,, r

120 REVIEW QUESTIONS

3.- What is DNA analysis? . . : . .

What is its role in forensic investigation?
I

~
------ -- -- --
I
I ,_
\

d
~

J
4. What are the different method s of DNA profiling?

. .
 GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJECTORY 121

UNIT3
PHYSICAL. IDENTIFICAT
. ION CASES
I ;

• I

CHAPTER 10- ·
l ✓ ,
J •

GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING,

. · AND· BULt.ET.T.RAJECTORV
•l
Leal'!ling Obje~tives .
At the end of thi~ c4apter, the student will be able ~o:
•I. t Describe the· visual distinction of glass and
enumerate its p·r operties; '
• • I •

I • •

Enumerate the types of glass fracture;

. 1 i l 1 •.

Show the value qf glas~ as evidence;

.. •

• • .I I -

• Describe the proces~ of collecting and handling

glass and glass fragm_e nts; · ...
• Define "macro-etching"; ,
'
• Prese·nt how the examination of bullet holes aid an
investigation; and
• Define a bullet traject9_r y and determine the tools
in trajectory determination. ~

. -
 - -- - - - - - - ~- -- -
'-~ ~ ~
12 2 FO RE NS IC• CH EM
~ ~ ~ ~ :. .. :=IST RV AN D TO XIC OL OG Y
:. .. :. .: .: :: := .: :. .= .: :. .: -, :_ _
-- ~ -- -
W ha t is Gl as s?
J
Gi as s co ns ist s of a m ix tu
I m or e alk ali ne ba se s, su ch
co nt ai n otp .er el em en ts an
re of sil ica (n at ur al sa nd )
as lim e, so da , or po ta sh . an d two or
Gl as s ma y also
t d m et al s, wh ic h -ar e ad de
re sis ta nc e, ha rd ne s.s , an d d fo r co lor , he at
ot he r .de sir ed, pr op er tie s.
Gl as s an d gl as s fra gm en
. ,

'
I
I
cr im in al in: ve ~t iga tio ns of
fle ein g th e sc en e of ve hi cle
of su ch m at er ia ls, ei th er
as
ts of te n ta ke an im po rt~
_s uc h of fe ns es as bu rg lar y,
ac ci de nt s, an d ot he rs . Th e
t role in
ho us eb re ak in g, ,
ul tim ate value
m ay be ob ta in ed fro m th em ev id en ce or as in ve sti ga tiv e ·1e ad s tha t
, de pe nd s on th e in ve sti ga
I an d . tra in in g in ~ e na tu re to rs' knowledge
. of gl as s; pr op er pr oc ed ur
pr es er va tio n, . an d ex an lin
'
. es of collection
at io n; an d w ha t ·th e lab or
ca n le ar n fro m th e gl as s qr ato ry tec hn ici an'
gl as s fra gm en ts. . - ·
Gl as s ~a ct ur es . an d ~,a
th ro ug h wh ic h se ve ra l ty pe s.s f~ a~ en ts ~a n pr ov id e inf orm ati on
s of de te rm in at io ns m ay be
as th os e lis t~i be lo w. . ·po ss ib le, su ch

1. In ve sti g~ to rs ca n d~
te rm in e :w he th er-a .fr ag me nt of gla ss
or jg in at ed fro m a -pa rti cu
la r gl as s ol;?ject th at ha s· be
br ok en {e .g. , a fra gm en t en
of he ad lig ht le ns fo un d at
sc en e of a ve hi cl e ac ci de nt tjl e
di d or di d no t or ig in ate~from
a br ok en he ad lig ht .of a su
sp ec t ve hic le) .
2. In ve sti ga to rs ca n de te
rm in e wh et he r a gl as s fra
or ig in at ed fro m a pa rti cu gm en t
la r ki nd of gl as s ob jec t, su
as a sp ec ta cl e le ns , he ad lig ch
ht le ns , or a wi nd ow pa ne .
3. In ve sti ga to rs ca n de te
rm in e th e or ig in an d di re cti
fr ac tu re , sp ec ifi ca lly , th ey on of a
ca n de te rm in e wh at ca us ed
an d th e di re ct io n fro m wh it
ic h th e ca us ati ve fo rce ca me
.
4. In ve sti ga to rs ca n de
te rm in e th e or de r in wh ich
fra ct ur es oc cu rre d, su ch th e
as in th e ev en t of mu lti ple
fra ct ur es , i? cl ud ip g bu lle
I
t ho le s .
5. in ve sti ga to rs ca n de te rm •
in e th e an gl e fro m ~h ic h
bu lle t st ru ck a gl as s ob je a
ct.
6. Fi na lly , in ve sti ga to rs ca n
de te rm in e wh et he r a p~ ic ul
gl as s ob jec t, su ch as a ar
ja r or a bo ~tl e, co nt ain ed
- in fla m m ab le or ex pl os iv ~
e su bs ta nc e:
 I

________________..:,___~--------------i,,
GLASS ,FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING
123\ I
AND BULLETTRAJE CTORV
1

Visual Distinction of Glass

When one looks at a piece of glass, there are several distinctions
that can be n;adily .observed with the naked eye. These include the
following: ·
1. Surface TeXhl;re
2; C_o lor
3. Curvature (if any)
4. Thickness

aiass· is · very unique. Given that there can be thousands of

different formulas in making glass-from the simple pane glas~ to the
wide variety of colored glass-each has its own physical properties that
make it unique. For exanlple, metals· can be added 'to .m ake various
colors as follows:
~
1. Iron = Greenish II

2. Copper= Bluish
3. Manganese = Brownish
4. Gold = Ruby red ·

The Strength of the a ·z ~s an·d the Glass Fracture

. . . .
The strength of glass depends on its surface. As soon as the
surface is penetrated, such ~s by using a diamond tip pencil, glass
could break along that scratch line. Once the surface is damaged, the
remaining material is easily cracked or fragmented.
In addition, a focused impact upon glass will produce a predictable
pattern of fragmentation. Given that glass breaks under tension and '
not compression, it will bend until the tensile strength is exceeded,
after which it would break. In the event of a (racture, a radial fracture
would GOmprise the primary fracture, whereas spiral or concentric
fractures comprise the secondary fractures.

,.
 I'

·, 124 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY ,AND TOXICOLOGY

Properties of Glass
· The va,lue of glass-either ·as evidence or in the development ~f
investigative leads~epends on its physical properties,.which make It
possible to determine the manner by which a piece of glass was broken
or to determine whether glass· fragments .did or did :,;iot originate from
the same source.
'
Differences in amounts of mineral composition of · ingredients
used in one batch of molten glass , frdm th,o se._used in another batch
coulq. also prc;>duce variations that ~an be identified under laboratory
·procedures. Glass possess properties that help a laboratory. examiner
analyze its composition. First, glass seldom breaks squarely across but
leaves. convex/ concave edges, or stress lines, on the fractured edges;
second·, glas·s produce both radial (primary) .and concentric (sec<;>ndary)
fractures wh:en .broken; .and
third, glass bends and stretches before
breaking. .,
I-

I Th~ories Related to Glass Fracture

There are several theories that can help e.xaminers \analyze a glass
fractu1ie.
1. Glass first bends on the direction where force is
applied, which causes the opposite side to stretch.
2. Glass is flexible-it bends 'Yhen force is
applie_d to it:
3 . Glass can withstand more'bending rather than
J. stretching, which causes the opposite side to start
I . breaking once the stretch limit is exceeded.
I

I 4. Most t:>fthe glass is projected forward, in the direction

or the blow; however, if some of the fragments ar~
project ed backwards-toward's the person breaking

' the window-by

l , -
up to a . distance of 3
,
meters (Le.,
the ·"ba ckscatter"), . ·anyone standing ~lose enough
V{hen tlie wi!idow b t'e·a ks will be covered in tiny
I

' fragments. of glass which will ~tick to their clothing

. and their h¢r. ~ ·
 GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJECTORY 125

Types of Glass !racture

As mentioned e~lier, there are two, types of glass fracture.
, .
• A radia{,or primary fracture resembles _the spoke of a wheel,
in which the radiating rod originates at a common point.
• In a concentric or secondary fracture, the radiating rods are
connected with one another, creating a cob-web appearance.

RADIAL AND ,CONCEf,iTR,c

. GLASS F~ACTURES

Radial

l
J

· Ridge Lines

. I- • .
Factors to Be Determin~~ in .G lass Frq.cture
1. Point of Imj:,act~~H'ere 1 the front of the glass can be determined
through the 1accumul~tjon <?f dust and dirt on the glass.
t • J -'- ~

2. ·Age, of .the Fractt..i:re 1

· • Fresh fracture - exhi~its a regular pattern of radial

and concentric; fractures ·
• · Old Fracture - shows short extension lines at the end
of the radial fractures
 136 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY

3. Directio~ of lmRact or Fore~ (Position of the Firer):

l a. Angle from the right (right to left) - heavy chippings
i on the left side ·of the glass -

t . b . Angle from t}:le left (left to right) - he~vy cliippings

on/ the right .side of the glass
t c. Perpendicular s~ot- even distribution of chippings
on the exit ~ide of the glass ·

'•
••
4. Cause of Fracture .

•
•
. . I
' .
• I

Due to natural means - shows plrun wavy lines

Due to mechanical means - shows a regular pattern of
.

radial/ concentric fracture

Fractures made with -a Blunt

Object or Instrument

•'} _A thorough examination of

.glass fractures caused by the impact
t of a blunt instrument or object
could reveal a pattern of radi,al and
J. concentric fracture~. The impact
f side can be determined by careful
examination .of .the stress lines on BLUNT OBJECT FRACTURE ·

'
the edges of both the concentric
and radial fractures.· A partial reconstruction of the object should· be
j made as an initial step, so that radial and concentric fractures can be
positively determined.
l
On radial fracture lines, the stre~s lines on-the rear side (±:e., the
J side opposite to the side of impac~) are well developed and di~tinct,
( whereas those on the front, or·impact side, are not that well developed
,
and distinct as they tend ~o run
together and lose their individuality. :

I Iµ this case, the 3R rule applies. Meanwhile, on _c oncen.tric frac~e

lines, the· opposite condition can be found, -with . the well-developed ·.
1

I and individually distinct portions of the fracture lines appearing on the

front or on the impact side. ·
, I
 GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULLET TRA.,IECTORY 127

Fractures caused by Heat

Fractures caused by prolonged
or inten-s e exposure to heat can
be distinguished from those
caused by impact. ·This is because
fractures ca:-used by _heat do not
show a regular pattern of radial
and concentric lines. Specifically,
heat fr~ctures have a distinct wave
shape. ·
Heat fractures also show few curve patterns (stress lines) along
the edges. Expansion of the glass (stretching action) first occurs on the
side exposed to the heat, and glass splinters would usually fall tqward
that side. Reconstruction of a glass object fractured by heat could
re;eal the wave-shapea fracture pattern. However, if the stress iines
are smooth, and no point of impact or penetration can be found, these
factors, togeth~r with o_ther considerations such as the circumstances
under'which the fragments were found _and their location, may indicate
that fracture was due to excessive heat.

Fracture _Impacts '

1. orii low velocity _impact
, l

a. ,The.se -are characterized by an increased number of well

developed r~dial fractures that are_usually accompanied
by concentric fractures surrounding the point of impact
b. Lower velocity penetrati~ns
(golf balls, rock, hammer, etc.)
I

2. High ve~ocity iµlpact )

. '
a. Often characteristic of high velocity breaking forces,
such as a r.o ck\ from a slingshot ora bullet from a firearm
!
b. Typically produces an individual hole with limited radial
\
fractures
c. Has a morphological resemblance to a "cone" with
greater amo11rnt of glass absent on the opposite side of
the impact
d. Short and dense radial fractures
' .
 . --- ::~ --: --: ---·_, - -
:,:IC~O-LO_G_Y_
~1~2!!8_!.FO~R~E~N~S~IC~C~H~E~M~IS:T~R~Y:_A~N:D~T_:O.:,:X
~
1. , ~ '1.
\

l'actors tha t Contribute to the Resrdting

I

.
Ch ara cte nst fcs 01 the FraC:Ure
b tween the window and the "sh oot e,r ," which .
. ' . .. dt . al I . ~s
a,. ))1stance e .~~
related t? the pro jec tile s m1µal ~ enm n oc1 ty

b. Size and.'ha rdn e~s of.the pro jec tile

c. , Sha pe and dep sity of the 1pr<;>jec~-~
Thi ckn ess and the. type of gla ss; wh ich aff
ect the fyp e of
the win dow .
d. fra ctu re or perforation sus tain ed by '

Value of Gla ss as Evidence

rela tive ly- hig h ;alue
Gla ss and gia ss frag me nts cou ld hav e
· in t~e ir phy s~c al properti::
evide~ce owing to the _d isti nct var iati ons
ma nuf ac° :lre d., Th e ~vid~nce
and me tho ds-- by wh ich the y ,ha~e bee n_
t tha t larg e !i" a~e .nt s ~ay be
value of gl~ss is also ,e nha nce d by the fac
ma y ~ro vid e linu ted .r:e~uits .
physically ma tch ed. Howeve~, a lab ora to~
lar pie ce of gl_('ss evidence
in tha t it cap only con clu de tha t a p~ cu
e com pos itio n as th,e original
con sist s. of tiny gra nul es wit h the sam
n can not be rea che d unless a
glass. In this sen se, a cer tain con clu sio
fragment-can. be perfectly fit into .
an original gla ss pie ce.
surface,
in-t he c_ase of two
or mo re foc use d imp act s up~ n a gla ss
ine wh ich imp act wa s made
the fragmentation pat tern can hel p det e~
fra ctu res sto p at t he juncture
first. Moreover, succeeding imp act rad ial
iipp act . Fin ally , given that
of the. fractur-es pro duc ed by the firs t
the m can res ult in valuable
fra ctu re ·pat tern s 'are uni que , exa min ing
aki ng for~e. A phy sic al match
information regarding the dire~tion of bre
in an opi nio n tha t th~y came
bet we en two pieces of gla ss l;Oltld res ult
of all oth ers .
from a common sou rce to the exc lus ion

Fragments
Collecting and H an ~ Glass and Glass
st
h oth er typ es of evi den ce, gla ss and gla ss fra gm ent s mu
- As wit
ed on the cri me sce ne sketch
be pho tog rap hed and the ir locations not
y are han d)e d or 'moved to a
mu st be pro per ly identified before .the
st .be rec ord ed con cer nin g the
diff ere nt location. The specific dat e mu
oth etic al rel atio n it ma y have
gla ss and any obvious, sus pec ted , or hyp
to the crim e bei ng i.nvestigatetl. ,
•
I

• ✓•
f'
 GLASS FRACTURE, MA~R0 ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJEC TORY 129

cottect1on
' .
in collec~ ng _glass an~ gl~ss fragme nts as part of a body of eviden ce
t.ed to an mcide nt being investi gated, there are severa l measu res
rela ....... ust be followe d. These are listed below.
tbat .1...~ , • • •

1. carefu lly avoid smudg ing any fingerp rints or

disturb ing substa nces, such as bloods tains dust
.
· ·dirt, or other foreign matter that may be on ' the'
glass.
\ . 2. ·01ass should be picked up on its edges to avoid
touchi ng the plane surface as much as possib le.
3 . All availab le fragme nts should be collect ed to
provid e a comple te reassem bly as much as.poss ible.
Even particl es that are too small to permit matchi ng
or recons tru~tio n should be collect ed and preserv ed
becaus e they can be analyz ed in ·a laborat ory for
their physic al proper ties.
4 . . Rubbe r-tippe d ·tweeze rs or similar devices should
be used for handli ng small fragme nts so as not to
scratc h the glass. Metal tweeze rs with adhesi ve tape
pla ced ·over the inner surface of the points could
also make a good field expedi ent.
5. Rubbe r or fabric gloves should be worn when
h~dli ng and collect ing the eviden ce ..
6. if remov al of the article is not possib le, the pieces
1
) '
remain ing iii the frame should ·be careful ly marked
(inside and outsiq e surface s must be design ated) and_
remov ed to avoid further damag e or disturb ance of
any deposi ted supsta nce on ~e glass surface . If the . ..
frame is not remove d, any materi al sample should
be collect ed from it.· · · ·
7. In cases where the glass has been brokef:L out of
a door, ·a window or any similar frame, and pieces
still 1

remain , the frame should be remove d and kept

intact., This could al~o make it ea~J.'e r to reassem ble
the broken pieces later. Ih this case, it may be
necess ary to provid e interim protect ion for the
premis es:
 l

130 FORENSIC·CHEMISTRY AND TOXl~OLOGY • ' -'

Markings
Sufficiently sized glass fragmehts are marked with a grease
pencil, a diamond point or carborundum pencil, or a piece .of properly
marked adhesive tape. Markings are placed in an area that could
delineate a valuable piece of evidence. Such markings should include
the investigator's name and the date. and t iffie · at which (he ·evidehce
has been collected. · ' ·.
\ .
Markings are placed on the side which had been up -(qr inside the
building or room if taken from a window or door) when the glass or
glass' fragments have been found. Markings also include a s e quence
number ·which, together with. the collector's photographs, notes and
sketches, cap help identify the lo.c ation. Meanwhile, fragments that are
too sm~ to be marked· are placed in suitable con:tainers and both the
container and lid are marked ..
I • l ; r I

Preservation
_/ .
In order to properly; preserve glass.or glass fragments, especially
if they are to be used as evidence , these should be:

. or similar material;
1. wrapped _in soft paper,. cotton
~

2. placed in a suitable container;

3. properly fastened so that it will"not shift; and
4. properly marked as "fragile."

Laboratory Examination
.. It is often a~vantageous to delay the submission of some items
(e.g., piec;es of broken he.a dlights found at the scene of a fleeing-
the-scene vehicle accident) to the laboratc;ny because the temporary
retention of such pieces could allow visual matching of remaining
pieces found ~n a suspected vehicle. Thes~ can be later confirmed by
laboratory analysis.
Laboratory examination of fractured glass found at .the ·scene of
1
the crime may indicate the following:
'
• the type of glass,
• . the manufacturer of the glass,
• the point of origin of ~e glass fragments,
 GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJECTORY 131

• the direction of .the blow, I

•
•, the bullet's direction and angle of impact; aptd
.
• . . th~ sequence of holes.
'
I
j

1. Fluorescence ~~mination
A fluorescence examination is conducted based on the fact that
mineral constituents imbue a distinctive type and degree of fluorescence
to ·the glass that originate from one molten batch. While the results
~f UV comparisons of two or mo~e pieces .may not be positive in
establishing sµriilarity, they may be positively dissimilar, hence could
play a _useful-role in the elimination process.
'(
. .
-,Given that · flu~rescence examination requires that the glass
must pe r absolutely clean to preclude fluorescent reaction from
· ·contaminanfs,. there
r
is a need to wash the glass in acetone or a similar
solvent, and then in :water.. For this reason, caution should be taken
that this examination is not performed untjl after other examinations
for surface debris, fingerprints, and so on, have been completed.

2. , Spectrogtaphic Analysis
-, The constituents'.o f glass, especially the minor or trace constituents
·(e.g., contaminants and minor· elements added for specific purposes),
could easily undergo spec~rographic anaixsis, which identifies and
, measures the quantities of these constituents. The presence (or absence)
and the quantities of these minor constituents play· a more crucial
· role in spectrographic analysis than the basic constituents commonly
found in comparatively greater qu~tities. Thus,, the Spectrograph is
":[ery useful in demonstrating major differences between two samples;
can
it also indicat~ their non-identity: .

3. Refractive ·Index ' I

Refraction refers to the change of direction of a ray-of light passing

1

through a medium with•a non-uniform density (e.g., through a piece

of glass that has been ground to specific requirements). The refractive
index can· be measured microscopically or with a refractometer, which
requir-es that the two sides of the sample be parallel. Another method,
known as flotation, can be used when the specimen d~es not have
parallel sides.
 _ _ _ _CHEMISTRY
_ _FORENSIC
f..__132 _____ AND
__ TOXICOLOG . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
_ _ _ _Y_, _

' 4. Density Analysis

i
t
Density analysis is based on .the relative den_sities of t\\'.'O or
more pieces of glass. Compariso n of the qensities of a known ·and an
unknown piece of glass may help determine whether they are similar
or dissimilar. • I

''• What is Macro-Et ching?

• Macro-etch ing refers to . the

application of I a chemical_solution on ·
a metal .surface and ob~erving any
reaction that may take place.

Deftnitfon of Terms
• Concavity. - refers to a depression or excavatio n beiow ·
the general level. ·
. .
• Alteration - refers to changes or modificati on made in anything.
• · Molecule - smallest particle of a compound
I

• Atom - smallest particle of an element

• GrµidI - to polish or smoothen by friction
• Obliteration...:. to conceal an object'~ i~entity
. .
• -Serial number - series of numbers punched or pressed into
an item to distinguish'. it from a:iiqther bf the same type. ii is
sometime s pi:eceded with letters and symbols.
. .
• Engraved number - ·a ·number that is impressed on a metal
I

surface using an electrical or mechanic al gadget. .

. .

• Embossed number - .a:number that is,raised ·in relief from

the surface or produced as· a raised design, pattern, or
lettering on a plain surface, e.g_. metal.
,,

J
''
. '.
 GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJECTORY 133

purposes of Macrb-Etching_
.
Macro-etching has several uses as stated below.
I •

1. It is used to detennine whether the serial numbers of motor

vehi,c les or firearms are t3:111pered.
, 2. It is used.to restore the original serial number of an article
in·question.
a. The criminal offender may destroy this
identification by defacing this serial number
through filing, ch1seling, gr1nding, and filli_ng in.
b. Articles of e_c onomic value· are identified by the
specific details about the manufacturer (e.g.,
protection number or serial number).

J,npf!rtance of :!"lumber Restoration

In a criminal investigation, number restoration plays an important
, role because of the following reason.s: ·
1. It could prove that .t he property found in the possession of
I' •• . 11?-e suspect is· actually· owned by the victim;
.
2. It could establish an investigative lead from the article/
p·r operty that m~y have been taken from the -scene of the
·crime; and ·
3. It could resolve conflicting claims of properties recovered by
investigators.·

Theories in Nu~r Restoration

There are several theories with regards to number restoration. For

example, when a letter or num.ber is stamped into a cold metal 's urface,
a molecular disturbance occurs directly beneath it. When a visible I
portion of the l~tter or numqer Js erased, the m9l~c.ul¥ disturbance \
remains unchanged. Another ~theory ~s t~at wheµ a lettef or number is
punched into a metal, a deformation occurs on!the metal surface it is as
being compressed. ,'_fhe defonilati9n caused by the steel dye penetrates
up to a depth of 3 / 64 of an il1:ch-the extent to which investigators can
restore the original serial number whet?- properly etched and treated. ·
 /
134 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY ·,
•.-------------------~-----------
.i, ,

• Preliminary Examination on Macro-Et~htng·Process ,·

it This phase of 1:he investigation involves the following steps:

1. searching f?r the normal location of the. serial number;
2. removing oil and greas~ using-~cohol and/ or -g~soline;

''•
3. polishing the area using sand paper; 'and
4. taking,a photograph of the possible evidence.
' . ..
- .

• Spot Detection of Tamperea/Oblitem:ted Serial Nu.tnbers

Tampered 9r obliterated s.erial ·numbers can be detected by spot
checking any bf the following:
1

. .
•• • ••
1
.

1-. Absence of one or more letters before, in between, or after a

set of sequential numbers -
fl 2: Several scratches and filing marks on the metal surface
• where serial number. should be located

1I
3. -Model of the vehicle and the chassis number not tallying
' with"' that of the rating· plate (alteration of the production
J num~er) ;. . ., ,, ~

1 4. ·Any difference in the style-of numbers and letters

5. Fragmentary marks that ~oul.d .not be prop~rly identified,

'
t
1
partly superimposed by the letters and numbers
6. Misalignments of n~be~s and letters
. ,

7. Any sign o(welding surrou~ding the serial number

·

. . .

8. Presence_ of any differences . in the .spacing of individual

numbers and letters
9. . Sizes ,and style of numbers and letters· that are sharper and
coarser than.the' others
1 O. Irre~arities in the depth of iridi~dual letters and numbers
) ._ j , ~

11. Absence of a rating plate ,,

{ '
r
,. ' '
I ' ' .
• L

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 GLASS FRA~TURE, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULL.ET TRAJECTORY 135

Chemicals Used in Number Restoration

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There are many kinds of chemical used in number restoration.
These may include the following:
1. Paint remover (stripsol}
2. For hard metal (iron, steel, etc.)
• ,.. acid (50 ml acid in 50 ml water)
Nitric
• Cupric chloride solution (50 gm . cupric chloride
powder + ~00 ml water + 600 ml hydrochloric acid)
3. For soft metal (aluminum, lead) - hydrogen peroxide in
acetic acid ·

What is B~et.Trajec;j:ory?
A bullet's trajectory refers to the path of flight it follows from firing
up to ~eaching its target. In cases of shootings where .the victim is the
target, the forensic specialist-works out !4e trajectory of the bullet as
part· of the crime scene reconstruction. The science of investigating
projectile motion ·i s known as· ballistics, which involves equations that
can be used to" determine a trajectory.
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The main task of the ballistic_s specialist is to determine the range
of a bullet's trajectory. When a bullet lea~es a gun, it carries various
gases with it that often form ·a tattoo-like pattern on the skin of the
victim. The spread and extent of this pattern reveal the range between
the perpetrator and the victim. The investigator must reproduce the
pattern by firing the weapon, if it is still available, or a similar one
at blank targets in, a laborat01:y condition. Knowing the range can
help establish·, where_ a perpetrator was sjanding, which may either
.corroborate or con~radict witness statem~nts: Identifying the range can
also• determine wheth~r
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a• fatal shooting
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was a homicide or a suicide.
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Bullet ~qle Characteristics
When the body' offers no e~dence of the bullet's entrance . and
•exit paths, firearm examiners ~e summoned t~ examine the victim's
clothing. When a bullet ~trikes ~ object, such as a piece of clothing,
a' bullet entrance/exit hole is created. This is why if is important to
discuss the characteristics of bullet holes in aid of inve·s tigation.

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136 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOG~

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Typical contact .
• Typical bu/lent entrance .
ho1e in a holster entrance hole

-1. Bullet Entrance Holes

B~et entr~ce holes often have very ·even 111¥gins·.. ,,
Moreover, due to th€.. _elasti~ity of the fabric, almost all non-
contact bullet entrapce holes have a ~maller diameter· than .
the ·b~et.. The ~ombination of a firm material ~d a large
calib_er bullet with large hollo_w point cavities ~ay cause Pu]Jet
entr~ce holes tha~ are closer to the ~ctual bullet's diameter.
However, in most cases, the diameter of the_bullet entrance
hole could only provide a small clue in determining the caliber
of the bullet. · ·

~y comparison, cont.a ct or near contact entrance holes

caused by a bulle't that has struck an intermediate. obje~t
often have v;ery uneven mar~s. Contact entra11-ce holes may ,
I show ex1!eme dc;iIDage to the material, such that the higher the ·
I v~locity of the cartridge the greater the damage to the garment
in a co~tact gunsho~. ·
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When a. bullet stri~es- an interinediat<: target (e.g., the

victim'~ arm) before enteririg the victim's shirt; it may cause

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the bullet to fragment, expand, or. even tumble.- The resulting
secondary bullet entrance hole h~s a very irregular shape .,tpa,t,,
makes it difficult to visibly distinguis~ ' it fr9m an exit 'hole.
Fortunately, subsequent testing for gunshot residues cari· h~lp
make this type_of determination. Meanwhile, bu~le.t s that strike .
a target at an extreme leave an elongated hole that ·have ~~ly
even margins. Often, a grazing bullet could ca..use several.hol~~ ·
in·a wri~ed or folded garment. , · ,
· Another common characteristic of b~1let entrance holes
is the presence of bullet wipe residue. Bullet wipe residue
 GLASS FRACTUR_
E, MACRO ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJECTORY 137

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. darkened ring arqund the immediate margin of a bullet
15 :; thUS, it}s not ~way~ visible on darker colored materials.
h 0 bullet wipe residue is caused by lead being wiped from
fhe . . .
th :d
. surface of the bullet as it passes through the material.
bullets no~ally· leave the heaviest deposits of bullet
~ e residue, bu~ Jacketed bullets can also do the same. Lead
WlPling in th~ barrel and le~d primer residues c~ be seen on
foh_~ surface-of ~ jacketed bullet.
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suUet Exit Holes

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. Round-nosed or full-metal-jacketed bullets may leave
holes that' are si~ar to _bullet ~ntrance holes. However, ve~
·l ight to no bullet wipe residue can be found in these:- Bullet exit
· ho.l es caused by exp.anded or fragrnen~ed bullets have irregular
··rnargins and larger. h?les than the ori~al diaIJ!eter of the
bullet. Fragmented bullets grab the :qiaterial of an object as _it
passtrs through, ~us causing the material to be frayed outward.
once the bullet holes are ·examined and fully documented, the -I
, investigator can then look for· evidence. that may allow for a .
distance determination to be made. .
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Tools ·Necessary for Trajectt;,ry ·Determination ·
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There are several tools necessary for trajectory determination.

·. These include, but are not limited to, the following:
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• Marking pel)S
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• ·: ·A dhesive tape· (any. kind).
• String (varimJS ~es c~Jbe .u~ed)
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• Measuring tapes (25 ft and roller~tape)

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• Inclinomet er. (det_enhines angles1anq. slope~)

• Laser pointer j •

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• .. , Clear plastic pro~actor , ,' ,.
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• _C ?mpass -~ ·
• Adhesiv~ ·markers· (~umeri~al -~ cl alp,h abetical)
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• Bubble or torpedo level
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'1.38 FORENSIC CHEMISTRY AND TOXICOLOGY . __./

Bullet trajectory can be determirted1 in several ways,

as described below.
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1. Vehicles
a . Here, fiberglass rods · or wooden dowels (steel and
aluminum may be too heavy for shattered glass) are
in°s erted into the bullet h6les to establish the paths.
String can alsobe attached to continue . the path,
which can later -be -verified with the use of a laser
light beam. ,
· b. If a vehicle with bullet holes in th~ windows is
involved, the inv~stigators swab .· the : interior
surrounding the holes for possible gunpowder
residue testing. .,
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c. · J-Iere, the investigators riote Vie location ~( spir~
fractures tQ determine the .first impac~.
d. Investigators · examine the impact site arid crater
of the glass to ·visually~ihspect whether the bullet·
originate d from the inside ·to outbound or from the
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outside to inbound. r:
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e. Ir' the hole,. in the gl~ss is less than .2 inches· in
diameter, inyestigato;rs pass a string through _..a ·
drinking straw, and then· attach the string to a
small spring to be inserted through th~ bullet ·hole.
A common tqothpick is then 'inserted through the_
opposite end of the spring, allowing the string to be
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_p ulled tight with light tension. The string is then
attached to the pole at the appropriate level based

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on the trajectory and lase_1: light indications.
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t When tl)e vehicle string placement is complete

t a.ad the locations, 'measurements, and horizontal
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- and verµcal angles are measured, the completed
/ produc;t is photograph<:d and charted by diagram.
. It is ~portant to photograph the vehicle from
the horizontal plane as .w ell as to pho.tograph the
stririge~ angles frotn the vertical · .plane via u4Se
of a ladder. The combination of the two views
complemehts the diagram and allows both views to
confirm each other. . .
 GLASS FRACTURE, MACRO. ETCHING, AND BULLET TRAJECTORY 139

2. Buildings
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. If the scene is a building structure, investigators take similar steps

to reconstruct the eve~t. Slightly different tools may be necessary,
such as tapes, hammer, extra poles. nails, and SQ on, which are used
to accomplis4 the testing process. The previously described steps are
repeated when .examining buildings.

Summary
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In this -chapter, we learned that glass is a mixture of silica and two
or more alkaline bases, such as lime, soda, or potash. Glass contains
other elements and metals, which are added to enhance color, heat
resistance, degree of hardness, and other specific properties. We also
Jearned about· the types of glass fractures, namely, radial or primary
fracture and concentric or secondary fracture. Several factors to de
determined in exrunining glass fracture include Point of Impact;
Directio1;1 of Im.pact or Force (p~rpendicular shot, angle from the
right, angle from the left); Laser pointer; Age of the Fracture (fresh or
·old fracture); and Cause of Fracture (natural or mechanic~ means) .
. Me~while, we also learned that macro-etcping is an application
of chemical solution·•on the metal surface where the serial number
is normally located, after which any reaction that may ~ake place is
observed: We also summed up the purposes and processes of macro-
e,tching. Finally, we learned about bullet trajectory, the tools necessary
for trajectory determination, bullet entrance and ✓exit holes and
methods t~ identify them, all of which help investigators determine
clues that can aid the investigation being conducted.