use the generic names of the ingredients rather than brand

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14 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

THE KITCHEN: ITS STRUCTURE,

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Introduction to Food Preparation 15

2. The L-shaped Kitchen

3. The Island Kitchen

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16 A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation

4. The Corridor Kitchen

THE KITCHEN EQUIPMENT

Use and Care of the Range