Respiratory system

BREATHING AND RESPIRATION

 Breathing describes the movement of air in and out of the lungs.
 Respiration is a process that takes place inside the mitochondria of a cell. Glucose
combines with oxygen to release carbon dioxide, water and energy.
 Glucose + oxygen  Carbon dioxide + water +energy

PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The Nose - Usually air will enter the respiratory system through the nostrils. The nostrils
then lead to open spaces in the nose called the nasal passage. The hair existing within the
nostrils prevents various foreign particles from entering.
As the air passes through the nasal passage, it brushes against the hair, this causes friction
that warms the air.
The nasal passage also has sticky fluid called mucus. The mucus collects dust, bacteria, and
other particles in the air. The mucus also helps moisten the air.
The nose serves three purposes. It filters and therefore protects the respiratory system,
warms, and moistens the air before it reaches the lungs. You will lose these special
advantages if you breathe through your mouth.
Pharynx and Larynx - Air travels from the nasal passage to the pharynx, more commonly
known as the throat. When the air leaves the pharynx it passes into the larynx or the voice
box.
Trachea - The larynx goes directly into the trachea or the windpipe. The trachea is
supported by rings of cartilage within its walls. The function of the cartilaginous rings of the
trachea is to stabilize the trachea and keep it rigid while allowing the trachea to expand and
lengthen when the person breathes. If the trachea was not supported in this way, it would
simply collapse because of the pressure of the chest.
A flap-like structure called the epiglottis prevents food from entering the trachea.
Cilia are present in the trachea, they sweep fluids and foreign particles out of the airway so
that they stay out of the lungs.
Goblet cells are found inside the trachea, bronchi, and larger bronchioles in the respiratory
tract. Goblet cells are a source of mucus that protects the airway (HOW??).
Bronchi - Around the center of the chest, the trachea divides into two cartilage-ringed tubes
called bronchi. This section of the respiratory system is also lined with ciliated cells. The
bronchi enter the lungs and spread into a treelike fashion into smaller tubes called bronchial
tubes.
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Bronchioles - The windpipe divides into two tubes called bronchi.

The bronchi divides into many smaller tubes. The smallest branch of the bronchi is called a
bronchiole. A bronchiole enters a sac like structure called alveoli.
For people suffering from asthma, the air passage in the bronchioles becomes narrower,
which makes breathing difficult. This happens in response to an allergen (it is a substance
that triggers an allergy).
People suffering from asthmatic attacks use an inhaler that releases chemicals to relax
muscles and improve breathing.
Lungs – The lungs are spongy structures. The RIGHT LUNG is divided into three LOBES, or
sections. The left lung is divided into two LOBES. Each lung has a large number of air sacs
(alveoli) and blood capillaries. The PLEURA are the two membranes that surround each lobe
of the lungs and separate the lungs from the chest wall.
Alveoli - Each bronchiole ends in a tiny air chamber that looks like a bunch of grapes. Each
chamber contains many cup-shaped cavities known as alveoli (air sacs). The walls of the
alveoli are thin, and moist, and are surrounded by several capillaries. Blood brought by the
PULMONARY ARTERY passes through the capillaries, and the PULMONARY VEIN takes it
away. Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between blood and air occurs through the
capillary walls.
Ribs - These are bones supporting and protecting the chest cavity. They move to a limited
degree, helping the lungs to expand and contract.
Diaphragm - It is the strong wall of muscle that separates the chest cavity from the
abdominal cavity. By moving downward, it creates suction to draw in air and expand the
lungs.

ENERGY UTILIZATION
Respiration is a chemical process that results in the breakdown of the glucose molecule to
release energy in the form of ATP. CO2 and water vapour are given out in the process.
Respiration occurs in the mitochondria (powerhouses of the cell).
The energy produced during respiration is utilized by the body for the following purposes:
(GAP2 M2C)
 Growth
 Active Transport
 Protein Synthesis
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 Passing of nerve impulses

 Muscle contraction
 Maintaining constant body temperature
 Cell Division

Respiration is not a one-step process. It is a series of chemical reactions that take place.
These reactions are catalysed by enzymes. Respiration can be either aerobic or anaerobic.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION
Defn: It is a chemical reaction in cells that uses oxygen to break down nutrient molecules
to release energy.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
Defn: It is a chemical reaction in cells that breaks down nutrient molecules to release
energy without the use of oxygen.

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic respiration, a process that uses oxygen, and anaerobic respiration, a process that
doesn't use oxygen, are two forms of cellular respiration. Although some cells may engage in
just one type of respiration, most cells use both types, depending on an organism's needs.
Cellular respiration also occurs outside of macro-organisms, as chemical processes — for
example, in fermentation. In general, respiration is used to eliminate waste products and
generate energy.
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Aerobic processes in cellular respiration can only occur if oxygen is present. When a cell
needs to release energy, the cytoplasm and mitochondria initiate chemical exchanges that
launch the breakdown of glucose.
This sugar is carried through the blood and stored in the body as a fast source of energy. The
breakdown of glucose into adenosine triphosphate (ATP) releases carbon dioxide (CO2), a by-
product that needs to be removed from the body.
Anaerobic processes do not use oxygen. Lactic acid, which builds up in muscles' cells as
aerobic processes fail to keep up with energy demands, is a by-product of an anaerobic
process.
Such anaerobic breakdowns provide additional energy, but lactic acid build-up leads to
fatigue and muscle soreness. Cells recover by breathing in more oxygen and through the
circulation of blood, processes that help carry away lactic acid.
Aerobic respiration is 19 times more effective at releasing energy than anaerobic respiration
because aerobic processes extract most of the glucose molecules' energy in the form of ATP,
while anaerobic processes leave most of the ATP-generating sources in the waste products.
In humans, aerobic processes kick in to galvanize action, while anaerobic processes are used
for extreme and sustained efforts.
Aerobic exercises, such as running, cycling, and jumping rope, are excellent at burning excess
sugar in the body, but to burn fat, aerobic exercises must be done for 20 minutes or more,
forcing the body to use anaerobic respiration.
However, short bursts of exercise, such as sprinting, rely on anaerobic processes for energy
because the aerobic pathways are slower. Other anaerobic exercises, such as resistance
training or weightlifting, are excellent for building muscle mass, a process that requires
breaking down fat molecules for storing energy in the larger and more abundant cells found
in muscle tissue.

EFFECT OF EXERCISE ON BREATHING

When you exercise, the muscles work harder and need more energy to contract. This means
they need more blood flowing through them to provide more oxygen and glucose for
respiration, to provide the energy, and remove carbon dioxide produced.
Linked to this increase in pulse rate the blood must be supplied with extra oxygen, and the
extra carbon dioxide released must be removed. This is done by increasing the number of
breaths (the breathing rate) and increasing the depth of breathing (lung volume) so more air
is breathed in and out each breath.
NOTE: If you exercise too rapidly, an increase in breathing rate and lung volume, linked to an
increase in pulse rate, may not be enough to supply your muscle cells with enough oxygen
for aerobic respiration.
When this happens, the muscle cells will begin to respire by anaerobic respiration. This can
occur for a period of time before fatigue sets in, the cells will not be able to contract, and
movement will stop. For some time afterwards you will continue to breathe rapidly and
deeply to repay the oxygen debt that has occurred during anaerobic respiration when no
oxygen was available. The time it takes to return to a resting breathing rate is a measure of
your fitness.
Vigorous exercise may increase by 20 to 25 times the demands of the tissues for oxygen. This
increased demand is met by increasing the rate and depth of breathing.
Experiments have shown that carbon dioxide acts on the medulla oblongata which contains
cells that are very sensitive to the pH of the blood. As the CO2 content rises above normal
 Respiratory system

levels, the pH drops [CO2 + H2O → HCO3− + H+], and the medulla oblongata responds by
increasing the number and rate of nerve impulses that control the action of the intercostal
muscles and diaphragm.
This produces an increase in the rate of lung ventilation, which quickly brings the CO 2
concentration of the alveolar air, and then of the blood, back to normal levels.

OXYGEN DEBT
During muscular exercise, blood vessels in muscles dilate and blood flow is increased to
increase the available oxygen supply. Up to a point, the available oxygen is sufficient to meet
the energy needs of the body.
However, when muscular exertion is very great, oxygen cannot be supplied to muscle fibres
fast enough, and the aerobic breakdown of glucose cannot produce all the ATP required for
further muscle contraction.

LACTIC ACID REMOVAL

During such periods (oxygen debt), additional ATP is generated by anaerobic respiration. In
the process, most of the glucose is converted to lactic acid. Although about 80% of the lactic
acid diffuses from the skeletal muscles and is transported to the liver for conversion back to
glucose or glycogen.
Therefore the lactic acid produced due to anaerobic respiration is finally removed from the
body by one of the following ways:
1) Once exercise stops the rate of breathing takes some time to slow down. This means
that the even though exercise has stopped deep breathing still continues for some
time. This causes oxygen to be supplied to the lactic acid that has accumulated in the
muscles, breaking it down by the aerobic process.
2) Once exercise stops the rate of heart beat takes some time to slow down. This results
in the Lactic acid being transported from the muscles to the liver where it is broken
down by the aerobic process.
The lactic acid produced in the anaerobic respiration in animals is removed by aerobic
respiration. Alcohol produced in the anaerobic respiration of plants is used for multiple
purposes.

FITNESS V/S HEALTH

The amount your breathing rate increases, and the time it takes for this rate to return to
your normal breathing rate at rest, is a measure of your fitness.
Activity:
You can measure the effect of exercise on your breathing rate as follows:
 Sit quietly for a few minutes until you feel relaxed.
 Start a stopwatch or watch a clock with a second hand. Count how many times you
breathe in and out for 30 seconds and record this value. Repeat three more times
and find an average.
 Multiply this by 2 to give your average breathing rate per minute, at rest.
 Stand up and walk around for 1 minute. Sit down and record your breathing rate
each 30 seconds until it returns to your resting rate.
 Stand up and run on the spot for 1 minute. Sit down and record your breathing rate
each 30 seconds until it returns to your resting rate.
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Fit people are able to carry out physical activities more effectively than unfit people. Their
pulse rate is likely to return to normal more quickly after exercise.
But being fit is not the same as being healthy. Healthy people are free from disease and
infection: they may or may not be fit as well. It is possible to be fit but unhealthy, or
healthy but unfit.

FERMENTATION
When sugar molecules (primarily glucose, fructose, and sucrose) break down in anaerobic
respiration, the pyruvate (3C) they produce remains in the cell. Without oxygen, the
pyruvate is not fully catalyzed for energy release.
Instead, the cell uses a slower process to remove the hydrogen carriers, creating different
waste products. This slower process is called fermentation.
When yeast is used for anaerobic breakdown of sugars, the waste products are alcohol and
CO2. The removal of CO2 leaves ethanol, the basis for alcoholic beverages and fuel.
Fruits, sugary plants (e.g., sugarcane), and grains are all used for fermentation, with yeast or
bacteria as the anaerobic processors. In baking, the CO2 release from fermentation is what
causes breads and other baked products to rise.

CHEST WALL
 Made of ribs and muscles
 Each rib is attached to the vertebral column at the back and the sternum in the front.
This allows for some movement.
 The muscles between ribs are called internal and external intercostal muscles.

BREATHING MOVEMENT

Breathing movement Inspiration Expiration

Rib action Move up Move down

Diaphragm muscles Contract Relax
Diaphragm action Moves down Moves up
Change in chest volume Increases Decreases
Pressure inside lungs Lower than outside air Higher than outside air
Air Moves in Moves out

VENTILATION V/S GAS EXCHANGE

The lungs are part of the breathing system which is adapted for two functions:
Ventilation – the movement of air into and out of the lungs
Gas exchange – the exchange of gases between the alveolar air and the blood
 The lungs are located within the upper part of your body called the thorax. They are
surrounded by the ribcage (which protects them) and in between the ribs are
intercostal muscles. Beneath the lungs is a muscular sheet called the diaphragm.
This separates the lungs from the abdomen of the body. The intercostal muscles and
the diaphragm play a role in ventilating the lungs.
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 Within the lungs is a network of tubes through which air is able to pass. Air is firstly
warmed, moistened and filtered as it travels through the nasal passages. It then
passes through the trachea and down one of the two bronchi and into one of the
lungs.
 After travelling into the many bronchioles, it finally passes into some of the millions
of tiny sacs called alveoli, which have the specialised surfaces for gas exchange.

When you inhale:

 The external intercostal muscles contract, internal intercostal muscles relax.
 The ribcage expands outwards and upwards.
 The diaphragm contracts, pulling downwards to increase the volume of the chest.
 Pressure inside the chest is lowered and air is sucked into the lungs.
 Abdominal muscles relax
When you exhale:
 The external intercostal muscles relax, internal intercostal muscles contract.
 The ribcage drops inwards and downwards.
 The diaphragm relaxes, moving back upwards, decreasing the volume of the chest.
 Pressure inside the chest increases and air is forced out.
 Abdominal muscles contract.

GAS EXCHANGE
Within the alveoli, an exchange of gases takes place between the gases inside the alveoli and
the blood.
Blood arriving in the alveoli has a higher carbon dioxide concentration which is produced
during respiration by the body’s cells. However, the air in the alveoli has a much lower
concentration of carbon dioxide, meaning there is a concentration gradient that allows
carbon dioxide to diffuse out of the blood and into the alveolar air.
Similarly, blood arriving in the alveoli has a lower oxygen concentration (as it has been used
for respiration by the body’s cells), while the air in the alveoli has a higher oxygen
concentration. Therefore, oxygen moves into the blood by diffusion and combines with the
haemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhaemoglobin.
This table shows the differences (approximate figures) in the composition of inhaled and
exhaled air.
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INSPIRED AIR V/S EXPIRED AIR

ADAPTATIONS OF THE ALVEOLI FOR GAS EXCHANGE

To maximise the efficiency of gas exchange, the alveoli have several adaptations:
 They are folded, providing a much greater surface area for gas exchange to occur.
 The walls of the alveoli are only one cell thick. This makes the exchange surface very
thin - shortening the diffusion distance across which gases have to move.
 Each alveolus is surrounded by blood capillaries which ensure a good blood supply.
This is important as the blood is constantly taking oxygen away and bringing in more
carbon dioxide - which helps to maintain the maximum concentration gradient
between the blood and the air in the alveoli.
 Each alveolus is ventilated, removing waste carbon dioxide and replenishing oxygen
levels in the alveolar air. This also helps to maintain the maximum concentration
gradient between the blood and the air in the alveoli.

Fig. Alveoli and Blood vessels Fig. Exchange of Gases in the Alveoli-1
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Fig. Exchange of Gases in the Alveoli-2

ROLE OF RBC’S IN RESPIRATION

 RBCs contain red colour pigment called haemoglobin.
 The oxygen combines with haemoglobin to make oxyhaemoglobin.
 Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the watery part of the blood called plasma.
 t moves by diffusion through the capillary and the alveolar walls.

SMOKING AND HEALTH

 In smokers the cilia in the respiratory system is damaged because of smoke.
 Later bronchi become inflamed and are open to infection from microorganisms.
 The inflammation makes breathing more difficult and the smoker develops a
permanent cough.
 Coughing causes walls of the alveoli to burst, that reduces surface area of the lungs.
That leads to a disease called emphysema.
 Some of the cells lining the air passage are killed by the chemicals in the smoke.
 Some of the cells damaged by smoke form cancer cells.
 The cancer cells continue to divide and form a lump called a tumour.

PRACTICAL
• To investigate the differences in the composition of inspired and expired air using the
lime water
test for carbon dioxide.
1) What is lime water?
2) How does lime water react with Carbon dioxide and why?
• To investigate and describe the effects of physical activity on the rate and depth of
breathing
• To investigate and describe the effects of temperature on the respiration of yeast.