AcharyaBuzan WhyistherenoNon WesternIRTheory10YearsOn
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1
School of International Service, American University, School
of International Service, 4400, Massachusetts Avenue,
Washington, USA; and 2Department of International
Relations, London School of Economics, UK
*E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
A decade ago in 2007 we published a forum in International Relations
of the Asia-Pacific (IRAP) on ‘Why there is no non-Western IR theory?’.
Now we revisit this project ten years on, and assess the current state of
play. What we do in this article is first, to survey and assess the relevant
literature that has come out since then; second, to set out four ways in
which our own understanding of this issue has evolved since 2007; third
to reflect on some ways in which Asian IR might contribute to the emer-
gence of what we call ‘Global IR’; and fourth to look specifically at hier-
archy as an issue on which East Asian IR scholars might have a
comparative advantage. Our aim is to renew, and perhaps refocus, the
challenge to Asian IR scholars, and our hope is that this will contribute
to the building of Global IR.
1 Introduction
A decade ago in 2007, we published a forum in International Relations
of the Asia-Pacific (IRAP) on ‘Why is there no non-Western IR theory?’.
We focused that question on Asia, and assembled a group of authors to
set out the state of IR in various countries and sub-regions across Asia.
We posed it as a challenge to Asian IR scholars to get their voices and
their histories into the global debates on how to think about IR, both
for their sakes, and as a necessity for the balanced development of the
discipline. This challenge attracted sufficient interest for us to follow it
on with an expanded book version (Acharya and Buzan, 2010), bringing
in more case chapters, including one looking at the Islamic world.
In our framing chapters, we took a wide and pluralist view of what
counts as IR theory (IRT), and stressed the need to bring IR and
area studies together. We looked at the reasons behind the global dom-
inance of Western IRT and Western ‘world’ history, and at the possible
resources for IRT in the non-West. Our main arguments were:
The need for IR and IRT to have a world historical framing rather
than a Western historical one, and the need for the non-West to
both challenge the Western bias and get its own histories into play
within IR.
The need to keep aware of the Coxian injunction that theory is al-
ways for someone and for some purpose, and to apply this to all
IRT.
The importance of history and political theory in IRT, the massive
Western bias in both, and the opportunities for the non-West to
mobilize their own historical and philosophical resources.
That for several reasons, especially first mover advantage, the exten-
sive training of non-Western IR scholars in the United States,
and Gramscian hegemony, Western IRT was dominant in Asia.
Although there were resources for theory in parts of Asia, there
was not much indigenous IRT there despite a quite widespread feel-
ing that much of Western IRT did not fit well with either Asian his-
tory or contemporary Asian IR practices.
That the likely main movement in Asia was toward national schools
of IR and that this offered both dangers and opportunities. Asian
IR was not just playing catch-up with the West, but it was not re-
gionally integrated either, and stood in some danger of fragmenting
the discipline, both in Asia and globally.
Why is there no Non-Western International Relations Theory? 3
2 Whither IRT?
Before turning our attention to developments in IRT in Asia, we set the
context by briefly taking stock of the state of IRT in general. Looking
back at how IRT has developed in the past decade, several trends stand
out. First, the field’s mainstream, centered on the West, especially the
United States, appears to have moved past the ‘great debates’ between
paradigms (between realism and idealism, between classical and behav-
ioralist approaches, and between positivists and post-positivists), and
‘isms’ (especially featuring realism, liberalism, and constructivism)
(Jackson and Nexon, 2013: 545–48). The most recent debate, between
rationalism (realism and liberalism) on the one hand and constructivism
on the other, has given way to attempts at paradigm bridging, theoreti-
cal pluralism and analytical eclecticism (Dunne et al., 2013).
Second, the fading interest in the ‘big’ or meta-theoretical debates has
been accompanied by the growing popularity of ‘middle-range theories’.
Such work identifies research questions or ‘issue-oriented puzzles’ (Walt,
2005: 33) in international affairs and explains them with the help of IR
literature’s ‘widely accepted causal mechanisms’ (Jackson and Nexon,
4 Amitav Acharya and Barry Buzan
2013: 548), that specify the relationship between variables. The vast ma-
jority of work in major IR journals in the United States fall into this
category (Jackson and Nexon 2013: 548), though that is much less true
of European IR journals, most of which maintain a broad spectrum of
epistemological approaches. The rising IR journals in Asia (The Chinese
Journal of International Politics has joined International Relations of the
Asia-Pacific) also contain a broad spectrum of theoretical approaches.
The narrow positivist approach has been criticized for being constrained
by prevailing ‘epistemological and ontological assumptions’ (Dunne
et al., 2013), for producing mostly conditional or contingent generaliza-
tions (Walt, 2005: 33), and focusing too much on ‘practically-relevant
knowledge’ (Reus-Smit, 2013), at the expense of theoretical innovation.
Hence, the talk of ‘the end of international theory’ (Dunne et al., 2013).
The rise of middle-range theories has mixed implications for those
seeking to open IRT up to the non-Western world. On the one hand,
they have expanded the use of IRT in general. They have stoked the
curiosity of Western scholars in the wider world of regions and helped
to engage the interest of non-Western scholars in IRT. On the other
hand, this type of work is also primarily, if not always, deductive. It is
more concerned with testing the empirical validity of existing concepts
than developing entirely new concepts and theories on the basis of new
or previously neglected empirical data. The concepts and causal mech-
anisms it employs for its deductive reasoning are derived mainly from
the Western history and experience. This entrenches the tradition of
Western dominance in IRT.
A third development in IRT during the past decade has been the
further rise of constructivism. In the 2014 Teaching, Research, and
Policy (TRIP) Survey (2014), Constructivism came out the top choice
of an IR paradigm 22.5%, followed by realism and liberalism. (It
should be noted, however, that the numbers of those who opted for
‘I do not use paradigm’ exceeded constructivism, attesting to the afore-
mentioned point about the declining interest in paradigm debates).
Alexander Wendt displaced Robert Keohane as ‘the scholar whose
work has had the greatest influence on the field of IR in the past
20 years’.
The rise of constructivism has some positive implications for those
committed to the project of a more universal discipline of IR or
Global IR. Constructivism’s emphasis on ideational forces compared
Why is there no Non-Western International Relations Theory? 5
1 On the normative agency of the Global South, see: Global Governance (2014) 20:3 with
contributions by Eric Helleiner (international development), Kathryn Sikkink (human
rights), Martha Finnemore and Michelle Jurovitch (universal participation), and this au-
thor (normative impact of the 1955 Asia-Africa Conference in Bandung on human rights,
sovereignty, disarmament, and the UN). See also the essays in Weiss and Roy, (eds.) (2016).
‘The UN and the Global South, 1945 and 2015: past as prelude?’ Special Issue of Third
World Quarterly, 37 (7).
6 Amitav Acharya and Barry Buzan
Dunne and Reus-Smit, 2017 adopt a broader approach, taking into ac-
count the conversations on Global IR taking place during and after
the 2014 International Studies Association (ISA) Annual Convention.
In marked contrast to the West, scholars from the Global South,
and their collaborators and likeminded scholars from the West, have
become increasingly vocal in highlighting the persisting parochialism of
the mainstream IR scholarship (Some examples, far from exhaustive,
would include: Neuman, 1998; Ling, 2002, 2010; Tickner, 2003;
Chowdhry and Nair, 2004; Thomas and Wilkin, 2004; Smith, 2006;
Acharya and Buzan, 2007, 2010; Bilgin, 2008; Agathangelou and Ling,
2009, 2013; Tickner and Waever, 2009; Behera 2010; Shilliam 2010;
Acharya, 2011, 2014a; Tickner and Blaney, 2012). The election of
Amitav Acharya in 2014 as the first non-Western President of the ISA
hopefully made some breakthrough for their cause. His Presidential
theme, ‘Global International Relations and Regional Worlds’, which
was the basis of ISA’s 2015 Convention, served as a focal point for
highlighting the American and Western dominance of IR. Acharya’s
use of ‘Global IR’ rather than Non-Western IRT was intended to ad-
dress some of the concerns raised against the latter including from
scholars working on Global South issues. Almost a quarter of the total
number of panels and roundtables at the New Orleans Convention,
were devoted to the Convention theme. Tellingly, just before the
Convention, the 2014 TRIP Survey found that a clear majority of its
respondents believe that IR is both American dominated and Western
dominated. When asked if IR is an American-dominated discipline,
49% agree and 11% strongly agreed, for a total of 60%. When asked if
IR is a Western-dominated discipline, the result was that 53% agreed
and 22% strongly agreed. Thus an overwhelming 75% of the total num-
ber of respondents agreed or strongly agreed that IR is a Western-
dominated discipline (For details, see Wemheuer-Vogelaar et al.,
2016).2 And for the first time, at the same New Orleans Convention, a
scholar from outside the West (China), Shiping Tang, won the ISA’s
best book prize (on a shared basis), for his theoretical work,
The Social Evolution of International Politics (Tang, 2013).
2 The 2014 TRIP Survey split the sample so that respondents either received the question
with American dominance (and later countering this dominance) or Western dominance.
The term ‘Western’ triggered significantly more agreement in terms of dominance than the
term ‘American’ Further details in Acharya, 2016.
8 Amitav Acharya and Barry Buzan
3 Building a Global IR
The two of us are inescapably part of the process we describe. In the
decade since we first conceptualized the IRAP forum, we have not only
received a lot of feedback from it but also become increasingly dissatis-
fied with the ongoing West-centrism of IR just described. During that
time, our work and thinking have moved in mainly separate, but none-
theless strikingly parallel tracks. Both of us have been committed to
developing global and world historical perspectives on IR, and both
have acquired a deepened awareness and understanding of the problem
Why is there no Non-Western International Relations Theory? 9
sense, the interactions between different social orders produce not con-
vergence, but (often unstable) amalgams of new and old. Through the
analytic of UCD, it becomes clear that development is both global and
local, multilinear rather than linear, proceeds in fits and starts rather
than through smooth gradations, and contains many variations in
terms of outcomes.
The synergy between Acharya’s thinking and UCD should now be ob-
vious. Just as with development, so the spread of IR thinking will also
be uneven and combined, and the expectation should not be Waltzian
uniformity, but Rosenbergian diversity. Western dominance is the external
pressure, but as Acharya argues, local circumstances shape whether and
how these ideas are taken into local usage. We should expect a global-
izing IR to be both combined and diverse, and welcome that as a creative
process that gives real agency to the ‘late developers’ of IRT.
Theory is not something ‘out there,’ removed from history, even ret-
rospectively. Rather, theories are assessed and reassessed, made and
remade through ongoing encounters with history. . . . theories arise
historically, formed amid the encounters between theorists and the
events they experience and, sometimes, take part in: Marx the revo-
lutionary, Clausewitz the soldier, Freud the analyst. In this under-
standing, theory is a living archive of events and experiences. We say
‘living’ because theories are not only derived in and from history un-
derstood as ‘the past’, they are also recrafted as they encounter new
histories. In other words, theories are assessed and reassessed, made
and remade through ongoing encounters with history. Theory is
made in history, and it simultaneously helps to make history.3
That theory and history are inextricably entangled has long been evi-
dent in the roots of realist and liberal theory in European/Western his-
tory. The issue is not to deny this link, but to acknowledge it and then
move on to build a Global IRT on the foundations of world and not
just Western history.
3 For the full argument behind this paragraph, see Buzan and Lawson (forthcoming).
4 By GIS we mean the society of states that includes all of the states-members of the interna-
tional system. This distinguishes from both regional international societies, such as that in
Europe or the Middle East, and subglobal ones, such as Western.
Why is there no Non-Western International Relations Theory? 13
5 Indeed, given the theoretical diversity in Chinese IR, there will not even be a single
‘Chinese School’ (Wang and Buzan, 2014).
20 Amitav Acharya and Barry Buzan
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