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STEPHEN M. KOSSLYN ROBIN S. ROSENBERG
Taken from:
Psychology in Context, Third Edition
by Stephen M. Kosslyn and Robin S. Rosenberg
Cover image: ABS-4, by Eugene Lewalski Berg
Taken from:
Psychology in Context, Third Edition

by Stephen M. Kosslyn and Robin S. Rosenberg
Copyright © 2006, 2004, 2001 by Allyn and Bacon
A Pearson Education Company
Boston, Massachusetts, 02116
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing
from the publisher.
This special edition published in cooperation with Pearson Custom Publishing.
All trademarks, service marks, registered trademarks, and registered service marks are the property of their respective
owners and are used herein for identification purposes only.
Printed in the United States of America
10 98765432
ISBN 0-536-39855-0
2007500084
AK
Please visit our web site at www.pearsoncustom.com
PEARSON
PEARSON CUSTOM PUBLISHING
Custom 501 Boylston Street, Suite 900, Boston, MA 02116
Publishing A Pearson Education Company
BRIEF ftf INIS
, J1 PSYCHOLOGY: Yesterday and Today 2
2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: How We Find Things Out 36
3 THE BIOLOGY OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR: The Brain in Action 76
4 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: How the World Enters the Mind 132
5 CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus on Awareness 188
6 LEARNING 232
7 MEMORY: Living With Yesterday 276
8 LANGUAGE AND THINKING: What Humans Do Best 324
9 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE: What Does It Mean To Be Smart? 378
]0 EMOTION AND MOTIVATION: Feeling and Striving 426
11 PERSONALITY: Vive la Difference! 480
12 PSYCHOLOGY OVER THE LIFE SPAN:

Growing Up, Growing Older, Growing Wiser 528
13 STRESS, HEALTH, AND COPING 586
14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: More Than Everyday Problems 628
1 5 TREATMENT: Healing Actions, Healing Words 684
16 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Meeting of the Minds 732
References ri
Glossary g-i
Name Index Ni l
Subject Index sn
CONTENTS
Preface xvii
Integrated Coverage of Gender and Cross-Cultural Issues xxxiv
About the Authors 1
CHAPTER 1
PSYCHOLOGY: Yesterday and Today 2

THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY: Getting to THE PSYCHOLOGICAL
Know You 4 WAY: What Today's
What Is Psychology? 4
Psychologists Do 22
Levels of Analysis: The Complete Psychology 5 Clinical and Counseling

Psychology: A Healing
Three Levels of Analysis in Psychology • All Together Now •
Profession 22
Levels of Analysis in Action: Examining Racial Prejudice
Academic Psychology: Teaching and Research 24
PSYCHOLOGY THEN AND NOW: The Evolution Applied Psychology: Better Living Through Psychology 25
of a Science 10 The Changing Face of Psychology 27
Early Days: Beginning to Map Mental Processes
and Behavior 11 ETHICS: Doing It Right 29
Structuralism • Functionalism • Gestalt Psychology
ETHICS IN RESEARCH 29
Psychodynamic Theory: More Than Meets the Eye 14
Research With People: Human Guinea Pigs? •
Behaviorism: The Power of the Environment 15
Research With Animals
Humanistic Psychology 16
Ethics in Clinical Practice 30
The Cognitive Revolution 17
New Frontiers: Neuroethics 32
Evolutionary Psychology 18
The State of the Union: Psychology Today 21 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 33
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Designed to Be Valid Correlational Research: Do

Birds of a Feather
Step 1: Specifying a Problem 38
Flock Together? 44
Step 2: Observing Events 38
Experimental Research:
Step 3: Forming a Hypothesis 39
Manipulating and
Step 4: Testing the Hypothesis 39
Measuring 45
Step 5: Formulating a Theory 40
Independent and Dependent Variables •
Step 6: Testing the Theory 40
Experimental and Control Groups and Conditions
Quasi-Experimental Design
THE PSYCHOLOGIST'S TOOLBOX: Techniques of
Scientific Research 42 Be a Critical Consumer of Psychology 49
Descriptive Research: Just the Facts, Ma’am 42 Reliability: Count on It! • Validity: What
Naturalistic Observation • Case Studies • Surveys Does It Really Mean? •
I v
Bias: Playing With Loaded Dice • Experimenter Expectancy Selective Reporting • Lying with Graphs
Effects: Making It Happen • Psychology and Looking at Levels: Graph Design for the Human Mind 65
Pseudopsychology: What’s Flaky and What Isn’t?
HOW TO THINK ABOUT RESEARCH STUDIES 66
STATISTICS: Measuring Reality 54 Reading Research Reports: The QALMRI Method 67
Descriptive Statistics: Telling It Like It Is 55 Q Stands for the Question • A Stands for Alternatives •
L Stands for the Logic of the Study • M Stands for the
Data • Frequency Distributions • Measures of Central
Method • R Stands for the Results • I Stands for Inferences
Tendency • Measures of Variability • Relative Standing
Writing Your Own Research Papers 00
Inferential Statistics: Sorting the Wheat From the Chaff 58
Understanding Research: When Does Mental Practice
Correlation: The Relationship Between Two Variables •
Improve Later Performance? 70
Samples and Populations • Meta-Analysis
Lying With Statistics: When Good Numbers Go Bad 61 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 73
CHAPTER 3
THE BIOLOGY OF MIND AND
BEHAVIOR: The Brain in Action 76 '% A. > „ ^
BRAIN CIRCUITS: Making Connections 78 The Dual Brain: Thinking

The Neuron: A Powerful Computer 78 With Both Barrels ' j* £ jflj
Structure of a Neuron: The Ins and Outs • Neural Impulses: ^7
The Brain in Action Split-Brain Research:
Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators: Bridging the Gap 82 A Deep Disconnect
Chemical Messages: Signals and Modulators • Receptors: Understanding Research: The Hemispheric Interpreter 98
On the Receiving End • Unbalanced Brain: Coping Hemispheric Specialization: Not Just for the
With Bad Chemicals Deeply Disconnected
Glial Cells: More Than the Neurons’ Helpmates 86 Beneath the Cortex: The Inner Brain 100
Neurons and Glia: A Mutually Giving Relationship • Thalamus: Crossroads of the Brain • Hypothalamus:
Glial Networks: Another Way to Think and Feel? Thermostat and More • Hippocampus: Remember It •
Amygdala: Inner Feelings • Basal Ganglia: More Than
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: An Orchestra With Habit-Forming • Brainstem: The Brain’s Wakeup Call •
Many Members 88 Cerebellum: Walking Tall
The Peripheral Nervous System: A Moving Story 88
The Neuroendocrine and Neuroimmune Systems: More
The Autonomic Nervous System • The Sensory-Somatic Brain-Body Connections 104
Nervous System
The Neuroendocrine System: It’s Hormonal! • The
The Central Nervous System: Reflex and Reflection 90 Neuroimmune System: How the Brain Fights Disease
The Visible Brain: Lobes and Landmarks • Structure and Looking at Levels: The Musical Brain 106
Function: No Dotted Lines
SPOTLIGHT ON THE BRAIN: How It Divides PROBING THE BRAIN 109

and Conquers 94 The Damaged Brain: What’s Missing? 109
The Cerebral Cortex: The Seat of the Mind 94 Recording Techniques: The Music of the Cells 109
Occipital Lobes: Looking Good • Temporal Lobes: Up to Neuroimaging: Picturing the Living Brain 111
Their Ears in Work • Parietal Lobes: Inner Space • Frontal Visualizing Brain Structure • Visualizing Brain Function
Lobes: Leaders of the Pack Stimulation: Tickling the Neurons 114
CONTENTS
GENES, BRAIN, AND ENVIRONMENT: The Brain Heritability: Not Inheritability • Twin Studies: Only Shared
in the World 115 Genes? • Adoption Studies: Separating Genes
and Environment?
Genes as Blueprints: Born to Be Wild? 115
Evolution and the Brain: The Best of All
Genetic Programs: The Genes Matter • Tuning Genetic
Possible Brains? 123
Programs: The Environment Matters • Genes and
Natural Selection: Reproduction of the Fittest • Not just
Environment: A Single System • Environment and Genes:
Natural Selection: Accidents Do Happen
A Two-Way Street
Behavioral Genetics 122 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 127
SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: 4

How the World Enters the Mind 132
pt'
i 3 i
VISION: Window on the World 134 Sound Waves: Being
Visual Sensation: More Than Meets the Eye 135 Pressured • The Brains % #
Psychophysics: A World of Experience • How Do Objects Ear. More Than a
'trt i, Sq
Enter the Mind? Let There Be Light • The Brain’s Eye: More Microphone Deafness.
Than a Camera • Color Vision: Mixing and Matching •
Gone Tomorrow
Visual Problems: Distorted Windows on the World
Phase 1 of Auditory Perception: Organizing the
Phase 1 of Visual Perception: Organizing the World 144
Auditory World 169
Perceptual Organization: Seeing the Forest Through the Trees
Sorting Out Sounds: From One, Many • Locating Sounds:
• Perceptual Constancies: Stabilizing the World • Knowing
Why Two Ears Are Better Than One
the Distance
Phase 2 of Auditory Perception: Recognition
Phase 2 of Visual Perception: Recognition
and Identification 171
and Identification 150
More Than Meets the Ear • Hearing Without Awareness •
Knowing More Than You Can See • Informed Perception:
Music: Hearing for Pleasure
The Active Viewer • Coding Space in the Brain: More Than
One Way to Identify ‘Where”
SENSING AND PERCEIVING IN OTHER WAYS 174
Understanding Research: Two Ways to Specify
Smell: A Nose for News? 174
Spatial Relations 154
Distinguishing Odors: Lock and Key • Olfaction Gone Awry:
Combining What and Where: Faces and Gazes 155
Is It Safe to Cook Without Smell? • Pheromones: Another
Identifying Faces: A Special Brain System? • Identifying Gaze
Kind of Scents?
Direction: Where’s Something Important?
Taste: The Mouth Has It 177
Attention: The Gateway to Awareness 157
Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter • Taste and Smell
Pop-Out: What Grabs Attention? • Active Searching: Not just
Somasthetic Senses: Not Just Skin Deep 179
What Grabs Attention • Limits of Attention • Seeing Without
Kinesthetic Sense: A Moving Sense • Vestibular Sense: Being
Awareness
Oriented • Touch: Feeling Well • Temperature • Pain
Looking at Levels: The Essential Features of Good Looks 163
Other Senses 181
Magnetic Sense: Only for the Birds? • Extrasensory
HEARING 165
Perception (ESP)
Auditory Sensation: If a Tree Falls but Nobody Hears It, Is
There a Sound? 165 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 183
CONTENTS vii
C H A P T E
CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus on Awareness 188

THE NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS 190 HYPNOSIS AND
Functions of Consciousness 190
MEDITATION 209
The Experience of Consciousness 191 What Is Flypnosis? 210
Altered States of Consciousness 191 Individual

r
Differences: Who Is
TO SLEEP, PERCHANCE TO DREAM 193 Hypnotizable? 211
Stages of Sleep: Working Through the Night 193 Hypnosis: Role Play or Brain State? 212
Stage 1 • Stage 2 • Stages 3 and 4 • REM Sleep • Trance Theory • Sociocognitive Theory « Evidence From
Sleep Cycles Neuroimaging
Sleep Deprivation: Is Less Just as Good? 196 Hypnosis as a Tool: Practical Applications 213
REM Rebound • Sleep Deprivation: What Hypnosis as Possession Trance 214
Elappens When You Skimp on Sleep • The Effects Meditation 214
of All-Nighters Types of Meditation • Benefits of Meditation • Meditation
Understanding Research: Sleep Deprivation Lite 197 and the Body: More Than a Pause That Refreshes •
Meditation Versus Relaxation • The Biology of Meditation
The Function of Sleep 199
Evolutionary Theory • Restorative Theory •
DRUGS AND ALCOHOL 218
Facilitating Learning
Substance Use and Abuse 218
Dream On 200
Depressants: Focus on Alcohol 220
What Triggers Particular Dreams? • Why Do Biological Effects of Alcohol • Psychological Effects of
We Dream?
Alcohol • Chronic Abuse: More Than a Bad Habit •
The Brain Asleep 202 Other Depressants
The Chemistry of Sleep: Ups and Downs • Stimulants: Focus on Cocaine 224
Circadian Rhythms Crack • Other Stimulants
Troubled Sleep 205 Narcotic Analgesics: Focus on Heroin 226
Night Terrors: Not Your Usual Nightmares • Narcolepsy: Hallucinogens: Focus on LSD 227
Asleep at the Drop of a Hat • Insomnia • Sleep Apnea A Creativity Boost? • Other Hallucinogens
Looking at Levels: Recovery From Jet Lag 208 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 229
CHAPTER 6
LEARNING 232
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING 235 in Classical
Pavlov’s Experiments 235 Conditioning: Seen
The Three Phases of Classical Conditioning • Variations of One, Seen ’Em All? •
the Procedure Cognition and the
Classical Conditioning: How It Works 237 Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Emotions: Getting a Gut Response • Dissecting Conditioning:
Preparedness and Contrapreparedness • Extinction and Mechanisms 242
Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning: Gone Learning to Be Afraid • Learning When to Blink
Today, Here Tomorrow • Generalization and Discrimination Classical Conditioning Applied 244
VIII CONTENTS
Drug Use and Abuse • Therapy Techniques • Advertising • Conditioning: Gone Today, Back Tomorrow • Building
Food and Taste Aversion Complicated Behaviors: Shaping Up • Reinforcement
Understanding Research: The Discovery of Schedules: An Hourly or a Piece-Rate Wage?
Taste Aversion 246 The Operant Brain 262

Conditioning and Chemotherapy • Conditioning the Operant Conditioning: A Multifaceted Process •
Immune System Classical Conditioning Versus Operant Conditioning: Are
They Really Different?
OPERANT CONDITIONING 250 Looking at Levels: Facial Expressions as Reinforcement
The Roots of Operant Conditioning: Its Discovery and and Punishment 265
How It Works 251
Thorndike’s Puzzle Box • The Skinner Box COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL LEARNING 267
Principles of Operant Conditioning 252 Cognitive Learning 267
Reinforcement: Getting Your Just Desserts • Punishment • Insight Learning: Seeing the Connection 268
Primary and Secondary Reinforcers • Immediate Versus Observational Learning: To See Is to Know 269
Delayed Reinforcement Learning From Models 271
Beyond Basic Reinforcement 258 “Do as I Do” • “Television Made Me Do It”
Generalization and Discrimination in Operant Conditioning
• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery in Operant REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 274
CHAPTER 7
MEMORY: LIVING WITH YESTERDAY 276
ENCODING INFORMATION INTO MEMORY: Time and RETRIEVING
Space Are of the Essence 278 INFORMATION FROM
Types of Memory Stores 279
MEMORY: More
Than Reactivating
Sensory Memory: Lingering Sensations • Short-Term Memory:
the Past 301
The Contents of Consciousness • Long-Term Memory:
The Act of Remembering:
Records of Experience
Reconstructing Buried Cities
Making Memories 283
Recognition Versus Recall 302
Coding: Packaged to Store • Consolidation and
Understanding Research: A Better Police Lineup 303
Reconsolidation • Variations in Processing: Why “Thinking It
The Role of Cues: Hints on Where to Dig • Supplying
Through” Is a Good Idea • Emotionally Charged Memories
Your Own Cues
STORING INFORMATION: Not Just One LTM 290

FACT, FICTION, AND FORGETTING: When Memory
Modality-Specific Memories: The Multimedia Brain 291 Goes Wrong 307
Semantic Versus Episodic Memory 291 False Memories 307
Explicit Versus Implicit Memories: Not Just the Implanting Memories • Distinguishing Fact From Fiction
Facts, Ma’am 292 Forgetting: Many Ways to Lose It 310
Classically Conditioned Responses • Nonassociative Encoding Failure: Lost in Translation * Decay: Fade
Learning • Habits • Skills: Automatic Versus Controlled Away • Interference: Tangled Up in Memory • Intentional
Processing • Priming Forgetting: Out of Mind, Out of Sight • Amnesia: Not Just
Biological Foundations of Memory 296 Forgetting to Remember
Specialized Brain Areas • Linking Up New Connections • Repressed Memories: Real or Imagined? 313
Genes and Memory • Stressed Memories
Looking at Levels: Autobiographical Memory 299 IMPROVING MEMORY: Tricks and Tools 315
CONTENTS
Enhancing Encoding: New Habits and Special Tricks 315 Enhancing Memory Retrieval: Knowing Where and How
Organize It! • Process It! • Mnemonic Tricks: Going the to Dig 319
Extra Mile REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 321
CHAPTER 8
LANGUAGE AND THINKING:
What Humans Do Best 324
LANGUAGE: More Than Meaningful Sounds 326 Prototypes: An Ostrich Is
The Essentials: What Makes Language Language? 326 a Bad Bird • How Are
Phonology: Some Say “ToMAYto” • Syntax: The Rules of the Concepts Organized? •
Road • Semantics: The Meaning Is the Message • Concepts in the Brain
Pragmatics: Being Indirect

Understanding Research: Untangling Ambiguity During PROBLEM SOLVING 356
Comprehension 333 Solving Problems: More Than Inspiration 357
Language Development: Out of the Mouths of Babes 335 Solving the Representation Problem: It’s All in How You
How Is Language Acquired? • Foundations of Language: Look at It • Algorithms and Heuristics: Getting From Here
Organizing the Linguistic World • Getting the to There • Solving Problems by Analogy: Comparing Features
Words • Grammar: Not From School • Biological Bases • Sudden Solutions • Cognitive Control
of Language Development Expertise: Why Hard Work Pays Off 362
Other Ways to Communicate: Are They Language? 342 Artificial Intelligence 364
Nonverbal Communication • Sign Language • Gesture: Is It Overcoming Obstacles to Problem Solving 365
fust for Show? • Aping Language
Bilingualism: A Window of Opportunity? 344 LOGIC, REASONING, AND DECISION MAKING 366
Are People Logical? 367
MEANS OF THOUGHT: Words, Images, Concepts 346 How People Reason • Logical Errors • Framing Decisions
Words: Inner Speech and Spoken Thoughts 347 Heuristics and Biases: Cognitive Illusions? 369
Putting Thoughts Into Words • Does Language Representativeness • Availability
Shape Thought?
Emotions and Decision Making: Having a Hunch 371
Mental Imagery: Perception Without Sensation 348 Looking at Levels: The Ultimatum Game 372
Mental Space • The Visualizing Brain • Limitations of
Mental Images as Vehicles of Thought REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 375
Concepts: Neither Images nor Words 352
CHAPTER
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE:
What Does It Mean to Be Smart? 378
MEASURING INTELLIGENCE: What Is IQ? 380
A Brief History of Intelligence Testing 381
Binet and Simon: Testing to Help • Terman and Wechsler:
Tests for Everyone
x CONTENTS
Interpreting IQ Scores: Standardized Samples and Norming • Genetic Effects: How Important Are Genes for Intelligence? •
Reliability and Validity Environmental Effects: More Real Than Apparent?
IQ and Achievement: IQ in the Real World 384 Group Differences in Intelligence 404
Within-Group Versus Between-Group Differences * Race
ANALYZING INTELLIGENCE: One Ability or Many? 385 Differences • Sex Differences
Psychometric Approaches: IQ, g, and Specialized Abilities 386 Boosting IQ: Pumping Up the Mind’s Muscle 409
Spearmans g Factor • Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities • The Flynn Effect: Another Reason to Appreciate Being
Cattell and Horn’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligences • Young • Accidentally Making Kids Smarter:
Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Ability • The g The Pygmalion Effect • Intelligence Enhancement
Factor and Specific Abilities in the Real World Programs: Mental Workouts
Emotional Intelligence: Knowing Feelings 391 Looking at Levels: Stereotype Threat 412
Multiple Intelligences: More Than One Way to Shine? 392

DIVERSITY IN INTELLIGENCE 414
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences: Something
Mental Retardation: People With Special Needs 414
for Everyone • Sternberg’s Analytic, Practical, and
Genetic Influences: When Good Genes Go Bad *
Creative Intelligences
Environmental Influences: Bad Luck, Bad Behavior
The Gifted 416
WHAT MAKES US SMART? Nature and Nurture 395
Creative Smarts 417
The Machinery of Intelligence 396
Creative Thinking: Not just Inspiration • What Makes a
Brain Size and Intelligence: Is Bigger Always Better? •
Person Creative? • Enhancing Creativity
Speed: Of the Essence? • Working Memory: juggling
Understanding Research: Constrained Creativity 421
More Balls
Smart Genes, Smart Environment: A Single System 399 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 423
CHAPTER 10
EMOTION AND MOTIVATION:
Feeling and Striving 426 _
EMOTION: I Feel, Therefore I Am 429 MOTIVATION AND
REWARD: More Than
Types of Emotion: What Can You Feel? 429
Feeling Good 449
Basic Emotions • Separate But Equal Emotions
Getting Motivated: Sources
What Causes Emotions? 432
and Theories of
Theories of Emotion: Brain, Body, and World • Physiological
Motivation 449
Profiles: Are Emotions just Bodily Responses? • Cognitive
Instincts: My Genes Made Me Do It • Drives and
Interpretation • Fear: The Amygdala and You • Positive
Homeostasis: Staying in Balance • Arousal Theory:
Emotions: More Than Feeling Good
Avoiding Boredom, Avoiding Overload • Incentives and
Expressing Emotions: Letting It All Hang Out? 440 Reward: Happy Expectations * Learned Helplessness:
Culture and Emotional Expression: Rules of the Mode Unhappy Expectations
Understanding Research: Culture and Emoting 441 Needs and Wants: The Stick and the Carrot 453
Body Language: Broadcasting Feelings • Emotion Regulation Is There More Than One Type of Reward? • Types of Needs:
Perceiving Emotions: A Form of Mind Reading 444 No Shortage of Shortages • Regulatory Fit • Achievement in
Reading Cues • Perceiving by Imitating: Making the Individualist Versus Collectivist Cultures
Match • Individual Differences in Emotion Perception Hunger and Eating: Not Just About Fueling
Looking at Levels: Lie Detection 446 the Body 458
CONTENTS
I xi
Eating Behavior: The Hungry Mind in the Hungry Body 459 Sexual Stimuli 470
Is Being Hungry the Opposite of Being Full? • Appetite: A Mating Preferences
Moving Target • Why Does It Taste Good? Sexual Orientation: More Than a Choice 472
Overeating: When Enough Is Not Enough 462 The Biology of Homosexuality • The Environment
Set Point: Your Normal Weight • Obesity and Homosexuality
Dieting 465 What’s Normal? 474
Cultural Variations: Experience Counts •
SEX: Not Just About Having Babies 466 Sexual Dysfunction: When Good Things Go Wrong •
Sexual Behavior: A Many-Splendored Thing 467 Atypical Sexual Behavior • Homophobia
Sexual Responses: Step by Step • The Role of Hormones: Do
Chemicals Dictate Behavior? REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 477
CHAPTER 11
PERSONALITY: Vive la Difference! 480
PERSONALITY: Historical Perspectives 482 Understanding Research:
Freud’s Theory: The Dynamic Personality 482 The Minnesota
The Structure of Personality • Personality Development: Study of Twins Reared
Avoiding Arrest • Defense Mechanisms: Protecting Apart 504
the Self • Freud’s Followers • Critiquing Freudian Heritability of

Theory: Is It Science? Personality •
Humanistic Psychology: Thinking Positively 487 Heritability of Specific Behaviors • Genes and the
Abraham Maslow • Carl Rogers Family Environment • How Do Genes Exert

Their Influence?
WHAT EXACTLY IS PERSONALITY? 489

LEARNING AND THE COGNITIVE ELEMENTS OF
Personality: Traits and Situations 489 PERSONALITY 509
The Power of the Situation • Interactions Between Situation Learning to Have Personality: Genes Are Not Destiny 509
and Personality
The Sociocognitive View of Personality: You Are What You
Factors of Personality: The Big Five? Three? More? 491 Expect 510
Measuring Personality: Is Grumpy Really Grumpy? 493 Expectancies • Self-Efficacy • Reciprocal Determinism
Interviews • Observation * Inventories: Check This •
Projective Tests: Faces in the Clouds SOCIOCULTURAL INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY 513
Birth Order: Are You Number One? 513
BIOLOGY'S INFLUENCES ON PERSONALITY 497 Sex Differences in Personality: Nature and Nurture 515
Temperament: Waxing Hot or Cold 497 Sociocultural Explanations • Biological Explanations
Shyness: The Wallflower Temperament • Sensation Seeking: Culture and Personality 517
What’s New? Personality Changes Within a Culture, Over Time: The Times
Biologically Based Theories of Personality 499 They Are A-Changin • Consistent Personality Differences
Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Systems * Across Cultures: Different Strokes for Different Countries •
Eysenck’s Theory • Cloninger’s Theory • Understanding Cultural Differences in Personality: How Do
Zuckermans Theoty • Comparing the Biologically Differences Arise?
Based Theories Looking at Levels: Attachment 520
Genes and Personality: Born to Be Mild? 504 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 525
CONTENTS
N
CHAPTER 12
PSYCHOLOGY OVER THE LIFE SPAN:
Growing Up, Growing Older, Growing Wiser 528
IN THE BEGINNING: From Conception to Birth 530 ADOLESCENCE:

Between Two
Prenatal Development: Nature and Nurture From
Worlds 562
the Start 530
Physical Development: In
From Zygote to Birth: Getting a Start in Life • Learning
Puberty’s Wake 562
and Behavior in the Womb • Teratogens: Negative
Cognitive Development: Getting It All Together 564
Environmental Events • Positive Environmental Events: The
More Reasoned Reasoning? • Adolescent Egocentrism:
Earliest Head Start
It’s All in Your Point of View
Understanding Research: Stimulating the Unborn 536
Social and Emotional Development: New Rules,
The Newborn: A Work in Progress 537
New Roles 565
Sensory Capacities • Reflexes • Temperament: Instant
“Storm and Stress”: Raging Hormones? • Evolving Peer
Personality
Relationships • Teenage Pregnancy
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD: Taking Off 541 ADULTHOOD AND AGING: The Continuously
Changing Self 568
Physical and Motor Development: Getting Control 541
Becoming an Adult 569
Perceptual and Cognitive Development:
The Changing Body: What’s Inevitable, What’s Not 569
Extended Horizons 543
Learning to Live With Aging • Why Do We Age?
Perceptual Development: Opening Windows on the
Perception and Cognition in Adulthood: Taking the Good
World • Long-Term Memory Development: Living
With the Bad 570
Beyond the Here and Now • Stages of Cognitive
Perception: Through a Glass Darkly? • Memory: Difficulties
Development: Piaget’s Theory • The Child’s Concepts:
in Digging It Out • Intelligence and Specific Abilities:
Beyond Piaget • Information Processing and Neural
Different Strokes for Different Folks
Development • Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Social and Emotional Development During Adulthood 575
Outside /Inside
Theories of Psychosocial Stages in Adulthood • Continued
Social and Emotional Development: The Child in
Personality Development • Mature Emotions * Adult
the World 554
Relationships: Stable Changes
Attachment: More Than Dependency • Is Daycare Bad for
Death and Dying 578
Children? • Self-Concept and Identity: The Growing Self •
Looking at Levels: Keeping the Aging Brain Sharp 580
Gender Identity and Gender Roles • Moral Development:
The Right Stuff REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 582
CHAPTER 13
STRESS, HEALTH, AND COPING 586
Multiple Stressors and
WHAT IS STRESS? 588
Their Time Course •
Stress: The Big Picture 588
When Stressed, Women
The Biology of Stress 589
May Tend and
The Alarm Phase: Fight or Flight • The Resistance Phase • "N
Befriend
The Exhaustion Phase • From Stressor to Allostatic Load:
CONTENTS Xlll
It’s How You Think of It: Interpreting Stimuli as Stressors 592 Problem-Focused and Emotion-Focused Coping
Appraisal: Stressors in the Eyes of the Beholder • Understanding Research: Emotional Disclosure
Perceived Control and Health 611
Sources of Stress 595 Thought Suppression • Humor: Is Laughter the Best
Internal Conflict • Life Hassles • Work- and Economic- Medicine? • Aggression: Coping Gone Awry
Related Factors • Hostility Personality and Coping 616
The Healthy Personality: Control, Commitment, Challenge •
STRESS, DISEASE, AND HEALTH 601 Optimism and Pessimism: Look on the Bright Side • Avoiders
The Immune System: Catching Cold 602 Versus Nonavoiders • Genes and Coping
Cancer 603 Coping and Social Support 619
Heart Disease 603 Enacted Social Support • Perceived Social Support
How Stress Affects the Heart • Stress, Emotions, and Heart Mind-Body Interventions 621
Disease • Lifestyle Can Make a Difference
The Effects of Mind-Body Interventions • The Placebo Effect
Health-Impairing Behaviors 605 as a Mind-Body Intervention
Why Do We Engage in Health-Impairing Behaviors? • Gender, Culture, and Coping 622
Changing Health-Impairing Behaviors • Moving Through the
Gender Differences in Coping • Cultural Differences
Stages: The Shifting Pros and Cons
in Coping
Looking at Levels: Voodoo Death 624
STRATEGIES FOR COPING 609
Coping Strategies: Approaches and Tactics 609 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 626
chapter 14
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS:
More Than Everyday Problems 628
IDENTIFYING PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: Level of the Brain in
What's Abnormal? 630 Mood Disorders •
Defining Abnormality 630 Level of the Person in
Distress • Impairment • Danger • Cultural and Social Mood Disorders *
Influences Level of the Group in
Explaining Abnormality 632 Mood Disorders • Interacting Levels: Depression Is as
The Brain: Genes, Neurotransmitters, and Brain Structure Depression Does
and Function • The Person: Behaviors, Thoughts and Biases,
and Emotions • The Group: Social and Cultural Factors ANXIETY DISORDERS 648
Categorizing Disorders: Is a Rose Still a Rose by Any Other Panic Disorder 648
Name? 635 Level of the Brain in Panic Disorder • Level of the
History of the DSM • Disadvantages and Advantages of the Person in Panic Disorder • Level of the Group in
DSM Panic Disorder
Phobias: Social and Specific 651
MOOD DISORDERS 638
Level of the Brain in Phobias • Level of the Person in Phobias
Major Depressive Disorder: Not Just Feeling Blue 638 • Level of the Group in Phobias
Understanding Research: Symptoms of Depression in China Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) 653
and the United States 640
Level of the Brain in OCD • Level of the Person in OCD •
Bipolar Disorder: Going to Extremes 642 Level of the Group in OCD
Explaining Mood Disorders 643 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) 655
XIV CONTENTS
Level of the Brain in PTSD • Level of the Person in PTSD • Dissociative Amnesia and Dissociative Fugue • Dissociative
Level of the Group in PTSD • Interacting Levels: Individual Identity Disorder

Differences in Responses to Trauma Eating Disorders: You Are How You Eat? 670
Anorexia Nervosa: You Can Be Too Thin • Bulimia Nervosa •
SCHIZOPHRENIA 659 Explaining Eating Disorders
Symptoms: What Schizophrenia Looks Like 660 Looking at Levels: Binge Eating 674
Positive Symptoms • Negative Symptoms •

PERSONALITY DISORDERS 675
Diagnosing Schizophrenia
Axis II Personality Disorders 676
Subtypes of Schizophrenia 661
Antisocial Personality Disorder 677
Why Does This Happen to Some People, But
Understanding Antisocial Personality Disorder 678
Not Others? 662
Level of the Brain in Antisocial Personality Disorder • Level
Level of the Brain in Schizophrenia • Level of the Person in
of the Person in Antisocial Personality Disorder • Level of the
Schizophrenia • Level of the Group in Schizophrenia •
Group in Antisocial Personality Disorder • Interacting Levels
Interacting Levels in Schizophrenia
in Antisocial Personality Disorder
OTHER AXIS I DISORDERS: Dissociative and

A CAUTIONARY NOTE ABOUT DIAGNOSIS 680
Eating Disorders 667
Dissociative Disorders 668 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 680
CHAPTER 15
TREATMENT:
Healing Actions, Healing Words 684 ,jpP ■ if
HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON PSYCHOTHERAPY: Schizophrenia and

[
Insight-Oriented Therapies 686 Other Psychotic
Psychodynamic Therapy: Origins in Psychoanalysis 686 Disorders • Mood
Theory of Psychodynamic Therapy • Techniques of Disorders • Anxiety
Psychodynamic Therapy Disorders
Humanistic Therapy: Client-Centered Therapy 689 Electroconvulsive Therapy 705
Theory of Client-Centered Therapy • Techniques of Client- Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation 706
Centered Therapy
OTHER FORMS OF TREATMENT 707
Evaluating Insight-Oriented Therapies 690
Modalities: When Two or More Isn’t a Crowd 707
COGNITIVE-BEHAVIOR THERAPY 692 Group Therapy • Family Therapy •
Behavior Therapy and Its Techniques 692 Self-Help Therapies
Theory of Behavior Therapy • Techniques of Innovations in Psychotherapy 710
Behavior Therapy Psychotherapy Integration: Mixing and Matching •
Cognitive Therapy and Techniques: It’s the Thought Managed Care and Psychotherapy • Time and Therapy:
That Counts 697 Therapy Protocols and Brief Therapy • Technology and
Therapy: High-Tech Treatment
Theory of Cognitive Therapy • Techniques of
Cognitive Therapy Prevention: Sometimes Worth More Than a Pound
of Cure 713
Cognitive-Behavior Therapy 700
BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES 702 WHICH THERAPY WORKS BEST? 715
Psychopharmacology 702 Issues in Psychotherapy Research 715
CONTENTS
I xv
Positive Change in Therapy: The Healing Powers • Which Treatment Works Best for Which Disorder? • Therapy,
Comparing Therapy Approaches and the Allegiance Medication, or Both? • Treatment for an Ethnically
Effect • What’s an Appropriate Control Diverse Population
Group? • Reducing Confounds • Randomized How to Pick a Therapist and a Type of Therapy 726
Controlled Trials Looking at Levels: Treating Obsessive-Compulsive
Understanding Research: For OCD: CBT Plus Medication, Disorder 727
Without Exclusion 721 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 729
CHAPTER 16
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
Meeting of the Minds 732
SOCIAL COGNITION: Thinking About People 734
Making an Impression 734
Thin Slices Are Enough • Halo and Primacy Effects •
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy • Impression Management
Attitudes and Behavior: Feeling and Doing 738 Mating Preferences:
Your Cave or Mine?
Attitudes and Cognitions • Predicting Behavior • Behavior
Affects Attitudes • Assessing Attitudes Directly and Indirectly Social Organization: Group Rules, Group Roles 764
• Cognitive Dissonance • Attitude Change: Persuasion • Norms: The Rules of the Group • Roles and Status • When
Social Cognitive Neuroscience Roles Become Reality: The Stanford Prison Experiment
Stereotypes: Seen One, Seen ’Em All 746 Yielding to Others: Going Along With the Group 768
Stereotypes Affect Attention, Cognition, and Behavior • Conformity and Independence: Doing What’s Expected •
Cognition and Prejudice Compliance: Doing What You’re Asked • Obedience: Doing
Understanding Research: How Stereotypes Can Prime as You’re Told
Behavior 748 Performance in Groups: Working Together 774
Processes Perpetuating Unconscious Prejudice • Decision Making in Groups: Paths to a Decision • Social
Discrimination • Why Does Prejudice Exist? • Changing Loafing and Social Compensation • Social Facilitation:
Prejudice: Easier Said Than Done Everybody Loves an Audience
Attributions: Making Sense of Events 755 Helping Behavior: Helping Others 776
What Is the Cause? • Taking Shortcuts: Prosocial Behavior • Bystander Intervention
Attributional Biases Looking at Levels: Cults 780
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR: Interacting With People 758

A FINAL WORD: Ethics and Social Psychology 781
Relationships: Having a Date, Having a Partner 759 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 782
References R-l
Glossary> G-l
Name Index NI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Credits C-l
xvi CONTENTS
PREFACE
How can we write a book that engages students and provides them with an integrated
introduction to the field of psychology? That is what we asked each other as we began
writing this textbook. One of us is a cognitive neuroscientist and the other a clinical
psychologist. In writing collaboratively, we began to see how our different areas of psy¬
chology were dovetailing. Our teaching experience convinced us that the different
areas of psychology really are facets of the same whole —and we were inspired to try to
bring this view to a larger audience. We also wanted to show students how to apply the
results of psychological research to make learning and remembering easier—not just
for this course, but for any course, from economics to art history, and for the demands
of life in general. In this edition, we continue to pursue our goal of presenting an in¬
tegrated view of psychology, and we’ve tried to make the textbook even more accessi¬
ble for students —to help them better understand and retain the material they read and
to help them identify gaps in their understanding.
Our Vision: Psychology in Context

Our vision has always been a textbook that better integrates the field of psychology. We
do this by exploring how psychology can be viewed in terms of psychological events
that occur in the context of other sorts of psychological events. The key to this ap¬
proach is the idea that psychology can best be understood in terms
of events that occur at different levels of analysis, a concept widely
used in psychology and other sciences and in the real world. This
approach leads us to focus on events in the brain (biological fac¬
tors), the person (beliefs, desires and feelings), and the group (so¬
cial, cultural and environmental factors). We stress that not only do
all of these events occur in the physical world, where we are bathed
with specific stimuli and behave in accordance with certain goals,
but they also are constantly interacting.
One central idea of this book is that events at any two of the lev¬
els of analysis serve as the context for events at the remaining level.
To understand fully events in the brain, we must also consider
what’s going on at the levels of the person and the group; by the
same token, to understand events at the level of the person, we
must consider the context of the brain and the group; and to un¬
derstand events at the level of the group, we must consider the con¬
text of the brain and the person. No one level has a special status
or is most important; any level can be the focus of our interest,
leading the other levels to serve as the context. So important is this
idea that we changed the title of this book —to stress that events at all three levels are
always occurring and that events at any two levels serve as the context for understand¬
ing events at the third level.
For example, our brains are affected by our beliefs (just think of how worrying can
make our bodies become tense, which is a direct result of events in the brain), and our
social interactions both shape and are affected by our beliefs. In fact, as we discuss in
this book, social interactions can actually cause the genes in our brain cells to operate
I xvn
differently. All psychological phenomena—from group interactions to psychological
disorders, memory, and creativity—can best be understood by considering events at all
three levels and how they interact, both with the world and with each other.
This view of psychology is exciting because it offers a way to organize a diverse
range of theories and discoveries. The different areas of psychology are interconnected,
although they are not often presented this way in textbooks. We wrote this book be¬
cause no other textbook, in our opinion, was able to succeed in connecting the diverse
areas of psychology.
Greater Emphasis
on the Science of Psychology
In the second edition of this book, we added a chapter on research methods (Chap¬
ter 2). Given our emphasis on the science of psychology, we decided that stu¬
dents really needed to see this material in one place. This chapter describes the
scientific method, types of studies that psychologists typically conduct, and funda¬
mental concepts of statistics. In addition, we describe a novel way to conceptualize
and analyze research. The QALMRI method relies on clearly un¬
derstanding the Question the research study asks, the Alternative
UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH answers that are considered, and the Logic that is applied to dis¬
j Constrained Creativity tinguish among the possible answers, as well as the Method, the
Question: Many people believe that truly creative thought requires freedom, but Results, and the Inferences that can be drawn from the results. We
others have argued that creativity thrives when there is a great deal of structure. use this method in Chapter 2 to take a detailed look at a specific
When a problem is specified precisely and the approach is made very clear, is it eas¬
ier to be creative? study, and we continue to use it in each of the subsequent chap¬
Alternatives: (i) Structure can facilitate creativity. (2) Structure can inhibit creativ¬
ters in this book; in fact, in each chapter, we use the method to
ity. (3) Structure makes no difference. examine one study in detail, in an updated feature called
LOGIC: Goldenberg and colleagues (1999) programmed a computer to engage in the Understanding Research.
most extreme form of structured thinking: following an algorithm, a step-by-step set of
rules. If such structure facilitates creativity, then the computer should be able to pro-
In the third edition, we have continued to update and in¬
| duce creative solutions—perhaps more of them than humans who are not working crease our coverage of relevant, cutting-edge scientific advances
within such a strict structure.
and their influences on the field of psychology. We also pride our¬
| Method: The researchers first studied effective advertisements and noticed that they
selves on providing the most comprehensive and yet accessible cov¬
seemed to rely on a few simple ideas (which are involved in creativity in general;
| Boden, 2000). For instance, many involved replacing properties of one thing with those erage of neuroscience for the introductory psychology student.
of another: An ad for Bally shoes, for example, suggested that the shoes gave wearers a
sense of freedom by showing clouds or an inviting island in the shape of a shoe; the
Moreover, we put the neuroscience solidly in a psychological con¬
sense of freedom conveyed by the clouds and the island was intended to transfer to the text; we don’t describe facts about the brain for their own sake, but
shoes. After being armed with such rules, the computer was asked to describe ads for
specific products in order to convey certain messages; its suggestions were then com¬
rather show how such facts illuminate psychology. We show how
pared to those from humans (who were not in the ad business). findings about the brain are best understood in the context of the
... person and the group.
Text Organization_
Most psychology textbooks have anywhere from 16 to 22 chapters; ours has 16. Market
research has shown that when using textbooks with more than 16 chapters, introduc¬
tory psychology instructors often end up either either skipping chapters or parts of a
chapter in the interest of time or requiring students to read multiple chapters per week.
Neither option is ideal, and both are likely to result in only a superficial grasp of the
field as a whole. Introductory psychology is intended to be a survey of the entire field,
and we believe that a book with 16 chapters allows students to sample all the areas of
psychology. We have carefully chosen core and cutting-edge concepts, theories, and
findings, to give students a thorough understanding of the field.
xviii PREFACE
\
Enhanced Pedagogical Features__

Within each chapter of the third edition, we have chunked the material into smaller
and thus easier-to-retain units of information to help students more readily learn it.
This means an increased number of headings at all levels. Furthermore, the headings
themselves are written to provide concise overviews of the material covered in the text
sections, which allows students to use these headings both as a roadmap to the chapter
and as an aid while studying. For easier studying and remembering, we have also
grouped appropriate material into bulleted or numbered lists. In addition, the running
foot of each right-hand page of a spread lists all the major sections within the chapter.
The section in which material on that page is in¬
cluded is highlighted in red, SO students are Measuring Intelligence / Analyzing Intelligence / What Makes Us Smart? / Diversity in Intelligence / Review and Remember 397
never lost—they see where they are, where

they’ve been, and what lies ahead.
Chapter Story
We begin each chapter with a story about a person or group. The story is then elab¬
orated on throughout the chapter, providing a framework for the chapter’s discussion
of relevant psychological theories and research. These stories serve several purposes.
They allow students to see how the psychological material covered in the chapter
might apply to people outside of a psychological laboratory. They also make the
oanne (J. K.) Rowling’s books about the young wiz¬

ard Harry Potter have catapulted her into the role
of international superstar and made her one of the
world’s wealthiest people. These books are chock
full of clever plot twists and novel ideas. For ex¬
ample, the long-dead people in the portraits hanging
on the walls throughout Harry’s school not only talk, but
develop relationships with each other. Photographs are not
the inanimate tracings of remembered events, but instead
are living entities, whose subjects come and go. Rowling
got the idea for Harry Potter in a flash, and she knew from
the start that she would write a seven-book series. She took
5 years to plan the series in detail, working out the plots
1 for each of the novels. When she writes each book, “I
know what and who’s coming when, and it can feel like
greeting old friends” (Fraser, 2000, p. 39). Think of it!
What does it take to work out the details of seven novels
in advance? Especially when you must not only attend to
the usual ingredients of story-telling (the characters, the
plot, and so on), but also need to create (and keep con¬
sistent) a whole new world?
At an early age, it was clear that Joanne Rowling had something special. To hear
her tell it, “1 was the epitome of a bookish child—short and squat, thick National
Health glasses, living in a world of complete daydreams, wrote stories endlessly and oc-
: casionally came out of the fog to bully my poor sister and force her to listen to my sto-
: ries and play the games I’d just invented.... I always felt I had to achieve, my hand
f always had to be the first to go up, I always had to be right” (Smith, 2001, p. 45). She
proved more than adept at making up long and complex stories and was extraordinar¬
ily inventive. Foreshadowing her later interests, as a child, she made up games of wiz¬
ards and witches, devising spells and concocting strange brews.
PREFACE
I xix
material more interesting and applicable to students’ lives, thus facilitating learning
and remembering. In addition, each story integrates the various topics addressed
within a chapter, creating a coherent thematic whole to further enhance students’
understanding. Finally, the story itself provides retrieval cues to help students re¬
member the material.
In the third edition, we have introduced two new stories: The story in Chapter 9
(Types of Intelligence) traces the life of J. K. Rowling, the creative mind behind the
wizard Harry Potter, and that in Chapter 10 (Emotion and Motivation) follows
Mahatma Gandhi on his long journey of peaceful activism for social justice. As stu¬
dents learn more about Rowling or Gandhi (or any of the other people in the chapter
stories) over the course of a chapter, they also learn more about psychological findings
and principles and their applications. Because students are likely to remember the bi¬
ographical information about these interesting individuals, they will also remember a
lot about the content of the chapter. The chapter story is referred to or continued at the
beginning of each section. This fosters integration with the rest of the chapter and in¬
troduces each section’s topic in an applied context.
Looking at Levels
Within each chapter, we take one aspect of the content—a theory or a psychologi¬
cal phenomenon —and consider it from the three levels of analysis: the brain, the
person, and the group, as well as the interactions among events at each level. For
instance, in Chapter 11 (Personality), we examine the con¬
. ... ( LOOKING AT LEVELS cept of attachment from the level of the brain (what hap¬
pens biologically and how attachment might be linked to
Attachment
temperament), the person (how feelings of attachment af¬
In our closest relationships, we develop deep attachments to fect a person’s sense of security and self-worth), and the
other people. However, people differ in their attachment group (how attachment style, which begins as a social event
I style—their way of relating to significant others. Before we can analyze the nature of attach¬
between infant and primary caretaker, in turn, influences
ment, we must consider some key facts about it. One crucial finding is that an adult’s attach-
{ ment style with a partner stems from the way that the adult interacted with his or her parent (or an individual’s interactions with other people throughout
life). Each Looking at Levels feature serves to integrate
knowledge about the brain, personal beliefs, desires, and feelings, and group inter¬
actions. Moreover, we show how events at each level can be the point of focus, with
events at the other two levels serving as the context; we show that no one level of
analysis is the most important, and no one level alone is sufficient to understand
psychological phenomena. We integrate these diverse types of knowledge within each
chapter, rather than relegating such information to one or two separate chapters. The
Looking at Levels features also forge bridges that reach across chapters, leading to
more effective learning and remembering.
Yourself Test Yourself

A young girl has an IQ of 50 and functions well socially. Her
At the end of each major section, the fully revised
3. Creative people are very likely to
mother was nearly 50 years old when the girl was born. What
is the most likely cause of her mental retardation?
a. be the offspring of noncreative people. Test Yourself feature asks general content questions
b. be chronically depressed.
a. fragile X syndrome c. autism c. have a low IQ. that students should be able to answer based on a
b. Down syndrome d. fetal alcohol syndrome d. be flexible in their thinking.
2. A gifted individual has an IQ 4. Research on enhancing creativity has found that it careful reading of the material. In the third edition,
a. the same as that of a normal person. a. can never be enhanced.
b. between 150 and 180, according to the most common b. is predominantly genetic. these are multiple-choice questions, whose answers
definition.
c. can be enhanced.
c. at least 2 standard deviations above the mean, 130. d. cannot be studied scientifically.
appear upside-down at the end of each set. This
d. over 200, if the person is truly gifted, but otherwise over
format should help students quickly identify which
180.
Answers
3 > P f <rz <rr concepts they’ve mastered and which topics will
need more of their attention before they move on.
xx
I PREFACE
Think It Through!
Critical thinking questions —called Think It Through! —are also provided for each
major section of the chapter, immediately following the Test Yourself content-
check questions. The Think It Through! questions
ask students to apply the material to real-world set- y j,; j, j *. Through!
tings or to the chapter-opening story, requiring The eugenics movement seeks to improve the human species by encouraging those with extremely low IQ scores not
to have children. What do you think of this idea? Do you think it is useful to define people as mentally retarded or
them to think deeply about the material. Such ac¬
gifted? Why or why not?
tive processing enhances memory. And the loca¬ Is creativity always desirable? What would the world be like if everyone were supercreative, always trying to
change things? In what circumstances might creativity be more of a drawback than a benefit? Do you think ail
tion of these questions encourages students to phases of the creative process rely equally on intelligence? If not, are there ways in which people of differing intelli¬
immediately apply and analyze the information gence might best work together to be creative?
they have just acquired.
Understanding Research
Certain basic elements are included in all research reports. In the Understanding
Research features, we discuss and illustrate these elements, to help students as they
read and interpret published research studies and as they write up their own research.
In each chapter, we walk students through a selected research study so that they can
understand the content in greater depth and learn to think critically about research.
In the third edition, each Understanding Research feature is followed by a Think
Critically! question set, which asks students to reflect on how best to interpret the
research results.
Review and Remember!

We have fully revised the end-of-chapter review elements to help students further grasp
and consolidate what they have learned. The new two-column format allows students
to review key concepts from each major sec¬
tion and to note their own questions,
mnemonics, and content reminders.
REVIEW AND REMEMBER!
SUMMARY: A section-by-section outline Summary Your Notes
of the chapter’s material is provided in the
I. Measuring Intelligence: What Is IQ?
left-hand column of each Review and A. The most common measure of intelligence is the score on an intelligence test,
Remember! section. These outlines high¬ called the intelligence quotient, or IQ. IQ scores are a composite of many
different underlying abilities, and the same IQ score can arise from different
light key points that students should know mixtures of relative strengths and weaknesses.
after a thorough reading of the material. B. The most common IQ tests, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
They help consolidate the core material and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), consist of two sets
of subtests, one that assesses verbal performance and one that assesses non¬
even further into memory. verbal performance.
C. IQjtow based, on, norms: 100

Your Notes: In the right-hand column C. When first devised, IQ was a measure of mental age compared to chronological
average,; 15
=
one-standard,
age. Today, IQ scores are based on standardized norms for large samples, which =
of the Review and Remember! section, stu¬ are updated periodically so that the mean score on the WAIS or the WISC is deviation.
always 100 and a standard deviation is 15.

dents are encouraged to write their own
Scores on IQ tests are positively correlated with achievement in school and
thoughts, questions, and mnemonics, as well on the job; they are also correlated with many aspects of success in life, such
as study tips for each chapter. A sprinkling of as staying out of prison or having an enduring marriage.
sample notes is provided in each chapter.

KEY TERMS: Each end-of-chapter review also contains a list of key terms, includ¬
ing page references, to aid students in mastering key psychological vocabulary. The
key terms are highlighted in the text, and their definitions are provided in a mar¬
ginal glossary that runs throughout each chapter, as well as in an alphabetized end-
of-book glossary.
PREFACE xxi
Hands On Features
In most chapters we have included at least one demonstration of psychological phe¬
nomena for students to try alone or with others. The brief exercises will (1) provide stu¬
dents with another way to learn about the phenomenon —experiencing, not merely
reading about it; (2) make the material more vivid, thereby enhancing students' atten¬
tion and memory; and (3) put psychological principles into a concrete context, show¬
ing students that the principles really can affect how we think, feel, and behave.
The mini demonstrations include:
Introspection (p. 12) False memory (pp. 307-308)
Simulated participation in a research study Interactive images (p. 317)
(pp. 49-50) Method of loci (p. 317)
Measured neural conduction time (p. 81) Pegword systems (p. 318)
Transduction in the retina (p. 138) Rhyming words (p. 318)
Finding your blind spot (p. 139) Building mnemonics (p. 318)
Dark adaptation (p. 139) Memory enhancing techniques (pp.
Seeing afterimages (p. 142) 319-320)
Ambiguous figures (p. 146) Discovering syntax (pp. 328-329)
Motion cues (p. 149) Mental imagery (pp. 349-350)
Recognition and identification (pp. 151-152) Prototypes (p. 353)
Pop-out (p. 158) The hiking monk problem (p. 357)
The Stroop Effect (p. 160) The candle problem (p. 358)
Supertaster test (p. 178) Wason and Johnson-Laird’s card task (p. 368)
Kinesthetic sense (p. 179) Mental models (p. 367)
Meditation (pp. 215-216) Representativeness (pp. 369-370)
Mental image and classical conditioning Prochaska self-test (p. 606-607)
(p. 242) Suicide misconceptions self-test (p. 641)
Chunking (p. 280) Progressive muscle relaxation (p. 694)
Lincoln's head on a penny (p. 283) Cognitive dissonance (p. 742)
Modality-specific memory (p. 291) Asch experiment (pp. 769-770)
Dendrites
Nucleus
New!
Action
potential
Enhanced Art Program and
Action potential
Graphics Display_
The third edition includes an entirely new art program that fea¬
tures high-quality and appropriately colorized images. The style
Step 1: The action potential and color schemes are carried throughout the book, so students
reaches the end of the axon.
Terminal don’t encounter a hand-rendered fuchsia brain on one page and a
button
grainy green brain photograph on another. Scrupulous adherence
Vesicles to one art style should help students develop and reinforce their
Step 2: Synaptic
vesicles release own consistent mental images of important content material.
neurotransmitters Many illustrations continue to highlight, in step-by-step fash¬
into the synaptic
ion, some of the most important studies covered in the book.
cleft.
Examples are a study on alcohol and sexual aggression (p. 222),
Watson’s famous experiment with Little Albert (p. 239), Bandura’s
Synaptic Dendrite of 1 Step 3: Neurotransmitters
Bobo doll experiment (p. 270), Schachter and Singer’s experi¬
bind to receptors and the
■ action potential is transmitted. ment on cognitive influences on emotion (p. 436), and Festinger’s
and Carlsmith’s cognitive dissonance study (p. 742). These vi-
sual presentations not only complement the in-text
descriptions, they enhance learning in several ways:
■ The panels walk students through each study,
allowing them to understand its details more
fully.
■ The clear, uncomplicated illustrations use
perceptual principles to convey information
effectively (these principles are described in Initially, Little Albert did not show a fear of animals, but he Then the researchers presented a white rat (CS) and made
did exhibit fear if a loud noise was made behind his back the loud noise (US).
detail in Kosslyn, 1994a, in press). (a hammer striking a steel bar).
■ This dual-mode format promotes both verbal

and visual learning; students can recall either
the words in the text or the illustrations when
they remember the study.
After five presentations of the CS and US, Albert developed a phobia
■ Working through these illustrations leads to of rats—he began whimpering and withdrawing (the conditioned emotional
response) and trying to avoid the rat. After two more presentations of the
active processing—and better remembering. CS and US, he immediately began crying on seeing the rat. "He ... fell over
on his left side, raised himself... and began to crawl away so rapidly that
he was caught with difficulty before reaching the edge of the table"
We have also added many new photos to illus¬ (Watson & Rayner, 1920, p. 5).
trate particularly important or interesting facts or
research findings. The photo captions convey infor¬
mation pertinent to the section, and the photos themselves are hooks that students
can use to anchor their understanding of the material.
What's New in the Third Edition?

Every chapter is full of discussion of cutting-edge research, accessibly presented with
engaging real-world examples that make the material relevant and interesting to read¬
ers. Examples of the key changes in the third edition are listed below by chapter.
Chapter 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

■ Revised and expanded explanation of the unique levels-of-analysis approach
■ Clear definition and discussion of psychodynamic theory
■ Expanded discussion of cognitive neuroscience, which continues to draw on the skill
of Tiger Woods to illustrate the concept
■ Two new sections, entitled ‘The State of the Union: Psychology Today and 1 he
Changing Face of Psychology,” to highlight new developments in the field and the in¬
creasing role of women
■ New illustrations showing the jobs held by graduates with a B.A. in psychology and
their job satisfaction
Discussion of the burgeoning field of neuroethics in a new section called “New
Frontiers: Neuroethics”
■ 13 new citations of references
Chapter 2: The Research Process: How We Find Things Out

■ New text and illustrations to explain the steps of the scientific method
■ Revised table summarizing the different research methods used in psychology
* 3 new citations of references
Chapter 3: The Biology of Mind and Behavior: The Brain in Action

■ Expanded coverage of glial cells and how they work in conjunction with neurons
New section on the components of the sensory-somatic nervous system
* Revised discussion of the central nervous system
PREFACE xxiii
■ Revised and expanded discussion of how the different parts of the brain work together
■ Expanded discussion of the neuroimmune system and how the brain helps fight disease
■ Revised Looking at Levels feature, “The Musical Brain”
■ New photos to illustrate key concepts
■ Discussion of magnetoencephalography (MEG) and its uses
■ Discussion of new research in genetics and its relationship to the mind and behavior
■ New coverage of knockout and knockin mice
■ New figure illustrating how features of the environment can select among variations of
characteristics, called natural selection
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception: How the World Enters the Mind
• Expanded discussion of color vision, newly formatted to make it easier for students to
understand
Reorganization of the section on visual perception for improved readability and
understanding
B Expanded discussion of bottom-up and top-down processing
® New section, “Combining What and Where: Faces and Gazes,” discussing how the
two visual pathways work together
New discussion of decibels, with an illustration to clarify the concept
■ New illustration of dichotic listening
■ Expanded discussion of pheromones and the behavior they elicit
Chapter 5: Consciousness: Focus on Awareness

■ Revised introduction to the nature of consciousness
■ New and revised figures, tables, and photos to highlight key concepts
■ New Understanding Research feature, “Sleep Deprivation Lite”
■ New table outlining different theories of why we dream
■ Discussion of new research findings related to sleep apnea
Expansion of the Looking at Levels feature, Recovery from Jet Lag,” including a new
table with methods of combating jet lag
■ Expanded discussion of the ways in which hypnosis can help with pain management
■ Revised section on the biology of meditation
■ New table summarizing the psychological effects of alcohol
Discussion of MDMA (also known as ecstasy or “e”)
Chapter 6: Learning
■ Explanation of how sensitization occurs
■ Division of the main section on classical conditioning into smaller units for improved
readability and understanding
■ New photos and figures to highlight key concepts
■ Extended coverage of taste aversion in the Understanding Research feature, “The
Discovery of Taste Aversion”
■ New coverage on conditioning and chemotherapy
■ Revised discussion of operant conditioning
■ Discussion of additional research findings regarding delayed reinforcement
■ Expanded discussion of observational learning
Revised Looking at Levels feature, “Facial Expressions as Reinforcement and
Punishment”
Discussion of the actor-critic model of learning and its biological bases
Chapter 7: Memory: Living With Yesterday

■ Revised chapter organization and introduction
■ Revised coverage of types of memory stores
■ Revised discussion of how we make memories
■ New photos, tables, and figures to illustrate key concepts
* New section about automatic versus controlled processing
* New discussion of brain specialization
■ Expanded discussion of stress and its effect on memory
■ Revised coverage of memory retrieval
■ New section about hypnosis and memory
■ Discussion of new research findings related to false memories
■ New section about intentional forgetting
■ Expanded coverage of amnesia
m Expanded coverage of repressed memories
* Revised section on tools and tricks that aid memory
Chapter 8: Language and Thinking: What Humans Do Best

■ Expanded coverage of language development with a new introduction to the
section
* Discussion of latest research on the role of environment in language acquisition in
section titled “Enriching Environments”
■ New illustrations and tables to demonstrate key concepts
■ Expanded discussion of the neural bases of recollection
■ Expanded discussion of prototypes
* Discussion of new research on the relationship between studying and GPA
■ Expanded coverage of inductive and deductive reasoning
■ Expanded coverage of the availability heuristic
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “The Ultimatum Game”
Chapter 9: Types of Intelligence: What Does It Mean to Be Smart?

* New opening story about J. K. Rowling
■ Reorganization of some of the key concepts
■ Expanded coverage of factor analysis
■ Expanded discussion of fluid and crystallized intelligences
■ New figures and tables to demonstrate key concepts
■ Detailed discussion of Carroll’s Three-Stratum Theory of Cognitive Ability
Revised discussion of IQ and specific abilities in the real world
■ Two new subsections, “The Importance of Having a Good Personality/” and “The
Importance of Analyzing the Tasks”
■ Revised and expanded discussion of the role of working memory in intelligence
■ Expanded discussion of twins and the effects of the prenatal environment
■ Revised and expanded discussion of group differences in intelligence
■ Expanded coverage of biological factors and sex differences in intelligence
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “Stereotype Threat”
Chapter 10: Emotion and Motivation: Feeling and Striving

■ New opening story featuring Mahatma Gandhi
■ Expanded discussion of theories of emotion
■ Expanded discussion of fear
■ Revised discussion of happiness
■ New section, “Positive Psychology: More Than a State of Mind”
■ Revised discussion of body language
■ Expanded information on emotions and the brain
■ New section, “Perceiving Emotions: A Form of Mind Reading,” discussing cues that
help us interpret emotions, such as body language, tone of voice, and facial expressions
■ Expanded Looking at Levels feature, “Lie Detection”
■ New introduction to the section on motivation and reward
■ New section dealing with regulatory fit
■ Expanded section on dieting, with a new table on popular diets and the key concerns
physicians have with them
■ New discussion of androgen insensitivity syndrome
Chapter 11: Personality: Vive la Difference!

■ New chapter organization
■ Revised treatment of personality traits
■ Reorganization of the discussion of the effect of situation on personality
■ Expanded discussion of personality dimensions (superfactors)
■ New sections, “Sensation Seeking,” “Biologically Based Theories of Personality,” and
“Behavioral Activation and Inhibition Systems”
■ Revised discussion of Eysenck’s theory
■ Expanded discussion of Cloninger’s and Zuckerman’s theories of personality
■ New introduction to genes and their influence on personality
■ Expanded discussion of the sociocognitive aspects of personality
■ Expanded coverage of the relationship between culture and personality
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “Attachment”
* 74 new citations of references
Chapter 12: Psychology Over the Life Span: Growing Up, Growing
Older, Growing Wiser
■ New discussion of maturation
■ Expanded discussion of the effects of teratogens on a fetus
■ Expanded discussion of the effect of a positive environment on a fetus
XXVI
I PREFACE
■ Expanded coverage of sensory perception in babies
■ Revised discussion of brain development and memory
■ Expanded discussion of changes in information processing with cognitive development
■ Expanded discussion of attachment
■ Expanded section on gender roles
■ Expanded coverage of adolescent cognitive development
■ New introduction to the section titled “Becoming an Adult”
■ Discussion of the less differentiated brain in the section about adult development
■ Expanded coverage on the aging brain
Chapter 13: Stress, Health, and Coping

■ New section, “From Stressor to Allostatic Load: Multiple Stressors and Their Time
Course”
■ New section on cognitive appraisal of stimuli
■ Revised and expanded coverage of coping strategies
■ Expanded discussion of optimism and pessimism
■ Expanded coverage of social support
■ New introduction to mind-body interventions
■ Revised Looking at Levels feature, “Voodoo Death”
Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders: More Than Everyday Problems

■ Increased emphasis on looking at psychological disorders from the three levels of
brain, person, and group, as well as on considering how events at the different levels
interact
■ Expanded discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of the DSM
■ Revised discussion of major depressive disorder
■ Reorganization of the section “Explaining Mood Disorders” for improved readability
and understanding
■ Revised discussion of how events at the various levels interact with each other to lead
to depression
■ Revised coverage of phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress
disorder
■ Revised and reorganized discussion of schizophrenia and its subtypes
■ Expanded discussion of how eating disorders can be explained at the level of the person
■ Expanded cautionary note about the diagnosis of psychological disorders
Chapter 15: Treatment: Healing Actions, Healing Words

■ New introduction, with information about historical influences on psychotherapy
■ New section, “Evaluating Insight-Oriented Therapies”
■ Expanded section, “Techniques Based on Classical Conditioning”
■ Expanded and revised coverage of psychopharmacology
■ New coverage of how the placebo effect can lessen depression
■ Revised discussion of self-help treatments
■ Expanded discussion of therapy protocols
■ Revised discussion of the use of technology in psychotherapy
■ New discussion of research methods, including appropriate control groups, potential
confounds, and randomized controlled trials
■ New Looking at Levels feature, “Treating Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder”
Chapter 16: Social Psychology: Meeting of the Minds

■ Expanded information on the self-fulfilling prophecy
■ Revised discussion of direct versus indirect methods of assessing attitudes
■ Expanded discussion of persuasion
■ Expanded coverage of social cognitive neuroscience
■ Expanded discussion of prejudice and the ways it influences behavior
Instructor and Student Resources

Psychology in Context, Third Edition, is accompanied by the following teaching and
learning tools.
Instructor Supplements
New! Psychology in Context, Instructor's Classroom Kit and CD-ROM,
Volumes I and II Our unparalleled classroom kit includes every instructional aid
an introductory psychology professor needs to excel in the classroom. We have made
our resources even easier to use by placing all of our print supplements
in two convenient volumes. Organized by chapter, each volume contains the
Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, Grade Aid Study Guide, and slides from the PowerPoint
presentation. Electronic versions of the Instructor’s Manual, Test Bank, PowerPoint
presentation, images from the text, and video clips, all searchable by key terms, are
made easily accessible to instructors on the accompanying Classroom Kit CD-ROMs.
■ Instructor’s Manual Written and updated for this edition by Marcia }.

McKinley of Mount St. Mary’s University, this robust teaching resource can be
used by first-time or experienced instructors. Included are numerous handouts,
detailed chapter outlines, lecture material, suggested reading and video sources,
teaching objectives, and classroom activities and demonstrations.
■ Test Bank Featuring more than 100 questions per chapter, the Test Bank
includes multiple-choice, true/false, short answer, and essay items, each coded
with difficulty rating, page references, and answer justifications. The test¬
writing team includes Rose Marie Ward of Miami University of Ohio, Michael
McGuire of Washburn University, Robert Sorrells of Central Washington
University, and Kristin Vickers of Ryerson University. The Test Bank is
also available in TestGen 5.5 computerized version, for use in personaliz¬
ing tests.
■ PowerPoint™ Presentation The PowerPoint presentation for Psychology in
Context includes images and key topics from the textbook and a link to the com¬
panion Web site for corresponding activities. T he PowerPoint presentation is in¬
cluded on the Instructor’s Classroom Kit CD-ROM and can also be downloaded
from the Instructor Resource Center at www.ablongman.com/kosslyn3e.
XXVlll
I PREFACE
MYPSYCHLAB This interactive and instructive multimedia resource can be used to
supplement a traditional lecture course or to administer a course entirely online. It is
an all-inclusive tool, a text-specific e-book plus multimedia tutorials, audio, video, sim¬
ulations, animations, and controlled assessment to completely engage students and re¬
inforce learning. Fully customizable and easy to use, MyPsychLab meets the
individual teaching and learning needs of every instructor and every student. Visit the
site at www.mypsychlab.com.
New! Printed Appendix on Industrial/Organizational Psychology Avail

able for the first time with this edition, this appendix provides students with a valuable
overview of the growing field of industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology. In this
guide, students can see how the psychological concepts presented in the textbook are
applied in the real world in any professional workplace. Regardless of the careers stu¬
dents pursue, they may be affected by the work of I/O psychologists, in anything from
the description of a position they wish to obtain to the interview and evaluation
processes to the way the work environment is designed.
Insights into Psychology Video or DVD, Vols. I-IV These video programs in¬
clude two or three short clips per topic, covering such topics as animal research, para¬
psychology, health and stress, Alzheimer’s disease, bilingual education, genetics and
IQ, and much more. A Video Guide containing critical thinking questions accompa¬
nies each video. Also available on DVD.
The Blockbuster Approach: A Guide to Teaching Introductory Psychology

with Video The Blockbuster Approach is a unique print resource for instructors
who enjoy enhancing their classroom presentations with films. With heavy coverage of
general, abnormal, social, and developmental psychology, this guide suggests a wide
range of films to use in class and provides questions for reflection and other pedagogi¬
cal tools to make the classroom use of film more effective.
New! Interactive Lecture Questions for Clickers These lecture questions will
jump-start exciting classroom discussions.
Allyn and Bacon Digital Media Archive for Psychology, 5.0 This com¬
prehensive source includes still images, audio clips, web links, animation and video
clips. Highlights include classic experimental psychology footage from Stanley
Milgrim’s Invitation to Social Psychology, biology animations, and more—with cov¬
erage of such topics as eating disorders, aggression, therapy, intelligence, and sensa¬
tion and perception.
Introduction to Psychology Transparency Package The Transparency Kit

includes approximately 230 full-color acetates to enhance classroom lecture and dis¬
cussion-including images from all of Allyn and Bacon’s introductory psychology texts.
COURSE Management Use these preloaded, customizable, content and assessment

items to teach your online courses. Available in CourseCompass, Blackboard, and
WebCT formats.
Student Supplements
MyPsychLab, Student Version This interactive and instructive multimedia re¬
source is an all-inclusive tool, a text-specific e-book plus multimedia tutorials, audio,
video, simulations, animations, and controlled assessment to completely engage users
and reinforce learning. Easy to use, MyPsychLab meets the individual learning needs
of every student. Visit the site at www.mypsychlab.com.
PREFACE xxix
Tutor Center One-on-One Tutoring!-Now Included in MyPsychLab or
Available for Separate Purchase www.ablongman.com/tutorcenter/psych
A support service that’s available when you need it! Qualified tutors will answer ques¬
tions about material in the text. The Tutor Center is open during peak study hours —
in the late afternoon and evenings, 5-12 p.m. (EST), Sunday through Thursday during
the academic calendar.
Research Navigator -Now Included in MyPsychLab or Available for

Separate Purchase www.ablongman.com/researchnavigator The easiest
way to start a research assignment or research paper. Research Navigator™ helps you
quickly and efficiently make the most of your research time and write better papers.
The program provides extensive help with the research process and includes three ex¬
clusive databases of credible and reliable source material: EBSCO’s ContentSelect
Academic Journal Database, The New York Times Search by Subject Archive, and Allyn
and Bacon’s “Best of the Web” Link Library.
Grade Aid Study Guide with Practice Tests-Now included in MyPsychLab

OR AVAILABLE FOR SEPARATE PURCHASE Developed by Marcia J. McKinley at
Mount St. Mary’s College, this is a comprehensive and interactive study guide. Each
chapter includes: “Before You Read,” with a brief chapter summary and chapter learn¬
ing objectives; “As You Read,” a collection of demonstrations, activities, and exercises;
“After You Read,” containing three short practice quizzes and one comprehensive prac¬
tice test; “When You Have Finished,” with Web links for further information and cross¬
word puzzles using key terms from the text. An appendix includes answers to all
practice tests and crossword puzzles.
XXX
I PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We want to give a heartfelt thanks to the many reviewers who read earlier versions of one or
more chapters, sometimes the entire book, and helped shape this third edition. This is by far a
better book for their efforts.
Nancy Adler, University of California, San Nicholas Epley, University of Chicago Kevin Ochsner, Columbia University
Francisco Joseph R. Ferrari, DePaul University Kathy R. Phillippi-Immel, University of
Michael Todd Allen, University of Albert M. Galaburda, Harvard Medical Wisconsin, Fox Valley
Northern Colorado School Brad Pinter, Pennsylvania State University,
Marlene Behrmann, Carnegie Mellon Peter Gerhardstein, Binghamton University Altoona
University David T. Hall, Baton Rouge Community Robert Plomin, Institute of Psychiatry,
Bernard J. Baars, The Neurosciences College London
Institute Argye Hillis, Johns Hopkins School of Frank J. Provenzano, Greenville
Lisa Feldman Barrett, Boston College Medicine Technical College
Sara C. Broaders, Northwestern University Herman Huber, College of Saint Elizabeth Scott Rauch, Harvard Medical School
Ekaterina V. Burdo, Wright State School Alan E. Kazdin, Yale University School of Patricia Sampson, University of Maryland,
of Professional Psychology Medicine Eastern Shore
Howard Casey Cromwell, Bowling Green Andrea Rittman Lassiter, Minnesota State Lisa M. Shin, Tufts University
State University University, Mankato Jennifer Siciliani, University of Missouri,
Charles S. Carver, University of Miami Angela Lipsitz, Northern Kentucky St. Louis
Patrick Cavanagh, Harvard University University William C. Spears, Louisiana State
KinHo Chan, Hartwick College Jon K. Maner, Florida State University University
Jonathan D. Cohen, Princeton University Michele Mathis, University of North Larry R. Squire, University of California,
Virginia Ann Cylke, Sweet Briar College Carolina, Wilmington San Diego
Richard J. Davidson, University of Stuart McKelvie, Bishop’s University Robert Stickgold, Harvard Medical School
Wisconsin, Madison Richard J. McNally, Harvard University Lisa Valentino, Seminole Community
Mark Davis, University of West Alabama Steven E. Meier, University of Idaho College
Pamela Davis-Kean, University of Robin K. Morgan, Indiana University Tor Wager, Columbia University
Michigan Southeast J. Celeste Walley-Jean, Spelman College
Douglas R. Detterman, Case Western Eric S. Murphy, University of Alaska, Daniel T. Willingham, University of
Reserve University Anchorage Virginia
Wendy Domjan, University of Texas, Lynn Nadel, University of Arizona Karen L. Yanowitz, Arkansas State
Austin Margaret Nauta, Illinois State University University
Dale V. Doty, Monroe Community Jason Nier, Connecticut College Marvin Zuckerman, University of
College Matthew K. Nock, Harvard University Delaware
We also want to thank the reviewers who helped shape previous editions: They helped cre¬
ate the foundation on which this new edition is built. Their comments were invaluable. (Note
that the institution given below as the affiliation for each reviewer was accurate at the time of
the review; some affiliations may have changed since then.)
Second Edition Reviewers

Joel Alesancer, Western Oregon University Sarah Bing, University of Maryland, Laura Cartensen, Stanford University
Mark Bardgett, Northern Kentucky Eastern Shore Patrick Cavanagh, Llarvard University
University Galen Bodenhausen, Northwestern Paul Costa, National Institute of Aging,
Mark Baxter, Harvard University University NIH
Marlene Behrmann, Carnegie Mellon Douglas Cody Brooks, Denison University Joseph Davis, San Diego State University
University Greg Buchanan, Beloit College Perri Bruen, York College
Joseph Bilotta, Western Kentucky Michelle Butler, U.S. Air Force Lorin Elias, University of Saskatchewan
University Academy Delbert Ellsworth, Elizabethtown College
I XXXI
Merrill Garrett, University of Arizona Alan Kazdin, Yale University Todd D. Nelxon, California State
Michael Garza, Brookhaven College Melvyn King, State University of New University
Peter Gerhardstein, State University of York-Cortland Jacqueline Pope-Tarrence, Western
New York-Binghamton Joseph LeDoux, New York University Kentucky University
Harvey Ginsburg, Southwest Texas State Matthew Lieberman, University of Beth Post, University of California, Davis
University California, Los Angeles Celia Reaves, Monroe Community
Jordan Grafman, National Institute of Serry Loch, Paradise Valley Community College
Neurological Disorders and College Gregory Robinson-Riegler, University of
Strokes Linda Lockwood, Metropolitan State St. Thomas
Dana Gross, St. Olaf College College Bennett Schwartz, Florida International
Larry Hawk, State University of New Eric Loken, University of Pittsburgh University
York-Buffalo Miclral Markham, Florida International Alan Searleman, St. Lawerence University
Julie Hoigaard, University of University Paul Shinkman, University of North
California-Irvine Bruce McEwen, Rockefeller University Carlina-Chapel Hill
Dan Horn, University of Michigan Marcia McKinley, Mount St. Mary’s Larry Squire, Veterans Affairs Medical
Stephen Hoyer, Pittsburgh State College Center, San Diego
University Marisa McLeod, Santa Fe Community Robert Stickgold, Harvard Medical School
Kathy Immel, University of College Irene Valchos-Weber, Indiana University
Wisconsin-Fox Valley Richard McNally, Harvard University John Wiebe, University of Texas, El Paso
First Edition Reviewers

Sharon Akimoto, Carleton College Karl Haberlandt, Trinity College Dorothy C. Piontkowski, San Francisco
Jeff Anastasi, Francis Marion University Richard Hackman, Harvard University State University
Joe Bean, Shorter College Richard Haier, University of California, Brad Redburn, Johnson County
James Benedict, James Madison Irvine Community College
University Marjorie Hardy, Eckerd College Cheryl Rickabaugh, University of
James F. Calhoun, University of Georgia Bruce Henderson, Western Carolina Redlands
Brad Carothers, Evergreen Valley College University Alan Salo, University of Maine, Presque
James Carroll, Central Michigan James Hilton, University of Michigan Isle
University Rich Ingram, San Diego State University Jim Schirillo, Wake Forest University
M. D. Casey, St. Mary’s College of John H. Krantz, Hanover College Michael Scoles, University' of Central
Maryland Richard Lippa, California State Arkansas
Dave Christian, University of Idaho University, Fresno Michal Shaughnessy, Eastern New
George A. Cicala, University of Delaware Walter J. Lonner, Western Washington Mexico University
Gerald S. Clack, Loyola University of University Nancy Simpson, Trident Technical
New Orleans Michael Markham, Florida International College
Verne C. Cox, University of Texas, University Linda J. Skinner, Middle Tennessee State
Arlington Pam McAuslan, University of Michigan, University
Nancy Dickson, Tennessee Technical Dearborn Michael Spiegler, Providence College
College David G. McDonald, University of Don Stanley, North Harris College
William O. Dwyer, University of Missouri Bruce B. Svare, State University of New
Memphis Rafael Mendez, Bronx Community York at Albany
Valeri Farmer-Dougan, Illinois State College Thomas Thielan, College of St.
University Sarah Murray, Kwantlen University Catherine
William Ford, Bucks County Community College Paul E. Turner, Lipscomb University
College Paul Ngo, Saint Norbert College Lori Van Wallendael, University of North
Mary Gauvain, University of California, Thomas R. Oswald, Northern Iowa Area Carolina, Charlotte
Riverside Community College Frank J. Vattano, Colorado State
Dan Gilbert, Harvard University Carol Pandey, Los Angeles Pierce College Univesity
Peter Graf, University of British Columbia Robert J. Pellegrini, San Jose State Rich Velayo, Pace University
Peter Gram, Pensacola Junior College University Rich Wesp, East Stroudsburg University
xxxii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We also profited enormously from conversations with our friends and colleagues, particu¬
larly Nalini Ambady, Mahzarin Banaji, Mark Baxter, Alain Berthoz, John Cacioppo, David
Caplan, Alfonso Caramazza, Patrick Cavanagh, Verne Caviness, Christopher Chabris,
Jonathan Cohen, Suzanne Corkin, Francis Crick, Richard Davidson, Susan Edbril, Jeffrey
Epstein, Michael Friedman, A1 Galaburda, Giorgio Gain, Jeremy Gray, Anne Harrington,
Marc Hauser, Kenneth Hugdahl, Steven Hyman, Jerome Kagan, Julian Keenan, Denis Le
Bihan, Fred Mast, Amy Mayer, Richard McNally, Merrill Mead-Fox, Ken Nakayama, Kevin
O’Regan, Alvaro Pascual-Leone, Steven Pinker, Susan Poliak, Scott Rauch, Kim Rawlins,
Melissa Robbins, Robert Rose, Steven Rosenberg, Margaret Ross, Daniel Schacter, Jeanne
Serafin, Lisa Shin, Dan Simons, Edward E. Smith, Elizabeth Spelke, David Spiegel, Larry
Squire, Eve van Cauter, Laura Weisberg, and Edgar Zurif. We thank Maya and Alain Berthoz,
Maryvonne Carafatan and Michel Denis, Christiane and Denis Le Bihan, Josette and Jacques
Lautrey, Bernard Mazoyer, and Nathalie Tzurio-Mazoyer for their hospitality during our year
in France, which made it possible and enjoyable to work productively there. We also thank the
staff at the College de France for their help, in too many ways to list. And to our parents (Bunny,
Stanley, Rhoda, and the late Duke) and our children (Nathaniel, David, and Justin), a huge
thanks for your patience with our work-filled weekends and evenings, and for your love, support,
and good humor. You have sustained us.
Other people have been instrumental in making the first draft of this book, and thus this
third edition, a reality. These include Andrea Volfova (for her good-humored assistance and in¬
cisive comments), Jennifer Shepard, Bill Thompson, David Hurvitz, Steve Stose, Cinthia
Guzman, Nicole Rosenberg, and Deborah Bell for their patience and willingness to help us dig
out references and check facts, especially via long-distance communication during the year we
were in France. The idea for the book developed over years of working with the Sophomore
Tutors and Assistant to the Head Tutor, Shawn Harriman, at Harvard University, and we want
to thank them all; helping them grapple with the concepts of levels of analysis led us to make
this book clearer. We are particularly indebted to two of the tutors, Laurie Santos and Jason
Mitchell, who read an early draft of the book and offered copious and wise comments. Finally,
we wish to thank Christopher Brunt, an undergraduate who used the first edition of the book
and spotted an ambiguity in one of the figures; we fixed the figure and appreciate his feedback.
Dr. Suzanne M. Delaney, Dr. James H. Geer, and students Katherine Geier and June Ha took
the time to share with us ways in which the second edition could be improved, and we greatly
appreciate their observations and suggestions. We welcome with open arms feedback from all
who read this book and have ideas about how to improve it.
Last but definitely not least, we want to thank the crew at Allyn and Bacon for their vision,
support, good humor, and patience. Many special thanks to Karon Bowers, who, as Executive
Editor for Psychology, initiated this revision before becoming the Editor-in-Chief for
Communication, and to Susan Hartman, who has since taken the helm as Editor-in-Chief for
Psychology; Pamela Laskey, Executive Marketing Manager, whose vision and enthusiasm for
the book inspired us; Michael Granger, Production Manager, whose diligence and great eye
made this edition look so good; Jane Hoover, copy editor extraordinaire, whose eagle eye and
depth of processing of our words continually impress us; Sharon Geary, Director of
Development, for reading first pages so carefully; Lara Torsky and Deb Hanlon, the editorial as¬
sistants who facilitated many important projects, including the commissioning of all the re¬
views; Jennifer Trebby, Associate Development Editor, and Kristin Vickers, for the many hours
they spent on the all new Test Yourself questions, and editorial intern Mekea Harvey, who
helped put some vital, final pieces of this project together. We also thank Editorial Director
Jason Jordon, for his good listening abilities and creative solutions; Roth Wilkofsky, President of
Allyn and Bacon/Longman, for his support and understanding; Sandi Kirschner, President of
Addison Wesley Higher Education, and Bill Barke, CEO of Addison Wesley Higher Education,
for their continuing support and participation in the project. Finally, and most importantly, our
development editors on this edition, who have given so much of themselves to this project: Lisa
McLellan, Senior Development Editor, who expertly and patiently guided the second edition
of this text and labored through the critical early stages of this edition before departing for her
own labor and motherhood, and Cheryl de Jong-Lambert, Senior Development Editor, who
gallantly stepped into the breach with energy, patience, and great ideas. Thank you all.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I xxxm
I nterest in gender and cultural diversity issues remains an important theme in
modern psychology. These topics are treated throughout the text in an integrated
fashion.
Integrated Coverage off Gender Issues

Women in history of psychology, 28 Sexual dysfunction for men and women, 474-475
Sex differences in color perceptions, 141 Homophobia, 475-476
Sex differences in color blindness, 142-143 Freud’s sex differences in psychosexual development, 484-485
Sex differences in detecting odors, 175 Gender differences in personality, 515-517
Female pheromones and male attraction, 176-177 Gender identity, 557-558
Sex differences in sensitivity to touch, 179 Sex differences in moral development, 559-560
Possession trance in the Comoros, 214 Gender role development, 558-559
Sex differences in drinking, 220 Sex differences in pubertal development, 562-563
Alcohol and sexual aggression, 222 Peer relationships, 567
Sex differences in remembering emotional stimuli, 289 Menopause, 570
Sex differences when processing phonemes, 328 Sex differences in grieving, 579
Women and emotional intelligence, 392 Stress and women, 590
Sex differences in intelligence, 407-408 Sex differences in hostility, 600
Sex differences in nonverbal behavior, 442-443 Gender differences in aggression, 614
Sex differences in sexual response, 468 Gender and coping, 622-623
Sex differences in hormones, 468-470 Sex differences in prevalence of depression, 645-646
Sex differences in sexual stimuli, 470 Sex differences in onset of schizophrenia, 661
Mating preferences, 471-472, 762-763 Sex differences in prevalence of eating disorders, 671-672
Sexual orientation, 472-474
Integrated Coverage of Cross-Cultural Issues

Cultural universality, 19 Culture and personality, 517-520
Cross-cultural differences in drawing, 148-149 Cognitive development and culture, 551-552
Perception of physical beauty and culture, 163-164 Teenage pregnancy and culture, 567-568
Possession trance in the Comoros, 214 Death and culture, 579
Meditation and religion, 215 Psychoneuroimmunology and culture, 602
Behavior modification in nutrition in the Philippines, 258 Coping and culture, 622-623
Cultural differences in memory, 287 Abnormal behavior and culture, 632, 634-635
Cultural differences when processing phonemes, 327 Depression in China and the United States, 640-641
Linguistic relativity hypothesis, 347-348 Depression and culture, 640-641
Group differences in intelligence, 404-405 Khmer refugees and panic attacks, 650
Bias in intelligence testing, 406 Schizophrenia and culture, 666
Race and basic emotions, 429-431 Eating disorders and culture, 673-674
Cultural differences in happiness, 439-440 Treatment and culture, 726
Emotional expression and culture, 441-442 Implicit attitudes, 740-741
Achievement in individualist versus collectivist cultures, 457-458 Cognition, prejudice, and culture, 748
Food preferences (taste) and culture, 461 Attraction and culture, 760
Sexual behavior and culture, 474 Conformity and culture, 769-770
XXXIV
I
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Stephen IVI. Kosslvn
Stephen M. Kosslyn is Chair of the Psychology Department and John Lindsley
Professor of Psychology in Memory of William James at Harvard University, as well
as Associate Psychologist in the Department of Neurology at Massachusetts General
Hospital. He received his B.A. from UCLA and his Ph.D. from Stanford University,
both in psychology. His research has focused primarily on the nature of visual men¬
tal imagery and visual communication, and he has published six books and over 250
papers on these topics. For ten years he was “head tutor,” supervising graduate stu¬
dents teaching year-long introductory psychology courses using levels of analysis.
While actively engaged with writing and academic pursuits, Dr. Kosslyn is currently
on the editorial boards of many professional journals.
Robin S. Rosenberg
Robin S. Rosenberg is a clinical psychologist in private practice and has taught psy¬
chology at Lesley University and Harvard University. She is certified in clinical hyp¬
nosis and is a member of the Academy for Eating Disorders. She received her B.A. in
psychology from New York University, and her M.A. and Ph.D. in clinical psychology
from the University of Maryland, College Park. Dr. Rosenberg did her clinical intern¬
ship at Massachusetts Mental Health Center, had a postdoctoral fellowship at Harvard
Community Health Plan, and was on the staff at Newton-Wellesley Hospital’s
Outpatient Services. Dr. Rosenberg specializes in treating people with eating disorders,
depression, and anxiety.
n a balmy April day in 2002, a young man
was playing golf. Nothing unusual about
that. But when this young man sank his
final putt, the watching crowd let out a
roar, and he looked for his parents and
embraced them, fighting back tears. The occasion was
the PGA Masters Tournament, and the young man was
Tiger Woods.
Think of the magnitude of his victory: At 26, Woods was the youngest three-time
winner of the Masters. And golfs reigning champion, in a sport that had long been ef¬
fectively closed to all but Whites, was of Asian, Black, White, and Native American an¬
cestry. Tiger Woods dominated the sport of golf like no one before him or perhaps to
come — all at a very young age. Before he came on the scene, golf was truly “the White
man’s sport,” and the only place for a minority was as a caddy. After he burst into our
collective awareness, he not only opened the sport to minorities, but also brought it
into the mainstream —golf courses nationwide have become more crowded since
Woods’s rise to prominence.
If you could discern and explain the factors that led to Tiger Woods’s meteoric rise
to fame, you would be a very insightful psychologist.
But where would you begin? You could look at Woods’s hand-eye coordination, his
concentration and focus, and his ability to judge distances and calculate factors of
wind, temperature, and humidity.
You could look at his personality—his reaction to racist hate mail (as a college stu¬
dent at Stanford University, he even kept one particularly vile letter taped to his wall),
his religious beliefs (he was raised in his mother’s faith, Buddhism), his demeanor dur¬
ing play, and his discipline in training.
You could look at his relationships with the social world around him —his family,
his competitors, his fans.
Is this psychology? Indeed it is. Psychologists ask and, in scientific ways, attempt to
answer questions about why and how people think, feel, and behave as they do.
Because we are all human and so have much in common, sometimes the answers are
universal. But we are also, like snowflakes, all different, and psychology helps to explain
our uniqueness. Psychology is about mental processes and behavior, both exceptional
and ordinary. In this chapter, we show you how to look at and answer such questions
by methods used in current research and (because the inquiry into what makes us tick
has a history) how psychologists over the past century have approached these questions.
THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY:
Getting to Know You
Virtually everything any of us does, thinks, or feels falls within the sphere of psychol¬
ogy. You are dealing with the subject matter of psychology when you watch people in¬
teracting in a classroom or at a party, or notice that a friend is in a really terrible mood.
The field of psychology aims to understand what is at work when you daydream as you
watch the clouds drift by, when you have trouble recalling someone’s name, even
when you’re asleep.
What Is Psychology?
Although it may seem complex and wide-ranging, the field you are studying in this text¬
book can be defined in one simple sentence: Psychology is the science of mental
processes and behavior. Let’s look at the key words in this definition.
First, science: From the Latin scire, “to know,” science avoids mere opinions, in¬
tuitions, and guesses and instead strives to nail down facts —to know them —by using
objective evidence to answer questions like these: What makes the sun shine? Why
does garlic make your breath smell strong? How is Tiger Woods able to direct his
swings so superbly? A scientist uses logic to reason about the possible causes of a
phenomenon and then tests the resulting ideas by collecting additional facts, which
will either support the ideas or refute them, and thus nudge the scientist further
along the road to the answer.
Second, mental processes: Mental processes are what your brain is doing not only
when you engage in “thinking” activities such as storing memories, recognizing ob¬
jects, and using language, but also when you feel depressed, jump for joy, or savor the
experience of being in love. How can we find objective facts about mental processes,
which are hidden and internal? One way, which has a long history in psychology, is to
work backward, observing what people do and inferring from outward signs what is
going on “inside.” Another, as new as the latest technological advances in neuro¬
science, is to use brain-scanning techniques to take pictures of the living brain that
show its physical changes as it works.
Third, behavior: By behavior, we mean the outwardly observable acts of a per¬
son, either alone or in a group. Behavior consists of physical movements, voluntary
or involuntary, of the limbs, facial muscles, or other parts of the body. A particular
behavior is often preceded by mental processes, such as a perception of the current
situation (how far the golf ball must travel) and a decision about what to do next
(how forcefully to swing the club). A behavior may also be governed by the rela¬
tionship between the individual and a group. Tiger Woods might not have performed
the way he did in 2002 had he been playing in 1920, when many in the crowd
Psychology: The science of mental processes would not have wanted a non-White person to win. So there are layers upon layers:
and behavior. An individual’s mental processes affect his or her behavior, and these processes are
Mental processes: What the brain does affected by the surrounding group (the members of which, in turn, have their own
when a person stores, recalls, or uses infor¬
mation or has specific feelings. individual mental processes and behaviors).
Behavior: The outwardly observable acts of When you think about a friend’s “psychology,” you might wonder about his or her
an individual, alone or in a group. motivations (“Why would she say such a thing?”), knowledge (“What does she know
4 CHAPTER 1: Psychology: Yesterday and Today

What Is Psychology?
Science Mental Processes Behavior
that led her to make that decision?”), or goals (“What is she trying to accomplish by
acting like that?”). In all cases, you are trying to describe (such as by inferring what your
friend knows or believes) and explain (such as by inferring your friend’s motivations)
your friend’s mental processes and behavior. Most people try to describe and explain
other people’s psychology on the basis of “common sense” or generalizations they’ve
heard (such as the idea that some people are grouchy in the morning). The field of psy¬
chology is dedicated to helping us understand each other by using the tools of science.
But more than that, psychology’s goals are not simply to describe and explain mental
processes and behavior, but also to predict and control them. As an individual, you’d
probably like to be able to predict what kind of person would make a good spouse for
you or which politician would make sound decisions in crisis situations. As a society,
we all would greatly benefit by knowing how people learn most effectively, how to con¬
trol addictive and destructive behaviors, and how to cure mental illness.
Levels off Analysis: The Complete Psychology

The areas you might explore to answer questions about Tiger Woods’s success —his co¬
ordination and focus, his beliefs and attitudes, his relationships with his parents and his
audience —can be understood in terms of three types of events, each of which provides
a field for analysis. Think for a moment about a computer. How can we understand
what it does?
1. First, we can ponder the machine itself. The computer is a mechanism. One event
causes another. You enter a “Save” command, it saves a file to a disk; you enter a
“Print” command, it sends the file to the printer, and so forth. Each input triggers
The Science of Psychology / Psychology Then and Now / The Psychological Way / Ethics / Review and Remember
a specific event, cause and effect. The computer program is like a mental process;
it specifies the steps the mechanism takes in particular circumstances.
2. Second, we can ask about the content of the computer—the specific infor¬
mation it contains and what’s being done to it. The mechanism behaves exactly
the same way if you type a research paper, a love letter, or directions to a bar¬
becue. Nevertheless, the differences in content obviously matter a great deal.
The content relies on the mechanism (for instance, if the computer is not turned
on, you cannot type in any content), but the mechanism and content are not
the same.
3., Third, we can hook the computer into a network. We now focus on how different
computers affect each other and the network itself What happens when you type in
a query to Google? Your computer (both the mechanism and the particular con¬
tent you type) interacts with others that relay the query and finally send back in¬
formation in response.
These so-called levels of analysis (to rely on the most accepted and widely used
terminology) build on one another, with each level adding something new to our
understanding of computing. Specifically, the content relies on the mechanism (as
anyone knows who has tried to use a computer with a broken hard drive or
malfunctioning power supply), and the network depends on both the content (such
as the particular commands or requests you enter) and the mechanism (a function¬
ing computer).
Do we really need to consider these three levels of analysis? To see why we do, sup¬
pose you log onto the internet and your computer suddenly freezes. Why? It could be
that your hard drive has crashed (mechanism); or perhaps you entered an invalid com¬
mand (content); or perhaps the network itself is down (network). To consider all of the
possible reasons for your computer’s malfunction, you need to contemplate disruptions
at each level of analysis.
Now let’s see how this analogy applies to humans.
Three Levels of Analysis in Psychology

At any moment in Tiger Woods’s day, or yours, events are happening at the same three
levels we just considered in our computer analogy. Considering psychological phe¬
nomena from these three levels reveals much that would be hidden were we to look at
only one level.
In humans, the mechanism is the brain and all of the biological factors that af¬
fect it. At this level of the brain, psychologists consider not only the activity of the
brain but also the structure and properties of the organ itself—brain cells and their
connections, the chemical soup in which they exist (including the hormones that
alter the way the brain operates), and the genes that give rise to them. At the level
of the brain, a psychologist might want to design an experiment to study how Tiger
Woods can adjust the force of his swing so exquisitely well for driving, chipping, and
putting and might speculate that the parts of his brain that control hand-eye coor¬
Level of the brain: Events that involve the
dination are especially well developed.
structure and properties of the organ itself—
brain cells and their connections, the chemi¬ At the next level, consider how we use the information that our brains store and
cal soup in which they exist, and the genes. process. At this level of the person, psychologists focus on the content of mental
Level of the person: Events that involve the processes, not just the internal mechanics that are the focus at the level of the brain.
nature of beliefs, desires, and feelings —
the content of the mind, not just its internal
Unlike the level of the brain, we no longer talk about the characteristics of brain
mechanics. areas or how they operate to process information; rather, we talk about mental con-

I
tents such as beliefs (including ideas, explanations, expectations), desires (such as
hopes, goals, needs), and feelings (fears, guilts, attractions, and the like). Although
the brain is the locus and vehicle for content, the two are not the same —any
more than a computer and a love letter written on it are the same. Rather, the brain
is in many ways a canvas on which life’s experiences are painted. Just as we can dis¬
cuss how aspects of a canvas (such as its texture) allow us to paint, we can discuss
how the brain supports mental contents. But just as we can talk about the picture
itself (a portrait, a landscape, and so on), we can talk about mental contents. To do
so, we must shift to another level of analysis. At the level of the person, a psychol¬
ogist who is studying Tiger Woods might want to investigate the factors —among
them, possibly, his Buddhist faith—behind the strong sense of inner calm he dis¬
plays under pressure.
And third, just as computers in a network affect each other, people affect one
another. “No man is an island,” the poet John Donne wrote. We all live in social
environments that vary over time and space and that are populated by our friends
and professors, our parents, the other viewers in a movie theater, the other drivers
on a busy highway. Our lives are intertwined with other people’s lives, and from
birth to old age, we take our cues from other people around us. The relationships
that arise within groups make them more than simply collections of individuals.
Psychologists not only study isolated individuals, but also investigate the mental
processes and behavior of members of groups. Members of street gangs and politi¬
cal parties both have distinct identities based on shared beliefs and practices that are
passed on to new members as culture, which has been defined as the “language, be¬
liefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one
generation to the next” (Henslin, 1999). Thus, at the level of the group, psycholo¬
gists consider the ways that collections of people (as few as two, as many as a soci¬
ety) shape individual mental processes and behavior. At the level of the group, a
psychologist might want to examine the role of a supportive and enthusiastic audi¬
ence in helping Tiger Woods birdie instead of bogey.
Events that occur at every level of analysis —brain, person, and group —are inti¬
mately tied to conditions in the physical world. All our mental processes and behaviors
take place within and are influenced by a specific physical environment. A windy day
at the golf course changes the way Tiger Woods plays a shot. The group is only part of
the world; to understand the events at each level of analysis, we must always relate
them to the physical world that surrounds all of us.
All Together Now

Many people seem delighted to discover that their brains are not in fact computers. We
noted above that the computer acts the same way when it is used to write a love letter
or directions to someone’s house. The human brain does not. When you feel an emo¬
tion (at the level of the person), that experience is accompanied by changes in how
your brain operates (Davidson, 2004; Sheehan et ah, 2004). In humans, unlike com¬
puters, events at the different levels are constantly interacting. For example, as you sit
in a lecture hall, the signals among your brain cells that enable you to understand the Level of the group: Events that involve re¬
lationships between people (such as love,
lecture, and the new connections among your brain cells that enable you to remember
competition, and cooperation), relationships
it, are happening because you decided to take the course (perhaps because you need it among groups, and culture. Events at the
to graduate): That is, events at the level of the person (your interests or perhaps knowl¬ level of the group are one aspect of the envi¬
ronment; the other aspect is the physical en¬
edge of your school’s requirements) are affecting events at the level of the brain. But, vironment itself (the time, temperature, and
as you listen to the lecture, your neighbor’s knuckle cracking is really getting to other physical stimuli).
The Science of Psychology / Psychology Then and Now / The Psychological Way / Ethics / Review and Remember 7
you, and you’re finding it hard to concentrate: Events at the level of the group are af¬
fecting events at the level of the brain. Because you really want to hear this stuff, you’re
wondering how to get your neighbor to cut it out, and you decide to shoot a few dirty
looks his way: Events at the level of the person are affecting events at the level of the
group (which, as we’ve seen, affect events at the level of the brain). And all of this is
going on within the physical environment of the room, where the sunlight that had
seemed warm and welcoming is now pretty hot, and you’re getting drowsy, and you’re
really irritated, and you finally change your seat. . . . And round and round. Events at
the three levels of analysis, in a specific physical context, are constantly changing and
influencing one another. To understand fully what’s going on in any life situation, you
need to look at all three.
The concept of levels of analysis has long held a central role in science in gen¬
eral (Anderson, 1998; Nagel, 1979; Schaffner, 1967) and in the field of psychology
in particular (Fodor, 1968, 1983; Kosslyn & Koenig, 1995; Looren de Jong, 1996;
Marr, 1982; Putnam, 1973; Saha, 2004), and for good reason: This view of psy¬
chology not only allows you to see how different types of theories and discoveries il¬
luminate the same phenomena, but it also lets you see how these theories and
discoveries are interconnected —and thus how the field of psychology as a whole
emerges from them.
Levels of Analysis in Action: Examining Racial Prejudice

To help you grasp the crucial and central idea of levels of analysis, let’s see how it helps
us gain insight into a topic that touches each of our lives—namely, racial prejudice. At
first glance, you might think that prejudice is based on a set of attitudes (in other words,
overall evaluations) and those attitudes guide behavior (Durrheim & Dixon, 2004).
However, this idea was challenged in the 1930s by the psychologist Richard La Piere
(1934), who traveled the United States with a young Chinese couple. They stayed in
67 paid lodgings and ate in 184 restaurants and cafes. Six months after each visit, La
Piere sent a questionnaire to those establishments inquiring whether they would accept
Chinese people as customers. More than 90% of the proprietors said no. Yet on their
trip La Piere and his companions were refused only once. This disparity did not arise
because they engaged in behavior that provoked anti-Chinese sentiments, leading to
negative views 6 months after their visit. Rather, stated attitudes do not necessarily pre¬
dict behavior. In this case, the actual social interaction overrode how the people who
ran the establishments felt. Our culture imposes certain rules of behavior, and these
rules can sway us.
But this is not to say that attitudes have nothing to do with racial prejudice. For ex¬
ample, Dovidio, Kawakami, and Gaertner (2002) wanted to discover whether attitudes
about race predicted how Whites actually behaved toward Blacks. To study this issue,
they asked a number of students (who were all White) to discuss specific topics (for in¬
stance, dating) with other students, one at a time; sometimes the other student was
Black, sometimes White. These interactions were video- and audio-taped, and later
were rated by observers for both nonverbal friendliness (such as smiling and holding
eye contact, which were considered to be unconscious, spontaneous behaviors) and
verbal friendliness (the content of what was said, which was considered to be conscious,
deliberative behavior).
The researchers wanted to predict these forms of behavior with measures of the
White participants’ attitudes towards Blacks. They collected two such measures. In
one, they asked the participants to indicate directly (on a questionnaire) how they

felt about Blacks —their conscious (self-aware) attitude. In the other, they used an
indirect measure (based on measuring time to make decisions) to assess unconscious
(not self-aware) attitudes (in Chapter 16, we will learn more about how such indi¬
rect measures work).
Did the participants’ attitudes about Blacks predict their actual behavior toward the
Black students? Yes and no. Their conscious attitudes, as measured by the question¬
naire, predicted how verbally friendly they behaved toward the Black students, but not
their nonverbal friendliness. In contrast, their unconscious attitudes (as measured by
their response times) predicted nonverbal friendliness, but not verbal friendliness. The
authors believe that the attitudes expressed on the questionnaire predict “deliberative
behaviors,” where the participants are aware of what they are doing, and the uncon¬
scious measures predict spontaneous behaviors.
What about the level of the brain —can knowing about the brain help us to un¬
derstand the roots of racial prejudice? Absolutely. Here’s an example of one study.
Researchers used brain scanning to monitor how strongly one part of the brain, the
amygdala (which we will discuss in Chapter 3), was activated while White participants
viewed unfamiliar and familiar Black and White faces (Phelps et al., 2000). The amyg¬
dala is automatically activated when you are afraid (see Chapter 10). In this study, the
researchers obtained a measure of the participants’ unconscious prejudice against
Blacks. They found that the amygdala was more strongly activated by viewing Black
faces, compared to White faces, in people who had strong negative unconscious atti¬
tudes about Blacks. But this isn’t all the researchers discovered: They did not find this
relation between amygdala activation and scores of unconscious prejudice for the faces
of familiar Black celebrities, such as Michael Jordan. These findings make sense if the
amygdala is registering fear or other negative feelings in general, not just about race.
These findings suggest that racial prejudice might have its roots—at least in part—in
fear of the unfamiliar.
In short, we need to consider events at all three levels of analysis if we want to un¬
derstand how people behave toward members of other races. Social conventions, in¬
cluding politeness, affect such behavior. And so do attitudes, with conscious and
unconscious attitudes affecting different aspects of behavior. And so does the brain;
in fact, unconscious attitudes in turn may reflect the way key parts of the brain respond.
But more than this, we can see how events at these different levels interact. Social
conventions may more easily affect deliberative behaviors that are controlled by
your conscious attitudes than spontaneous behaviors that are unconsciously motivated.
And these spontaneous behaviors in turn may arise from specific brain processes —the
automatic nature of which explains why it is so difficult to control some of our behav¬
iors consciously. By studying events at all three levels we can attain a much more thor¬
ough and deep understanding of prejudice than we could if we stuck to only one level.
And by considering how these events interact, we may come to understand why some
aspects of prejudice are more difficult to change than others—but also may see how
even these aspects (such as those based on unfamiliarity and fear) might ultimately
be changed.
In each of the rest of the chapters of this book, we will consider one aspect of psy¬
chology in detail, showing how it is illuminated when we investigate events at the three
levels of analysis and their interactions. Moreover, we shall draw on the different levels
continually as we encounter different aspects of the field throughout the book. The fact
that interactions of events at the different levels of analysis are always present is one
thread that holds the different areas of psychology together, that makes the field more
than a collection of separate topics.
The Science of Psychology / Psychology Then and Now / The Psychological Way / Ethics / Review and Remember
^Yourself
What is psychology? 4. Advantages to using a levels-of-analysis approach in psy¬
a. the scientific analysis of behavior chology are
b. the science of behavior and mental processes a. learning how different theories shed light on the same
c. an exploration of human feelings event.
d. the scientific study of the brain b. seeing how various theories are interconnected.
2. At which level of analysis can Tiger Woods's golfing ability be c. developing a richer and more comprehensive understand¬
best explained? ing of human behavior.
a. the level of the brain d. All of these are advantages to using a levels-of-analysis
b. the level of the person approach.
c. the level of the group
d. All three levels are needed to explain behavior adequately.
3. Prejudice seems to be influenced by many factors, including
social conventions and people's attitudes. Even brain struc¬
tures play a role in prejudice. Looking at prejudice from the
Answers
level of the person involves P> PZq T
a. examining people's attitudes.

b. looking at social conventions. NOTE Once you feel comfortable with the Test Yourself questions in this
c. mapping brain structures. chapter, visit the book's Web site at www.ablongman.com/kosslyn3e for
d. looking at the history of prejudice in a specific culture. additional study questions.
Think It Through!
In your own life, can you identify instances where events at the different levels of analysis were clearly at work?
How would you react if it could be shown conclusively that all criminals have an abnormal structure in a certain
part of their brains? If this were true, what should we do with this knowledge? Or, what if it could be shown that
criminals have perfectly normal brains, but they all had weak parents who didn't give them enough discipline when
they were children? Neither of these single-perspective views is likely to be correct, but what if one level of analysis
turns out to be more important than the others?
PSYCHOLOGY THEN AND NOW:

The Evolution of a Science
How do you think psychologists 50 or 100 years ago might have interpreted Tiger
Woods’s performance? Would they have focused on the same things that psychologists
do today? One hallmark of the sciences is that rather than casting aside earlier findings,
researchers use them as stepping stones to the next set of discoveries. Reviewing how
psychology has developed over time helps us understand where we are today. In the
century or so during which psychology has taken shape as a formal discipline, the is¬
sues under investigation have changed, the emphasis has shifted from one level of
analysis to another, and events at each level have often been viewed as operating sepa¬
rately or occurring in isolation.
10 CHAPTER 1 : Psychology: Yesterday and Today

In one form or another, psychology has probably always been with us. People have Structuralism: The school of psychology that
sought to identify the basic elements of expe¬
apparently always been curious about why they and others think, feel, and behave the rience and to describe the rules and circum¬
way they do. In contrast, the history of psychology as a scientific field is relatively brief, stances under which these elements combine
to form mental structures.
spanning little more than a century. The roots of psychology he in philosophy (the use
of logic and speculation to understand the nature of reality, experience, and values) on
the one hand and physiology (the study of the biological workings of the body, includ¬
ing the brain) on the other. From philosophy, psychology borrowed theories of the na¬
ture of mental processes and behavior. For example, the 17th-century French
philosopher Rene Descartes focused attention on the distinction between mind and
body and the relation between the two (still a focus of considerable debate). John
Locke, a 17th-century English philosopher (and friend of Sir Isaac Newton), stressed
that all human knowledge arises from experience of the world and from reflection
about it. Locke argued that we only know about the world via how it is represented in
the mind. From physiology, psychologists learned to recognize the role of the brain in
giving rise to mental processes and behavior and acquired tools to investigate these
processes. These twin influences of philosophy and physiology remain in force today,
shaped and sharpened by developments over time.
Early Days: Beginning to Map Mental

Processes and Behavior
The earliest scientific psychologists were not much interested in why we behave as we
do. Instead, these pioneers typically focused their efforts on understanding the opera¬
tion of perception (the ways in which we sense the world), memory, and problem solv¬
ing— events at what we now think of as the level of the brain. But even at the
beginning, psychologists focused on events at several levels of analysis.
Structuralism
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), usually considered the founder of scientific psychology,
set up the first psychology laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. The work of Wundt
and his colleagues led to structuralism, the first
Margaret Floy Washburn was not only
formal movement in psychology. The structural¬ Edward Titehener's first graduate student to
ists sought to identify the “building blocks” of receive a Ph.D., but was also the first woman
consciousness (consciousness is the state of being to earn a Ph.D. in psychology (1894, Cornell).
aware Part of Wundt’s research led him to char-

acterize two types of elements of consciousness.
The first comprised sensations, which arise from
the eyes, ears, and other sense organs; the second
consisted of feelings, such as fear, anger, and
love. The goal of structuralism was to describe
the rules that determine how particular sensa¬
tions or feelings may occur at the same time or in
sequence, combining in various ways into mental
structures. Edward Titchener (1867-1927), an
American student of Wundt, broadened the
structuralist approach to apply it to the nature of
concepts and thinking in general.
The structuralists developed and tested their theories
partly with objective techniques, such as measures of the
time it takes to respond to different sensations. Their pri¬
mary research tool, however, was introspection, which
means literally “looking within.” Here is an example of
introspection: Try to recall how many windows and doors
are in your parents’ living room. Are you aware of “see¬
ing” the room in a mental image, of scanning along the
walls and counting the windows and doors? Introspection
is the technique of noticing your mental processes as, or
immediately after, they occur. Insofar as the structural¬
ists’ theories were about the structure of consciousness,
they addressed the mechanisms of mental processes —and
hence considered events at the level of the brain. But
they also considered the contents of consciousness itself,
at the level of the person.
Had the structuralists been asked to analyze Tiger
Wilhelm Wundt (the man with the long
Woods’s golf success—how, for example, he perceives dis¬
gray beard standing behind one table) in his tances, fairway terrain, and wind direction —they probably would have trained him to
laboratory. use introspection to describe his mental processes. By 1913, however, another German
scientist, Oswald Ktilpe, had discovered that not all mental processes are accompanied
by mental imagery. In fact, if you asked Tiger Woods how he manages to swing a golf
club so well, he probably wouldn’t be able to tell you. Contemporary researchers have
discovered that as our expertise in a skill increases, we are less able to use introspection
to describe it.
Let’s say that although you are able to use mental imagery as a tool to recall the
numbers of windows and doors in your parents’ living room, your best friend doesn’t
seem to be able to do the same. How could you prove that mental images actually exist
and objects can indeed be visualized? For the early psychologists, this was the core of
the problem. Barring the ability to read minds, there was no way to resolve disagree¬
ments about the mental processes that introspection revealed. If the only evidence you
gather cannot be verified, you cannot establish the evidence as fact. This is precisely
what happened when the structuralists tried to use introspection as a scientific tool.
Their observations could not be objectively repeated with the same results, and thus
their theorizing based on introspective reports fell apart.
Functionalism
Rather than trying to chart the elements of mental processes, the adherents of
functionalism sought to understand how our minds help us to adapt to the world
around us —in short, to function in it (Boring, 1950). Whereas the structuralists asked
what mental processes are and how they operate, the functionalists wanted to know why
humans think, feel, and behave as we do. The functionalists had less interest in events
at the level of the brain than did the structuralists and greater interest in events at the
level of the group. The functionalists, many of whom were Americans, shared the urge
to gather knowledge that could be put to immediate use. Sitting in a room introspect¬
ing simply didn’t seem worthwhile to them. The functionalists’ interest lay in the meth¬
Introspection: The process of “looking ods by which people learn and in how goals and beliefs are shaped by environments.
within.”
As such, their interests spanned the levels of the person and the group.
Functionalism: The school of psychology
that sought to understand how the mind helps The functionalists were strongly influenced by Charles Darwin (1809-1882),
individuals function, or adapt to the world. whose theory of evolution by natural selection stressed that some individual organisms

in every species, from ants to oaks, possess characteristics
that enable them to survive and reproduce more fruitfully
than others. The phrase “survival of the fittest,” often
quoted in relation to natural selection, doesn’t quite cap¬
ture the key idea. (For one thing, these days “the fittest”
implies the muscle-bound star of the health club, whereas
in Darwin’s time it meant something “fit for” or “suited to”
its situation.) The idea of natural selection is that certain
inborn characteristics make particular individuals more fit
for their environments, enabling them to have more off¬
spring that survive, and those in turn have more offspring,
and so on, until the characteristics that led the original in¬
dividuals to flourish are spread through the whole popula¬
tion. Darwin called the inborn characteristics that help an
organism survive and produce many offspring adaptations.
(Chapter 3 covers Darwin’s theory more fully.) The functionalists sought to apply knowledge
The functionalists applied Darwin’s theory to mental characteristics. For example, of psychology and helped to improve educa¬
tion in the United States.
William James (1842-1910), who set up the first psychology laboratory in the United
States at Harvard University, studied the ways in which consciousness helps an indi¬
vidual survive and adapt to an environment. The functionalists likely would have tried
to discover how Tiger Woods’s goals and beliefs enable him to press on in the face of
adversity, such as losing an important match or receiving hate mail.
The functionalists made several enduring contributions to psychology. Their em¬
phasis on Darwin’s theory of natural selection and its link between humans and non¬
human animals led them to theorize that human psychology is related to the
psychology of animals. This insight meant that the observation of animals could pro¬
vide clues to human behavior. The functionalists’ focus on social issues, such as im¬
proving methods of education, also spawned research that continues today.
Gestalt Psychology
Although their work began in earnest nearly 50 years later, the Gestalt psychologists,
like the structuralists, were interested in consciousness, particularly as it arises during
perception (and thus, they too focused on events at the levels of the brain and the
person). But instead of trying to dissect the elements of experience, Gestalt
psychology—taking its name from the German word Gestalt, which means “whole” —
emphasized the overall patterns of thoughts or experience. Based in Germany, Max
Wertheimer (1880-1943) and other scientists noted that much of the content of our
thoughts comes from what we perceive and, further, from inborn tendencies to struc¬
ture what we see in certain ways.
Have you ever glanced up to see a flock of birds heading south for the winter? If so,
you probably didn’t pay attention to each individual bird but instead focused on the
flock. In Gestalt terms, the flock was a perceptual unit, a whole formed from individ¬
ual parts. The Gestalt psychologists developed over 100 perceptual laws, or principles,
that describe how our eyes and brains organize the world. For example, both because
the birds are near one another (the law of proximity) and because they are moving in
the same direction (the law of common fate), we perceive them as a single unit.
Gestaltists believed that such principles are a result of the most basic workings of the
Gestalt psychology: An approach to under¬
brain and that they affect how we all think. Most of the Gestalt principles illustrate the
standing mental processes that focuses on the
dictum that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts.” When you see the birds in idea that the whole is more than the sum of
flight, the flock has a size and shape that cannot be predicted from the size and shape its parts.
of the birds viewed one at a time. To Gestalt psy¬
chologists, just as the flock is an entity that is more
than a collection of individual birds, our patterns
of thought are more than the simple sum of indi¬
vidual images or ideas. Gestaltists would want to
know how Tiger Woods can take in the overall lay¬
out of each hole, or even an 18-hole course, and
plan his strategy accordingly.
Today the study of perception is no longer the
province of Gestalt psychology alone but rather a
central focus of psychology, as well it should be.
Perception is, after all, our gateway to the world; if
our perceptions are not accurate, our correspon¬
ding thoughts and feelings will be based on a dis¬
torted view of reality. The research of the
Gestaltists addressed how the brain works, and
today Gestaltism has become integrated into stud¬
ies of the brain itself.
We do not see isolated individual musicians,
but a marching band. In the words of the
Gestalt psychologists, "the whole is more
than the sum of its parts."
Psychodynamic Theory: More Than
Meets the Eye
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), a Viennese physician specializing in neurology (the
study and treatment of diseases of the brain and nervous system), developed a detailed
and subtle theory of how thoughts and feelings affect our actions. We consider Freud
and theorists who followed in his footsteps in Chapter 11; here we touch briefly on key
points of his theory.
Freud stressed the notion that the mind is not a single thing, but in fact has sep¬
arate components. Moreover, some of these mental processes are unconscious; that
is, they are outside our awareness and beyond our ability to bring to awareness at
will. Freud believed that we have many unconscious sexual, and sometimes aggres¬
sive, urges. Moreover, Freud also believed that a child absorbs his or her parents’
and culture’s moral standards, which then censor the child’s (and, later, the adult’s)
goals and motivations. Thus, he argued, we often find our urges unacceptable and
so keep them in check, hidden in the unconscious. According to Freud, these un¬
conscious urges build up until, eventually and inevitably, they demand release as
thoughts, feelings, or actions.
Freud developed what has since been called a psychodynamic theory. From the
Greek words psyche, or “mind,” and dynamo, meaning “power,” the term refers to the
continual push-and-pull interaction among conscious and unconscious forces. Freud
believed that it was these interactions that produced abnormal behaviors, such as ob¬
sessively washing one’s hands until they crack and bleed. According to Freud, such
hand washing might be traced to unacceptable unconscious sexual or aggressive im¬
pulses bubbling up to consciousness (the “dirt” perceived on the hands) and that wash¬
Unconscious: Outside conscious awareness ing symbolically serves to remove the “dirt.” What would followers of psychodynamic
and not able to be brought to consciousness theory say about Tiger Woods? A Freudian would probably ask Woods about his earli¬
at will.
est memories and experiences and try with him to analyze the unconscious urges that
Psychodynamic theory': A theory of how led to his intense interest in golf. This theory addresses mental processes and behavior
thoughts and feelings affect behavior; refers
to the continual push-and-pull interaction at all three levels of analysis: The theory of mental mechanisms is at the level of the
among conscious and unconscious forces. brain, but an individual’s experience affects events at the level of the person, and the

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(Vessels in escort.) Corsair, Aphrodite, Nokomis Aisne
(F).
Industriously employed in this service with the convoys, the
Corsair encountered no slant of misfortune until June. Then came
the loss of the fine cargo steamer Californian with holds and decks
full of several million dollars worth of supplies for the American Army
in France. This disaster was not the result of submarine attack. The
ship was unlucky enough to bump a German mine about fifty miles
off the entrance of the Gironde River while nearing port with the
convoy and escort.
The Corsair stood by and made every possible effort to save the
precious Californian endeavoring to haul her along at the end of a
tow-line, but the damage was vital and salvage hopeless. It was one
of those numerous episodes of the warfare at sea, as waged by the
enemy, which seemed so enormously wasteful, so impossible for
civilization to endure, this senseless obliteration of property on a
scale without precedent in the whole history of mankind.
THE SINKING CALIFORNIAN. GOING, GOING, ALMOST GONE!
CALIFORNIAN SURVIVORS ABOARD THE CORSAIR

The Corsair found the convoy of eight ships in the afternoon of
June 20th and took position with the other escort vessels, Aphrodite,
May, Nokomis, and two French patrol boats. They steamed toward
the coast at eleven knots without misadventure until early in the
morning of the 22d. Then the Californian made a turn to the right,
quitting the formation, and slowed speed until she came to a halt.
Her crew could be seen jumping into the boats and letting them
drop from the davits. There was no more ado about it than this, no
sound of an explosion nor any disturbance of the sea. It was an
uncanny, inexplicable thing to witness. From the bridge of the
Corsair it was easy to perceive that the sailors of the Californian
were proceeding, earnestly and eagerly, to abandon ship. It was
done without disorder, but they were wasting no time.
The Corsair promptly swung to go near, at the order of Lieutenant
McGuire, who was the officer of the deck. The yacht moved to the
rescue with a speed which surprised even the Californian. Already
the long, deep-laden steamer was settling by the head. One of the
little French escort vessels had also hastened to the scene, but as
she rolled in the trough of the ground swell, the sea slapped across
her deck and the first boat to pull away from the Californian found
so much difficulty in trying to lay aboard that the men semaphored
the Corsair: “Will you please come and pick us up?” Presently the
master of the big steamer and many of his crew were scrambling up
the side of the Corsair, where Commander Porter strongly urged that
an attempt be made to save the Californian. He was ready to tow if
the water could be kept down in the flooded compartments. It was a
sporting chance, but better than letting the ship drown before their
eyes.
Cheered by this readiness to lend a hand, the executive officer of
the Californian, with sixteen volunteers from their crew, returned on
board and a ten-inch manila hawser was passed from the Corsair.
Because the bow of the stricken ship had filled so fast and was
almost buried in the sea, the hawser was made fast astern and the
Corsair tried to tow her wrong end to, as offering the least
resistance. The sluggish mass moved very slowly, perhaps two
knots, but it was impossible to steer it. The plucky Corsair dug her
toes in, as one might say, and pulled like a thoroughbred horse
harnessed to a wagonload of stone.
When this first attempt proved futile, it was decided to try towing
by the bow, but while they were dragging the hawser forward the
engine-room bulkheads collapsed with a roar and the sea rushed in
to fill the dying ship. She went down by the head, the stern rearing
higher and higher in air, until the great hull towered in a vertical
position, and there it hung for an amazingly long time. It was
surmised that the bow had struck the bottom of the sea. Then the
stern slowly dropped and vanished while the crew of the Corsair
watched and wondered and felt very sad at heart.
No lives were lost; this was the redeeming feature, and the eighty-
five officers and men of the Californian were all safely aboard the
yacht where they were as hospitably cared for as the crowded
quarters permitted. On the decks of the lost steamer were hundreds
of Army motor-trucks, and one of the Corsair’s men, for lack of
anything better to say, was heard to murmur as the sea swallowed
them up:
“There’s some water in your carbureters this trip, and that’s no
foolish jest.”
The dog rescued from the Californian remained aboard the Corsair
as a souvenir and mascot, but the life in the Bay of Biscay was not
to his taste, in spite of the efforts of the crew to make him feel at
home. He was therefore detached and assigned to the U.S.S.
(Auxiliary) Balti and sent to the United States, but fell down a hatch
at Hoboken and was a total loss. For an epitaph, Kipling’s line seems
apt, “We’re safer at sea again.”
Commander Porter’s official account of the loss of the ship reads
as follows:
June 22, 1918
From: Commanding Officer,
To: Commander U.S. Naval Forces in France,
Via District Commander, Rochefort.
At 4.50 a.m. observed the U.S.S. Californian stop, turn to
the eastward, and abandon ship. The Corsair immediately
went about and closed on the Californian. At 5.15 a.m. two
boats from the Californian were alongside and survivors
came on board. I informed their Executive Officer that we
were close to land and suggested that it might be possible
to get the ship into port. He immediately ordered his
firemen into a boat and returned to the Californian. The
Corsair circled about the ship.
At 7.05 a.m. all hands abandoned the Californian and
came on board the Corsair. The captain informed me that
he could do nothing as the engine-room was filling with
water. I told him that we would attempt to tow. He
returned to the Californian with a boat’s crew, taking the
end of our tow-line with him. As the Californian was down
by the head and we had a fair wind, our tow-line was
made fast to the stern.
At 7.55 a.m. we started ahead. At 8.20 a.m. it was found
that we could not handle the ship by the stern; stopped
and attempted to take the line forward. Before it could be
made fast, the ship settled so rapidly that the crew was
obliged to abandon her, and we hauled the tow-line on
board. At 8.54 a.m. the bow of the Californian went down,
apparently resting on bottom. At 9.04 a.m. the stern
disappeared and Corsair proceeded. While waiting we
hoisted two of the Californian’s boats on board. During
these operations one French destroyer stood by.
It is believed by the Commanding Officer of the
Californian that the damage was caused by a mine.
Nothing was seen. No radio message was sent as
antennæ was disabled by the explosion. There were no
casualties.
The lost ship was commanded by Lieutenant Commander D.
Mahlman, U.S.N.R.F., and was under charter to the United States
Government. To the Board of Inquiry convened for the purpose, he
presented his own story of the disaster, which was as follows:
At 4.50 a.m. felt an explosion amidships. Stopped the
ship and ordered all hands to stand by the boats. The
Engineer Officer reported water and oil leaking into the
forward stoke hold. Sounded bilges and found three feet
in No. 1; No. 2 full; and Nos. 4 and 5 empty. On
examining the engine-room and stoke hold again, I found
the water over the floor plates, the engineers meanwhile
having the pumps working on the stoke hold bilge. The
water was steadily gaining so I ordered the boats to be
lowered and the ship abandoned.
Sent two boats away to the U.S.S. Corsair which was
standing by, while I remained on board with Ensign
Schwartz and boat’s crew to investigate further if it were
possible to do anything to keep the ship afloat, the pumps
being worked to the full capacity continually. Soon
afterwards two boats from the Corsair returned to the ship
with some of the officers and crew.
Extra efforts were made by the engineer force to gain
headway on the incoming water. When the water had
risen to the fire-boxes and continued to increase, on the
report of the Chief Engineer that the water was beyond
control, I ordered all hands to abandon ship. Having gone
aboard the Corsair, the Commanding Officer asked me
how long I thought the ship would keep afloat, to which I
replied four or five hours. He then suggested towing, so I
returned to the ship with my Executive Officer and sixteen
men, taking a tow-line which was made fast to the stern,
the best method of towing under the existing
circumstances. No results were obtainable and an attempt
was made to shift the tow-line to the bow.
While the tow-line was being shifted forward, from
observations made by me in the engine-room it was
evident that the ship could not stay afloat much longer as
she was then rapidly settling by the head. I again gave
orders to abandon the ship, which was done, and the
Californian soon began to sink rapidly, going down bow
first until the stern was almost perpendicular. Later the
ship slowly righted and the stern disappeared entirely at
9.04 a.m. in Latitude 46° 17′ 15″ North, Longitude 2° 10′
30″ West.
The Corsair had tried and failed, which was ever so much better
than not trying at all, and as one of her men mournfully observed,
“With any sort of a break in luck, we would have salvaged her and a
cargo that was so valuable that the Army organization was figuring
out some way of raising it during the summer.”
A MASCOT FROM THE THE NEWFOUNDLAND PUP
CALIFORNIAN KNOWN AS SAVED FROM THE FRENCH
“THE MUTT” FISHING BARK
This was the only ship lost out of a convoy with which the Corsair
operated during the long period of this service in and out of the
Gironde, from June to November of 1918. On several occasions
steamers were attacked and sunk or damaged just before joining or
just after leaving the escort. These included the Montanan, the
Westbridge, the Westward Ho, the Cubore, and the French cruiser
Dupetit Thouars. When the S.O.S. calls came, the Corsair hurried to
stand by, but other naval vessels happened to be nearer the scene
and were able to save the survivors, or the ship managed to remain
afloat, as in the case of the Westward Ho. A cruise in August,
beginning on the ill-omened 13th, turned out to be anything but
monotonous, from start to finish. The air was full of tragic messages
from torpedoed ships. It was like a dying flurry of the German
submarine campaign.
The excitement began with this entry in the Corsair’s record:
S.S. Tivives (third ship in right-hand column) signalled
“Torpedo just passed our stern from starboard.” This ship
notified Aphrodite by radio. Went to general quarters and
searched but saw nothing except whales and porpoises.
Wind was light and sea smooth. French destroyer Aisne,
which was astern of us, apparently intercepted radio as he
was observed to be searching.
A little later in this voyage came the following tale of disaster, as
caught by the radio:
Intercepted from Marseilles, “Montanan torpedoed.”
Intercepted from Noma, “Westbridge torpedoed.”
Intercepted from Aphrodite, “Cubore torpedoed, 10 p.m.
Friday.”
The Corsair and Aphrodite had left their outward-bound convoy at
this time, according to orders, to steer for the rendezvous and make
contact with a fleet of fourteen ships bound in for France. During the
night a green Véry light flared against the cloudy sky to the
southward. The Corsair headed for it at full speed, but could find no
ship in distress and it was later conjectured that the signal might
have come from the French destroyers which had remained to pick
up the survivors of the Cubore.
Soon after this, several lights were sighted close to the water. It is
hard to realize how unusual and arresting was such a phenomenon
as this upon an ocean where ships had long shrouded themselves in
darkness, screening every ray and glimmer lest it might betray them
to a lurking enemy. The vision of officers and lookouts had so
adapted themselves to these conditions that they were able to
discern a shadow of a ship a mile away. In this instance, when
vessels’ lights, several of them, were boldly displayed, the Corsair
approached warily until it was possible to make them out as showing
aboard a little flock of Breton fishermen. It was known that a French
submarine was operating in this patrol area and the officers of the
Corsair plausibly assumed that the lights might be a decoy for Fritz,
so they concluded not to meddle with the situation.
Next morning another bevy of fishing vessels was seen, and the
French submarine was with them, while a steamer was also standing
by. Meanwhile the Corsair and Aphrodite had found the inbound
convoy which had also a destroyer escort, and one of these, the
Lamson, ran down to investigate the startling picture of a submarine
calmly loafing about. The Frenchman promptly exploded a smoke
bomb as the proper recognition signal, for he was taking no chances
with a venomous Yankee destroyer which was known to be
exceedingly quick on the trigger when a periscope or conning tower
was etched against the horizon. It was agreed that there were much
more healthy pursuits than to be ranging the Bay of Biscay in a
French submarine.
Fortune had been unkind when the Corsair tried to pull the
Californian into port, but the story was a happier one when next she
had the opportunity to snatch a good ship from the greedy maw of
the sea. How it was done is summarized in a letter written by Vice-
Admiral Wilson, after the event:
U.S. Naval Forces Operating in European Waters
Forces in France
U.S.S. Prometheus, Flagship
Brest, France, 8 October 1918
From: Commander U.S. Naval Forces in France.
To: Lieutenant Commander W. B. Porter, U.S.N.R.F.
Subject: Commendation.
The Commander U.S. Naval Forces in France takes
pleasure in commending the excellent seamanship and
judgment displayed by you in the salvage of the
Norwegian steamship Dagfin, as reported in your letter of
September 17, 1918.
The Dagfin, a vessel of 2100 tons, loaded with general
supplies for the Italian Government, had been totally
disabled for six days with a broken shaft when sighted by
the Corsair on September 10th, in Latitude 45° 3′ North,
Longitude 8° 03′ West. The U.S.S. Corsair under your
command maintained touch with the Dagfin until the
heavy weather then prevailing had moderated, and towed
her into port, a distance of three hundred miles through
the submarine zone, arriving at Verdon on September
14th.
(Signed) Wilson
The Corsair happened to find this helpless Dagfin while scouting in

search of a steamer of the convoy which had somehow gone astray.
Insistent radio calls had failed to awaken a response from this
missing Macona. She appeared to have lost her bearings and totally
mislaid the rendezvous. The Corsair was too courteous to express
annoyance, but her radio queries became more and more emphatic.
The Macona was as elusive as a Flying Dutchman. At length the
yacht concluded that she had done her honest duty and so turned in
the general direction of the destroyer rendezvous, still keeping an
eye lifted for the lost sheep of the convoy.
At 8.35 o’clock on the morning of September 10th, with the
Macona still on her mind and the quest continued, the Corsair
descried a steamer against the misty horizon and soon it was
discovered that she was in distress and making no headway. By way
of precaution the Corsair’s crew scampered to general quarters,
because nothing could be taken for granted in war-time. Bearing
down, the yacht hovered close to a sea-worn, dingy Norwegian
tramp which wallowed inert and wore an air of profound
discouragement. The sailors of the Dagfin flourished their caps and
yelled with delight. It was obvious that they yearned to be plucked
out of the submarine zone after six days and nights of exposure as a
stationary target to any U-boat which might wander that way. Fritz
was too unsportsmanlike to hesitate to shoot at a sitting bird.
The Corsair was willing to undertake a towing job in order to save
the forlorn Dagfin and her cargo, but it was necessary to ask
permission to leave the duty already assigned, and a radio was
therefore sent to the Admiral at Brest. Meanwhile the sea was too
rough to undertake the ticklish manœuvre of hooking onto the
melancholy Norwegian and Commander Porter shouted through a
megaphone that he would return and stand by. There was profound
gratitude on the bridge of the Dagfin, but some deep-sea curses
along the rail. To have rescue so near, and to behold the American
warship depart! It was too much like having the cup of salvation
snatched from one’s lips. Were they to be left at the mercy of the
hell-begotten submarines?
Steering northward to take another look for the Macona,
Commander Porter changed course to sweep a wider area and, after
several hours, received a radio reply from Brest, “Stand by Dagfin.
Tug will be sent when weather moderates.” This order was to be
obeyed, blow high, blow low, and through two stormy days the
Corsair rolled and plunged within sight or signalling distance of the
Dagfin before any attempt could be made to board her. It was a
furious gale, with squalls of snow and sleet, and the Corsair was so
knocked about while heading into it that she had to turn and run
before the sea under steerageway of four knots. The water came
piling over the stern until the depth charges had to be shifted
amidships to change the trim of the ship and lift the overhang a
little. It was a man’s-size job, from beginning to end, this playing
friend in need to the Dagfin.
With a sea anchor out, the Dagfin had been lying broadside to the
waves, and this could not have increased the comfort of her crew.
She was swept and drenched and miserable, and, at best, there is
no luxury in a two-thousand-ton Norwegian tramp. At last the wind
lost something of its evil temper and the sea was less confused. On
the morning of September 12th the Corsair tried to get a line
aboard, after receiving another radio from Brest, “Take Dagfin in tow
when weather permits.” It was still too rough to put a boat over, so
Commander Porter steamed to windward and attempted to float a
line, buoyed by empty boxes, to the Dagfin, but the freighter’s drift
was so much greater than the yacht’s that this scheme failed.
THE DAGFIN, BROKEN DOWN AND HELPLESS. THE
CORSAIR STANDS BY
Nothing daunted, the skipper of the Corsair hauled his own ship
around to leeward and deftly placed her where the line floated so
close to the Dagfin that it was caught and hauled up by a boat-hook
as she drifted upon it. To this light line the Corsair secured one
hundred and fifty fathoms of ten-inch manila hawser, and the Dagfin
heaved it aboard with a turn about the winch. To the end of the
hawser the Norwegians bent fifty fathoms of chain, for the longer
the tow-line the easier the strain in heavy weather. The Corsair
secured her end of the hawser by means of a wire span leading to
the two after gun mounts, and then she was ready to go ahead and
pull her heart out. It is needless to remark that the yacht had not
been designed or built to yank disabled freighters through the Bay of
Biscay in the tail-end of a nasty gale of wind.
They went ahead, Corsair and Dagfin, and worked up to a speed
of five knots, reducing it a trifle when the strain seemed too great.
They slogged along in this manner until 8.30 p.m. when the chain
parted and the Dagfin went adrift. Commander Porter describes the
rest of it in his report:
We observed that the Dagfin had broken adrift, and
when attempting to haul in our tow-line I found that it
was weighted with the Dagfin’s chain which had parted in
the hawse-pipe. A six-inch line was bent and used as a
messenger to the forward capstan, but as this would hold
only four turns, which rendered, the starboard capstan
was used to assist. No lead blocks of sufficient size were
available to keep the line clear of the deck-house, and
both houses were damaged. It was difficult to stopper and
secure the messenger to the wet hawser. This was chafed
its entire length, although the ship went ahead slowly to
angle the hawser slightly and reduce the bend over the lip
of the chock.
After three hours’ work the hawser was all in and the
chain let go. Had conditions been favorable, of course the
chain could have been hove in through the hawse-pipe,
but I desired to intercept the French tug Penguin, sent out
from Brest, which was then close by. The strain had unlaid
the hawser, and releasing the chain allowed the turns to
take up again. Removing numerous kinks from a wet, ten-
inch rope is a long, tedious job.
As the tug had passed us in the night and was not in
sight at daylight, I closed in to pick up our tow.
Attempting to throw a line on board, we could not get
near enough to reach, as there was still a moderate swell
and we were both rolling and surging. A boat was lowered
and our hawser bent to the Dagfin’s cable, and at 7.45
a.m. we went ahead at six knots. The average speed for
twenty-six and a half hours was actually six and a quarter
knots.
At 8.15 the Penguin arrived and I had difficulty in
communicating, as she could not comprehend semaphore
signals nor was our language perfectly clear to them. Our
radio communication had been very good, although I was
more reluctant to use it than was the Penguin, especially
in stating latitude and longitude. To my question, “What
are your orders?” the reply was, “Bordeaux.” She also
informed me that she could tow four knots and as this
would not bring us into port before dark of the following
day, I decided to continue towing and requested that the
Penguin escort. I considered that the advantages of
greater speed and a much shorter time at sea gave us the
larger margin of safety.
In my opinion (with a very limited experience in towing)
the method adopted was by far the best way of towing a
ship. Not only is the windlass usually the strongest and
most convenient place to secure to, but in the absence of
a very long hawser the weight of chain sagging down
makes an effective spring. There was never any undue
strain and the Dagfin’s chain could not have parted if it
had been in good condition.
In the early morning of September 14th the Corsair trailed into the
mouth of the Gironde, doggedly kicking along at six knots, with the
Norwegian water-bruiser dragging in her wake. There the Penguin
took hold and the yacht went on alone to a berth at Pauillac, none
the worse for the experience. It was all in the job, not so sensational
as dropping depth bombs on a submarine, but perhaps requiring
more courage, endurance, and seamanship. Commander Porter’s
description of the tussle with the hawser is highly technical, but one
catches glimpses of the hard and heavy toil of the sea and the ability
to do the right thing in time of stress which comes only with
experience. The sailors of the Corsair, many of them landlubbers
only a year before, were learning the tricks of the trade.
It was back to the convoys again, the same old round of
discomfort at sea and coaling ship in port, but the spirit of the great
adventure had not been dulled. By way of change and respite, the
Corsair was twice chosen to carry distinguished official visitors from
one French base to another. The first occasion was on August 24th
when the passengers comprised the party of members of the House
Committee on Naval Affairs who were inspecting for themselves the
American naval and military forces overseas—Chairman L. P.
Padgett, D. J. Riordan, W. L. Hensley, J. R. Connelly, W. B. Oliver, W.
W. Venable, J. C. Wilson, T. S. Butler, W. J. Browning, J. R. Farr, S. E.
Mudd. J. A. Peters, and F. C. Hicks.
They were the guests of the Corsair from Royan to the great
American aviation base at Pauillac, and their enthusiastic approval of
the work of the Navy in the war was pleasant for the crew of the
Corsair to hear. Their report, later submitted to the Secretary of the
Navy, contained this non-partisan opinion, signed by Republican and
Democratic members alike:
The committee visited and inspected the United States
naval activities at Bordeaux, Moutchic, Pauillac, Rochefort,
La Rochelle, La Pallice, Fromentine, Paimbœuf, Saint-
Nazaire, Montoir, Le Croisic, L’Orient, Île Tudy, and Brest.
The amount of money expended at these various stations
mounts into the hundreds of millions of dollars and the
activities involve the employment of thousands upon
thousands of men. They represent activities on land and
water, under the water, and in the air. They involve
transportation of troops, munitions, equipment, food, and
clothing from the United States into France of the value of
untold millions. The duties and responsibilities of the Navy
were to escort and convoy ships transporting troops, and
all manner of effort and activity in the air, patrolling the
seas against German submarines, and safeguarding the
arrival and departure of ships, the construction of bases
for the operation and the care of the enormous aviation
organization, and also at the various bases providing first
aid and hospital accommodations for the sick and disabled
and the establishment of sanitary conditions, housing
facilities, and numerous other activities essential to the
proper care of the men, besides the many other efforts
essential to the successful prosecution of the war.
Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, N. Y.
ADMIRAL HENRY T. MAYO, COMMANDER-IN-

CHIEF OF THE ATLANTIC FLEET
The whole work was so colossal that while there may

have been mistakes and matters subject to criticism in
small details, they were lost in the magnitude of the
success accomplished. Taken as a whole, by and large, the
Navy has achieved a great work and is entitled to approval
and commendation.
Late in October the word came to the Corsair that the
Commander-in-Chief of the Atlantic Fleet, Admiral Henry T. Mayo,
and staff, would be graciously pleased to use the yacht (or fourth-
class gunboat, to be precise) to take them from Royan to Pauillac.
Now a four-starred admiral is absolutely top-hole in naval rank and
dignity, and the three gold stripes above the broad band on his
sleeve are viewed with awe and bedazzlement by the younger
officers. To be a vice-admiral, or even a rear admiral, is a resounding
distinction, but an admiral is so much more imposing that there are
very few of him extant.
You may be sure that the Corsair was fit for minute inspection
when the Commander-in-Chief of the Atlantic Fleet stepped aboard
at Royan, with side boys at the gangway and the boatswain’s mate
to pipe him with proper ceremony. The ship’s officers found him to
be the affable gentleman and manly sailor which his reputation in
the Navy had led them to expect. Admiral Mayo later recalled this
trip in a letter to the writer of this story of the Corsair, and was kind
enough to say:
Department of the Navy
General Board
Washington, August 22, 1919
Dear Sir:
Your letter of August 12th with reference to the war
story of Mr. J. P. Morgan’s yacht Corsair reached me while
absent on leave. My only opportunity to observe the
Corsair was in a very short trip during which I was a
passenger on board, but I do not hesitate to say that I
received a most favorable impression as to the condition
of the ship and the efficiency of the personnel at that
time, and that the reports as to the general efficiency and
good work of the vessel during her service on the French
coast were of an extremely high character.
(Signed) Henry T. Mayo
CHAPTER XI
IN THE RADIO-ROOM
I N this strange warfare against an enemy who fought, for the most
part, under the sea, there was no more effective agency than the
wireless telegraph or radio. It enabled the convoys to receive
warnings and to steer safe courses, it brought help to hundreds of
ships in distress, and as an offensive weapon enabled the Allied
naval forces to locate and destroy a large number of German
submarines. Without the highly developed employment of radio
communication, it would have been impossible to protect the
transportation of troops, food, and material. More than any other
factor, the radio won the war at sea.
As soon as directional wireless was perfected and used, it became
practicable to fix the position of a U-boat by means of the messages
sent from it, and, as Admiral Sims has said, “Their commanders
were particularly careless in the use of wireless. The Germanic
passion for conversation could not be suppressed, even though this
national habit might lead to the most serious consequences. Possibly
also the solitary submarine felt lonely; at any rate, as soon as it
reached the Channel or the North Sea, it started an almost
uninterrupted flow of talk. The U-boats communicated principally
with each other, and also with the Admiralty at home, and in doing
this they gave away their position to the assiduously listening Allies.
The radio direction-finder, by which we can instantaneously locate
the position from which a wireless message is sent, was the
mechanism which furnished much of this information. Of course, the
Germans knew that their messages revealed their locations, for they
had direction-finders as well as we, but the fear of discovery did not
act as a curb upon a naturally loquacious nature.”
The radio service of the Corsair was considered unusually efficient
by no less an authority than Admiral Wilson, who had occasion to
write the following commendation:
Brest, France
29 April, 1918
From: Commander U.S. Naval Forces in France.
To: Commanding Officer U.S. Corsair.
Subject: Forwarding of radio dispatch.
1. An important message from the U.S.S. Seattle,
addressed to the Commander U.S. Naval Forces in France,
was intercepted by the U.S.S. Corsair and forwarded to
destination via the District Commander Rochefort. This
message was received in the Communication Office, Brest,
about three p.m. Sunday, 28 April, 1918.
2. The Commander U.S. Naval Forces in France is
greatly pleased with this proof of the alertness and
efficiency of the radio personnel on board the U.S.S.
Corsair. The message was not heard by the French high
powered station, Brest, and while it was heard by the Flag
Radio Station in Brest, it was not copied in its entirety
because of interference from near-by stations, and the
correct copy as received from the U.S.S. Corsair was of
great assistance.
(Signed) Wilson
The Communications Officer of the ship, Ensign Gray, took the

keenest interest in maintaining the radio operations at the top notch
and a technical training at Annapolis aided a natural ability for this
sort of work. The chief radio operator, H. C. Breckel, was an
unusually valuable man for his position and felt a pride in the
reputation of the Corsair’s radio-room which was shared by his
“gang” of assistants. The spirit of the organization was indicated in
the incident which caused Admiral Wilson to compliment it. The
yacht was moored at Pauillac at the time, and was not required to
keep a radio watch, but the operators were on the job nevertheless.
The Seattle was standing by a Luckenbach steamer, more than a
thousand miles out at sea, which had stripped its turbines and was
in urgent need of help from Brest. The message went through
because the Corsair caught and relayed it.
Every hour of the day and night an operator sat at a table in the
little room which none of the crew was allowed to enter. With a
receiver clamped to his head, he listened and heard a myriad faint
and phantom voices. The air was filled with them. The mystery, the
incredible magic and romance of it all, had become commonplace.
Ships were talking to each other hundreds of miles apart, mere
routine sometimes, and then the call for help, or the thrilling report
of an escape from a submarine attack. And woven through it all was
the continuous communication of the high-powered shore stations
which shot into space the secret orders and inquiries of admiralties
and war departments and statesmen.
The radio log of the Corsair recorded an immense variety of
conversations, some of them quite informal, such as this chat with
another vessel of the Breton Patrol:
“What do you know? What did you see last night?”
“We don’t know anything. We saw two submarines last
night.”
“We saw a ship torpedoed about 7.00 this morning, but
did not see the submarine.”
“Have you been copying much?”
“We have been copying mostly GLD messages and SOS
messages and a few CHGT.”
“Here is an SOS that came in at 1.10 p.m.—CG. GLD de
FFK de “VEK” 47:45 08:40 W. 11025.”
“We got that one and it did not mean that the last
message was at 8.00 p.m. last night. We have got a few
SOS messages. Have heard a lot of work.”
“Yes, yes.”
“Did you get that Allo from FFK?”
“I just got part of it and am waiting for a repetition.”
“Here it is. Allo 47:30 09:34 W. 1219.
“Thanks. Thanks.”
The garrulous U-boats seem to have kept up an endless stream of
chatter, and the radio force of the Corsair learned to know and
identify some of them, by their manner of sending, as if they were
old acquaintances. One of the reports will give an idea of this
curious interchange of communication which was carried on between
hostile craft, unseen and hunting each other with deadly intent:
On November 21, 1917, the Corsair, Smith, Preston,
Flusser, and Lamson were returning to Base, position
approximately Latitude 47° 30′ North, Longitude 8° 40′
West. A number of enemy submarines were
intercommunicating as follows:
At 8.36 p.m. one sub called another who answered, and
two messages were sent. These signals came in very
strong which indicated that subs were close to us.
At 8.59 p.m. the same sub transmitted another message
to the one communicated with before.
At 9.01 p.m. a different sub called three others, one of
which was the first sender.
At 9.18 p.m. Bruges began sending a message to the sub
that called at 9.01 p.m.
At 9.57 p.m. Bruges was still heard.
At 10.16 p.m. a different sub called another which was
the one who received the messages at 8.36 p.m.
At 9.36 p.m. the Corsair was called and received a
message from Brest.
At 10.54 and again at 10.56 p.m. the Corsair was called
by an enemy submarine using P.F.B., the same call used
by Brest.
At 10.59 Corsair answered and told him to go ahead.
Sub sent “3 H 5” and then his signals died out.
At 11.04 P.M. sub called Corsair and told Corsair to go
ahead with message.
At 11.10 P.M. the same sub called a British convoy.
At 11.15 P.M. sub called Corsair and said go ahead with
message.
At 11.16 Corsair called sub and sent a message, the
groups of which were taken from several intercepted
German messages.
At 11.17 sub acknowledged Corsair’s message.
At 11.25 p.m. sub called Corsair and asked for a
repetition of the second group.
Corsair did not answer.
Sub repeated message. This time he was impatient as
he said “Go ahead” twice.
The subs continued to intercommunicate during the
night, and also with Bruges.
The radio service of the Corsair in the war zone was so important
and essential a part of her activities that a description of it in some
detail seems well worth recounting. Chief Radio Electrician H. F.
Breckel went to the trouble of preparing a narrative which reads as
follows, and it goes without saying that he was the man best fitted
to undertake such a task:
I reported on board the U.S.S. Corsair, then at the Navy
Yard, Brooklyn, during the last week in May, 1917, in
accordance with orders from the Bureau of Navigation. At
that time I was attached to the U.S.S. Ohio, then at
Yorktown, Virginia, which was the war base of the Atlantic
Fleet. Reporting to Ensign Gray, Communications Officer of
the Corsair, I was told that I would be in charge of the
operation of the radio department and to get things in
shape for a long cruise away from any established base of
supplies.
ELECTRICIANS SWAN
H. A. BRECKEL, CHIEF AND PLUMMER, OF THE
RADIO OPERATOR HIGHLY EFFICIENT
“RADIO GANG”
My first step was to make sure of a personnel which

would furnish efficient service under all conditions. Four
operators were necessary and this number was soon sent
to the ship, and a better group of men could not have
been found in any vessel. The radio force comprised:
Ensign Gray, U.S.N.R.F. (Radio Officer)
Harry F. Breckel, U.S.N. (Chief Electrician, Radio)
James A. Plummer, U.S.N.R.F. (Electrician, 1st Class,
Radio)
Meriam H. Swan, U.S.N.R.F. (Electrician, 2nd Class,
Radio)
Ivan E. Davis, U.S.N. (Electrician, 2nd Class, Radio)
Each man was given a thorough examination when he
reported on board and the results indicated that all of
them were proficient and reliable operators. We promptly
set to work and the radio-room fairly hummed, day and
night. The transmitting apparatus was inspected,
calibrated to the proper wave lengths, and tested. The
receiving apparatus was also overhauled, minor repairs
made, and adjusted to receive the various wave lengths
used by other U.S. naval vessels. Then the inspection
included the various switch-boards, storage batteries,
heating and lighting systems, motor generators, etc.
The radio-room was located on the main deck with
doors opening directly on deck, so it was necessary to
devise a lighting circuit which should automatically switch
off the lamps when the doors were opened, as the ship
moved in total darkness. After stocking up with spare
parts, the antenna was given careful attention, for nothing
is more exasperating than to have your wires carry away
and to have to replace them in heavy weather.
During a trial run in Long Island Sound, the radio
installation was tested under normal conditions of service
and was found to be in first class shape. The very fine
type of apparatus aboard the Corsair made only a few
changes necessary in order to make it conform with the
standards of the Navy. We operators were fortunate in
stepping into a radio-room so efficiently and completely
furnished. There was a large desk with space for the
Radio Officer in his work of coding and decoding
despatches, a bookshelf, several chairs, a large wall settee
which I used as a bunk, and a safe in which were kept the
code books, ciphers, and other confidential material. With
regard to comfort, there was no better “radio shack”
aboard any ship of the Navy.
There was steam heat and running water which was
cold, but we discovered that we could obtain hot water for
scrubbing clothes, paint-work, etc., from the steam
radiator. I ask you, fellow “Sparks” and “ex-Sparks” of the
Navy, can you picture such comfort and convenience in a
real, honest-to-goodness man-of-war? And it all helped to
maintain good service. Our gang also had a percolator
along with the necessary watts from the ship’s generator,
and the outfit could turn out a brew of “boiler compound”
that would keep a Mississippi colored gentleman with the
hook-worm wide awake. We surely had a home on board
the old Corsair!
At last, on that memorable 14th of June the ship
pointed her bow to the eastward and steamed slowly
down the Bay, with the dreary moans of fog-horns for
farewell, and no cheers or blaring bands or fluttering
flags. In the radio-room there was very little to do as we
had been instructed to keep communication down to the
minimum, for the enemy might infer from the amount of
radio traffic in the air that some unusual movement was
under way, or he might plot the exact positions by means
of a direction-finder or radio compass. At the beginning of
the war, naval vessels had a characteristic “spark” or
“tone” quite different from the average commercial or
naval shore stations, and an operator familiar with these
variations could readily tell which was which. It was easy
to understand why the troop convoys were kept as silent
as possible.
For several days there was little radio work besides
copying the Time and Weather reports which were
broadcasted from the Arlington station, and intercepting
for the skipper’s information all radio traffic heard by the
operator on watch. In mid-ocean almost nothing was
heard because we were out of range of the ordinary
“spark stations,” but our “long wave” receiver, constructed
by our own force, had no trouble in copying messages
from such stations as Darien (Canal Zone), Tuckerton,
New Jersey, Boston, and other high-powered naval radio
stations while the Corsair was half way across the Atlantic.
It was excellent work when you consider the fact that the
special apparatus and “hook up” used were of the simplest
type and that an amateur Audion detector bulb was
employed.
When about five days out, the real job began. The
Corsair was called by the flagship Seattle and a long code
message received by the operator on watch. The
apparatus functioned perfectly and there was every
reason to believe that very little trouble, barring accidents,
would be encountered. Soon we received orders to get in
touch with the Birmingham, flagship of the second division
of the convoy and to forward a message to her. After
joining the second division, there was absolute silence for
several days, and no radio signals were heard at all until
we drew near to the coast of France and the edge of the
war zone. Then traffic began to be heavy and the
operators were busy copying messages into the
“intercepted log book” almost every minute of the day and
night.
This log was of great value to the captain, for the radio
station of a fighting ship is an information bureau which
maintains intimate touch with events occurring in other
areas. In these days a man-of-war without a radio-room
would be almost deaf, dumb, and blind. We knew that we

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2 THE RESEARCH PROCESS: How We Find Things Out 36

3 THE BIOLOGY OF MIND AND BEHAVIOR: The Brain in Action 76

5 CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus on Awareness 188

7 MEMORY: Living With Yesterday 276

8 LANGUAGE AND THINKING: What Humans Do Best 324

9 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE: What Does It Mean To Be Smart? 378

]0 EMOTION AND MOTIVATION: Feeling and Striving 426

11 PERSONALITY: Vive la Difference! 480

12 PSYCHOLOGY OVER THE LIFE SPAN:

13 STRESS, HEALTH, AND COPING 586

14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS: More Than Everyday Problems 628

1 5 TREATMENT: Healing Actions, Healing Words 684

16 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY: Meeting of the Minds 732

PSYCHOLOGY: Yesterday and Today 2

Levels of Analysis: The Complete Psychology 5 Clinical and Counseling

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Designed to Be Valid Correlational Research: Do

Naturalistic Observation • Case Studies • Surveys Does It Really Mean? •

BRAIN CIRCUITS: Making Connections 78 The Dual Brain: Thinking

Neurotransmitters and Neuromodulators: Bridging the Gap 82 A Deep Disconnect

SPOTLIGHT ON THE BRAIN: How It Divides PROBING THE BRAIN 109

Behavioral Genetics 122 REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 127

SENSATION AND PERCEPTION: 4

CONSCIOUSNESS: Focus on Awareness 188

The Experience of Consciousness 191 What Is Flypnosis? 210

Altered States of Consciousness 191 Individual

REM Rebound • Sleep Deprivation: What Hypnosis as Possession Trance 214

Elappens When You Skimp on Sleep • The Effects Meditation 214

of All-Nighters Types of Meditation • Benefits of Meditation • Meditation

Classical Conditioning: How It Works 237 Conditioned Stimulus

Conditioned Emotions: Getting a Gut Response • Dissecting Conditioning:

Preparedness and Contrapreparedness • Extinction and Mechanisms 242

Understanding Research: The Discovery of Schedules: An Hourly or a Piece-Rate Wage?

Taste Aversion 246 The Operant Brain 262

Principles of Operant Conditioning 252 Cognitive Learning 267

STORING INFORMATION: Not Just One LTM 290

Extra Mile REVIEW AND REMEMBER! 321

Road • Semantics: The Meaning Is the Message • Concepts in the Brain

Pragmatics: Being Indirect

Comprehension 333 Solving Problems: More Than Inspiration 357

of Language Development Expertise: Why Hard Work Pays Off 362

ANALYZING INTELLIGENCE: One Ability or Many? 385 Differences • Sex Differences

Multiple Intelligences: More Than One Way to Shine? 392

The Structure of Personality • Personality Development: Study of Twins Reared

Avoiding Arrest • Defense Mechanisms: Protecting Apart 504