Introduction to Antennas

Antennas
An antenna is a device that is used to transmit and/or receive an
electromagnetic wave.

The antenna itself can always transmit or receive, but in a given application it
may be used for just one of these functions.

An antenna is defined as “a usually metallic device (as a rod or wire) for radiating
or receiving radio waves.”

The antenna is the transitional structure between free-space and a guiding device.

IEEE Standard Definition : the antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating or

receiving radio waves.”

Examples:  Cell-phone antenna (transmit and receive)

 Wireless LAN antenna (transmit and receive)
 FM radio antenna (receive only)
 Satellite dish antenna (receive only)
 Satellite (possibly separate receive and transmit)
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
 An antenna is basically a transforming device that will convert impedance of transmitter
output (50/75 Ohm) into free space impedance (120pi or 377 Ohm).
 Region of transition between guided and free space propagation.

Special issue of the Proceedings of the IEEE (Vol. 80, No. 1, January 1992) devoted to
Antennas.

Antennas are often used for a variety of reasons:

 For communication over long distances, to have lower loss.
 Where waveguiding systems (e.g., transmission lines) are impractical or
inconvenient.
 When it is desired to communicate with many users at once.

Power loss from antenna broadcast: 1/ r 2

Power loss from waveguiding system: e 2 r
r
A B
Introduction to Antennas

Main properties of antennas:

 Radiation pattern
 Directivity (how directional the beam is)
 Efficiency (power radiated relative to total input power)
 Polarization (linear, CP)
 Bandwidth (the useable frequency range)
 Input Impedance

An antenna is essentially a matching device between a transmission line

(guiding device) and a wave radiating into some region of space (free space).
Introduction to Antennas
The easy way to understand antenna concept, we can look the antenna as Thevenin’s
transmission line equivalent model.

Antenna as a transition device

Introduction to Antennas
A transmission-line Thevenin equivalent of the antenna system in the transmitting mode is
shown in Figure 1.2. The source is represented by an ideal generator Vg, transmission line
is represented by a line with characteristic impedance Zc, and the antenna is represented
by load ZA while the formula of [ZA =(RL+Rr) + jXA] .

Where
Rr = radiation resistance used to represent radiation by the antenna
RL = used to represent conduction and dielectric loss associated by the antenna
XA = used to represent the imaginary part of impedance associated with radiation by the
antenna
 Under ideal conditions, energy generated by the source should be totally transferred to
the Radiation resistance Rr , which is used to represent radiation by the antenna.
 However, in a practical system there are conduction-dielectric losses due to the lossy
nature of the transmission line and the antenna, as well as those due to reflections
(mismatch) losses at the interface between the line and the antenna. Taking into account
the internal impedance of the source and neglecting line and reflection (mismatch)
losses, maximum power is delivered to the antenna under conjugate matching.
 The reflected waves from the interface create, along with the traveling waves from the
source toward the antenna, constructive and destructive interference patterns, referred to
as standing waves, inside the transmission line which represent pockets of energy
concentrations and storage, typical of resonant devices. A typical standing wave pattern
is shown dashed in Figure 1.2.
 If the antenna system is not properly designed, the transmission line could act to a large
degree as an energy storage element instead of as a wave guiding and energy
transporting device. If the maximum field intensities of the standing wave are
sufficiently large, they can cause arching inside the transmission lines.
 The losses due to the line, antenna, and the standing waves are undesirable. The losses
due to the line can be minimized by selecting low-loss lines while those of the antenna
can be decreased by reducing the loss resistance represented by RL in Figure 1.2.
 The standing waves can be reduced, and the energy storage capacity of the line
minimized, by matching the impedance of the antenna (load) to the characteristic
impedance of the line. This is the same as matching loads to transmission lines, where
the load here is the antenna.
 An equivalent similar to that of Figure 1.2 is used to represent the antenna system in the
receiving mode where the source is replaced by a receiver. All other parts of the
transmission-line equivalent remain the same. The radiation resistance, Rr is used to
represent in the receiving mode the transfer of energy from the free-space wave to the
antenna
 An antenna in an advanced wireless system and is usually required to optimize or
accentuate the radiation energy in some directions and suppress it in others. Thus the
antenna must also serve as a directional device in addition to a probing device.
 For wireless communication systems, the antenna is one of the most critical components.
A good design of the antenna can relax system requirements and improve overall system
performance.
 A typical example is TV for which the overall broadcast reception can be improved by
utilizing a high-performance antenna.
 The antenna serves to a communication system the same purpose that eyes and
eyeglasses serve to a human.
ANTENNA CLASSSIFICATION

Antenna can be classified on the basis of:

1. Frequency - VLF, LF, HF, VHF, UHF, Microwave, Millimeter wave antenna
2. Aperture - Wire, Parabolic Dish, Microstrip Patch antenna
3. Polarization - Linear (Vertical/Horizontal), Circular polarization antenna
4. Radiation - Isotropic, Omnidirectional, Directional
 Examples of Antenna on Frequency basis
 Very Low Frequency (VLF) & Low frequency (LF) antenna:
Vertical Radiators, Top-loaded Monopoles, T and Inverted L antennas, Triatic
antenna, Trideco antenna, Valleyspan antenna.
 Medium Frequency (MF) antennas:
Radiators (monopoles and dipoles), directional antennas.
 High Frequency (HF) antennas:
Log periodic antenna, conical monopole and Inverted Cone antennas, Vertical
whip antenna, Rhombic antenna, Fan dipole antenna.
 Very High Frequency (VHF) & Ultra High Frequency (UHF) antennas:
Yagi-Uda antennas, log periodic antennas, Helical antennas, Panel antennas,
Corner reflector antennas, parabolic antennas, discone antennas,
 Super High Frequency (SHF) & Extremely High Frequency (EHF) antennas:
Parabolic antenna, pyramidal horn antennas, discone antennas, monopoles and
dipoles antennas, Microstrip patch antennas, fractal antenns.
Aperture Antennas
Aperture antennas transmit and receive energy from its aperture.
• Wire antennas
• Horn Antenna
• Parabolic reflective antenna
• Cassegrain antenna
 Antenna Classification on Polarization Basis
Antenna polarization is governed by the polarization of Electromagnetic waves. Based on that:
1.Linearly (Vertically/Horizontally) Polarized antenna.
If antenna is transmitting/receiving Vertical E field vector, then antenna is said to be vertically
polarized antenna. If antenna is transmitting/receiving horizontal E field vector, then antenna is said to
be horizontally polarized antenna.
2. Circularly Polarized antenna:
If the antenna is able to transmit or receive E field vectors of any orientation, then antenna is said to be
circularly polarized antenna.

Antenna classification on Radiation Pattern Basis

On the basis of radiation pattern antenna can be classified as:

1. Isotropic antenna:
An isotropic antenna is a fictitious antenna and is defined as a antenna which radiates uniformly in all
directions.
2. Omnidirectional antenna:
Omnidirectional antennas are those antennas which will cover equally well in azimuth direction and
having some angle in elevation direction.
3. Directional antenna:
Antennas which directs its energy in one particular direction is said to be directional antennas
4. Hemispherical antenna
Antenna whose radiation pattern will cover the one half of the hemisphere either upper hemisphere or
lower hemisphere is said to be antenna with Hemispherical Radiation pattern.
Introduction to Antennas TYPES OF ANTENNAS
1. Wire Antennas:-
Wire antennas are familiar to the
layman because they are seen virtually
every-where on automobiles, buildings,
ships, aircraft, spacecraft, and so on.
There are various shapes of wire
antennas such as a straight wire
(dipole), loop, and helix.

2. Aperture Antennas:-
Antennas of this type are very
useful for aircraft and spacecraft
applications, because they can be very
conveniently flush-mounted on the skin
of the aircraft or spacecraft. In addition,
they can be covered with a dielectric
material to protect them from
hazardous conditions of the
environment.
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Dipole Wire Antenna

L  0 / 2
current

 Very simple
 Moderate bandwidth
 Low directivity
 Most commonly fed by a twinline transmission line
 Linear polarization ( E , assuming wire is along z axis)
 The antenna is resonant when the length is about one-half free-space wavelength
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Dipole Wire Antenna (cont.)
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Monopole Wire Antenna

h h  0 / 4

Feeding coax

This is a variation of the dipole, using a ground plane instead of a second wire.

 Similar properties as dipole

 Mainly use for vertical polarization, with coaxial cable feeds
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Monopole Wire Antenna (cont.)
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Yagi Antenna

Prof. Yagi

This is a variation of the dipole, using multiples wires (with one “reflector” and
one or more “directors”.

 Low bandwidth
 Moderate to high directivity
 Commonly used as a UHF TV antenna
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Yagi Antenna (cont.)

UHF Yagi

UHF Yagi
UHF Yagi VHF Log-periodic
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)

Log-Periodic Antenna

This consists of multiple dipole antennas of varying lengths, connected together.

 High bandwidth
 Moderate directivity
 Commonly used as a VHF TV antenna
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Log Periodic Antenna (cont.)
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Typical Outdoor TV Antenna

UHF Yagi

VHF Log-periodic
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Horn Antenna

It acts like a “loudspeaker” for electromagnetic waves.

 High bandwidth
 Moderate directivity
 Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above
 Often used as a feed for a reflector antenna
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Horn Antenna (cont.)

Arno A. Penzias and Robert

W. Wilson used a large horn
antenna to detect microwave
signals from the “big bang”
(Nobel Prize, 1978).
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Horn Antenna (cont.)

This is a variety called the “hoghorn antenna (a combination of horn+reflector).

Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Reflector (dish) antenna

 Very high bandwidth

 Medium to high directivity (directivity determined by the size)
 Linear or CP polarization (depending on how it is fed)
 Works by focusing the incoming wave to a collection (feed) point
3.Microstrip Antennas:-
These antennas consist of a metallic patch on a grounded
substrate.
 low profile,
 conformable to planar and non planar surfaces,
 simple and inexpensive to fabricate using modern printed-
circuit technology,
 mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surfaces,
compatible with MMIC designs,
 very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization,
pattern, and impedance.
 Can be mounted on the surface of high-performance aircraft,
spacecraft, satellites, missiles, cars, and even handheld
mobile telephones.
4.Array Antennas

An aggregate of radiating elements in an electrical

and geometrical arrangement (an array) will result
in the desired radiation characteristics. The
arrangement of the array may be such that the
radiation from the elements adds up to give a
radiation maximum in a particular direction or
directions, minimum in others, or otherwise as
desired.
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Microstrip (Patch) Antenna
y
 Invented by Bob Munson in
1972 (but earlier work by
current Dechamps goes back to1953).
W
 Became popular starting in the
L x 1970s.
h r
1 0
L  d / 2 
2 r
It consists of a printed “patch” of metal that is on top of a grounded dielectric substrate.

 Low bandwidth
 Low directivity (unless used in an array)
 Low-profile (h can be made very small, at the expense of bandwidth)
 Can be made by etching
 Easily fed by microstrip line or coaxial cable
 Can be made conformable (mounted on a curved surface)
 Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Microstrip (Patch) Antenna (cont.)

The substrate is so thin that it can

be bent to “conform” to the surface. 44 array
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Dielectric Resonator Antenna
The dielectric resonator antenna
was invented by Prof. Stuart Long
of University of Houston ECE deptt.

It consists of a dielectric material (such as ceramic) on top of a grounded

dielectric substrate.

 Moderate bandwidth
 Low directivity (unless used in an array)
 Commonly used at microwave frequencies and above
Introduction to Antennas (cont.)
Dielectric Resonator Antenna (cont.)

GPS antenna
 5. Reflector Antennas

 Antennas of this type have been built with

diameters as large as 305 m.
 Such large dimensions are needed to achieve
the high gain required to transmit or receive
signals after millions of miles of travel.
6.Lens Antennas
 Lenses are primarily used to collimate incident
divergent energy to prevent it from spreading in
undesired directions.
 By properly shaping the geometrical
configuration and choosing the appropriate
material of the lenses, they can transform
various forms of divergent energy into plane
waves.
 They can be used in most of the same
applications as are the parabolic reflectors,
especially at higher frequencies.
 Their dimensions and weight become
exceedingly large at lower frequencies.
 Lens antennas are classified according to the
material from which they are constructed, or
according to their geometrical shape.
 High-gain antennas are required for long-distance radio communications (radio-relay
links and satellite links), high-resolution radars, radio-astronomy, etc. Reflector systems
are probably the most widely used high-gain antennas.
 They can easily achieve gains of above 30 dB for microwave and higher frequencies.
 Reflector antennas operate on principles known long ago from geometrical optics (GO).
 The first RF reflector system was made by Hertz back in 1888 (a cylindrical reflector fed
by a dipole).
 However, the art of accurately designing such antenna systems was developed mainly
during the days of WW2 when numerous radar applications evolved
Lens Antenna
 The lens antenna is 3-dimensional electro-magnetic device which has
refractive index other than unity.
 It consists of electro-magnetic lens along with feed. This antenna is similar
to glass lens used in optical domain.
 Following are the functions of a lens antenna:
 It generates plane wavefront from spherical.
 It forms incoming wavefront at its focus.
 It generates directional characteristics.
 It is used to collimate electromagnetic rays.
 It controls aperture illumination.
Two important points:
• Most of antennas are metallic.
• Huge majority of antennas are based on resonators.

 In a metal, by default the free electrons move erratically.

When creating a difference of potential (eg sinusoidal), the
internal field then controls the distribution of charges.

 Currents and charges are then created as basic sources

of electromagnetic field.

 But according to their distribution and relative phases, the

overall field delivered by a metallic element is the sum of
all contributions of these basic sources.
RADIATION MECHANISM

One of the first questions that may be asked concerning antennas would be
“how is Radiation accomplished?”
In other words,
“how are the electromagnetic fields generated by the source, contained and guided within the
transmission line and antenna, and finally “detached” from the antenna to form a free-space
wave?”
The best explanation may be given by an illustration . However, let us first examine some
basic sources of radiation.
Single Wire
Introduction to Antennas
Fundamental relation of electromagnetic radiation states that to create radiation, there
must be a time-varying current or an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge.
To create charge acceleration (or deceleration) the wire must be curved, bent,
discontinuous, or terminated .
Periodic charge acceleration (or deceleration) or time-varying current is also created
when charge is oscillating in a time-harmonic motion.
Therefore:
1. If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no radiation.
2. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
a) There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
b)There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or
truncated, as shown in Figure .
3. If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight.

Wire configurations for radiation

 Radiation mechanism
Charges transmitted over a straight metal at a constant
speed do not produce radiation.

+++ No radiation

If the charges encountered a discontinuity (OC, bend ...) their

speed changes, then there is radiation.

+++ Radiation

In a resonant structure, charges continuously oscillate,

creating a continuous stream of radiation.
High radiation
+++
When charges are accelerated in the source-end of the wire and decelerated (negative
acceleration with respect to original motion) during reflection from its end, it is
suggested that radiated fields are produced at each end and along the remaining part
of the wire.
Stronger radiation with a more broad frequency spectrum occurs if the pulses are of
shorter or more compact duration while continuous time-harmonic oscillating charge
produces, ideally, radiation of single frequency determined by the frequency of
oscillation.
 The deceleration of the charges at the end of the wire is accomplished by the internal
(self) forces associated with the induced field due to the buildup of charge
concentration at the ends of the wire.
The internal forces receive energy from the charge buildup as its velocity is reduced
to zero at the ends of the wire.
Therefore, charge acceleration due to an exciting electric field and deceleration due to
impedance discontinuities or smooth curves of the wire are mechanisms responsible
for electromagnetic radiation.
Introduction to Antennas Two-Wires

 Let us consider a voltage source connected to a

two-conductor transmission line which is
connected to an antenna. This is shown in Figure
1.11(a).
 Applying a voltage across the two-conductor
transmission line creates an electric field between
the conductors.
 The electric field has associated with it electric
lines of force which are tangent to the electric field
at each point and their strength is proportional to
the electric field intensity.
 The electric lines of force have a tendency to act
on the free electrons (easily detachable from the
atoms) associated with each conductor and force
them to be displaced. The movement of the
charges creates a current that in turn creates a
magnetic field intensity. Associated with the
magnetic field intensity are magnetic lines of force
which are tangent to the magnetic field. Figure 1.11 Source, transmission line, antenna,
and detachment of electric field lines
Introduction to Antennas
 The electric field lines drawn between the two conductors help to exhibit the distribution of
charge. If we assume that the voltage source is sinusoidal, we expect the electric field
between the conductors to also be sinusoidal with a period equal to that of the applied
source.
 The relative magnitude of the electric field intensity is indicated by the density (bunching) of
the lines of force with the arrows showing the relative direction (positive or negative).
 By removing the upper part of the antenna structure, free-space waves can be formed by
“connecting” the open ends of the electric lines.
 The free-space waves are also periodic but a constant phase point P0 moves outwardly with
the speed of light and travels a distance of λ/2 (to P1) in the time of one-half of a period.
 The free-space waves by a prolate spheroid with λ/2 interfocal distance where λ is the
wavelength.
 Once the disturbance in the water has been initiated, water waves are created which begin to
travel outwardly. If the disturbance has been removed, the waves do not stop or extinguish
themselves but continue their course of travel. If the disturbance persists, new waves are
continuously created which lag in their travel behind the others. The same is true with the
electro- magnetic waves created by an electric disturbance.
 The electric charges are required to excite the fields but are not needed to sustain them and
may exist in their absence. This is in direct analogy with water waves.
Launching of EM wave from open
cable and separated wires through
dipole antenna

Electric field lines of free-space

wave for biconical antenna.
How does antenna works:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZaXm6wau-jc
Introduction to Antennas Dipole
 The mechanism by which the electric lines of force are detached from the antenna to
form the free-space waves. This will again be illustrated by an example of a small dipole
antenna where the time of travel is negligible.

 The figure beside displays the lines of force

created between the arms of a small center-fed
dipole in the first quarter of the period during which
time the charge has reached its maximum value
(assuming a sinusoidal time variation) and the lines
have traveled outwardly a radial distance λ/4.
 During the next quarter of the period, the original
three lines travel an additional λ/4 (a total of λ/2
from the initial point) and the charge density on the
conductors begins to diminish.
 This can be thought of as being accomplished by
introducing opposite charges which at the end of the
first half of the period have neutralized the charges
on the conductors.

Formation and detachment of electric field lines for short dipole.

 The lines of force created by the opposite charges are three and travel a distance λ/4
during the second quarter of the first half, and they are shown dashed.
The end result is that there are three lines of force pointed upward in the first λ/4
distance and the same number of lines directed downward in the second λ/4. Since there is
no net charge on the antenna, then the lines of force must have been forced to detach
themselves from the conductors and to unite together to form closed loops.
CURRENT DISTRIBUTION ON A THIN WIRE ANTENNA
 Let us first begin with the geometry of a lossless two-wire transmission line as
shown below.
 The movement of the charges creates a
traveling wave current, of magnitude I0/2,
along each of the wires. When the current
arrives at the end of each of the wires, it
undergoes a complete reflection (equal
magnitude and 180◦ phase reversal). The
reflected traveling wave, when combined
with the incident traveling wave, forms in
each wire a pure standing wave pattern of
sinusoidal form.
For the two-wire balanced (symmetrical) transmission line, the current in a half- cycle of
one wire is of the same magnitude but 180◦ out-of-phase from that in the corresponding
half-cycle of the other wire. If in addition the spacing between the two wires is very small (s
<<λ), the fields radiated by the current of each wire are essentially cancelled by those of the
other. The net result is an almost ideal (and desired) nonradiating transmission line.
 However, because the two wires of the flared section are not necessarily close to each
other, the fields radiated by one do not necessarily cancel those of the other.

 If l<λ, the phase of the current standing wave

pattern in each arm is the same throughout its length.
In addition, spatially it is oriented in the same
direction as that of the other arm.
 Thus the fields radiated by the two arms of the
dipole (vertical parts of a flared transmission line) will
primarily reinforce each other toward most directions
of observation (the phase due to the relative position
of each small part of each arm must also be included
for a complete description of the radiation pattern
formation).
If the diameter of each wire is very small (d <<λ),
the ideal standing wave pattern of the current along
the arms of the dipole is sinusoidal with a null at the
end.
 For center-fed dipoles with l <<λ , l =λ/2, λ/2<l<λ and λ<l<3λ/2, the current patterns as
shown below.
For a time-harmonic varying system of radian frequency ω =2πf, the current standing
wave patterns as shown below.