Summary an introduction to sustainability by Martin Mulligan

By GSS students ’17-18

Index

Chapter 1 – Introduction 2
Chapter 2 – Global emergence of the sustainability concept 3
Chapter 3 – Consumption and Consumerism 5
Chapter 4 – Global Challenges as Wicked Problems 10
Chapter 5 – Energy and Society 12
Chapter 6 – Sustainability models, concepts and principles 15
Chapter 7 – Risk and resilience 17
Chapter 8 – Environmental dimensions of sustainability 21
Chapter 9 – Social dimensions of sustainability 23
Chapter 10 – Personal dimensions 26
Chapter 11 – Taking action 29
Chapter 12 – Introduction to assessment and monitoring tools 35
Chapter 13 – Focusing on water 38
Chapter 14 – Food & Agriculture 40
Chapter 15 – The urban challenge 44
Chapter 16 – Rethinking waste 46

1
1. Introduction
- The global Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is probably the high watermark of global
optimism about our capacity to successfully meet the challenges of global sustainability
challenges.
- Global humanity knows what needs to be done but lacks the political will to do what is needed.
- Rachel Carson is widely acknowledged as being the mother of the modern environmental
movement which started in the USA before achieving global reach and significance in the 70s.
- Sustainability needs to be a daily preoccupation for all of us because our capacity to live
sustainably begins with our existing environmental impacts and our modes of interacting with
other people and society at large.
- A lot of people make sustainable claims and talk about environmental issues, but are not held
accountable for these words.

RMIT Sustainability Principles:

1. Acknowledge interconnections at all levels within the biosphere.
2. Acknowledge that there are limits to growth.
3. Remember that prevention is better than cure.
4. Work to improve intergenerational equity.
5. Face up to the challenges of intergenerational equity.
6. Respect requisite diversity in both nature and culture.
7. Work to relocalisation with global connectedness.
8. Move from consumerism to quality-of-life goals.
9. Learn how to travel hopefully in a world of uncertainty.

- These principles aim to foster ambition and a desire for improvement.

Definitions:
- Biosphere = zone surrounding the planet in which living organisms thrive. It extends form just
below the surface of the planet to the part of the atmosphere which contains sufficient oxygen to
sustain life.
- Triple bottom line = the need to seek a balance between economic development, environmental
protection and social well-being.
- Discourse = term used to refer to ongoing debates on a particular topic.
- Limits to growth = at global level, the biosphere imposes certain limits to economic growth; limits
that are being exceeded in relation to the emission of greenhouse gases.
- Resilience = the capacity to bounce back, it implies strength as well as adaptability.

2
2. Global emergence of the sustainability concept
The Brundtland Report (1987) firmly established the principle that the challenge to achieve
sustainability involves an interplay between environmental and social factors. It coined the term
‘environmentally sustainable development (ESD) and defined this as development which ‘meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs’.
-> seen as a human-centred definition of sustainability -> introduced as the innovative
‘intergenerational equity’ principle.

The Brundtland Report shone a spotlight on the intractable problem of global poverty because it
stressed that poor people and poor communities are often most vulnerable to environmental
hazards and, at the same time, they lack the resources to implement nature conservation strategies.
Furthermore, long-running regional and civil conflicts (often triggered by competition for resources)
make it even harder

The strength of the Brundtland Report was that it demonstrated that global environmental
sustainability is bound up with the need to radically reduce poverty and disadvantage.

Rachel Carson: Her book, Silent Spring, had a big impact. Readers were startled to learn that the
most commonly and widely used pesticide in US agriculture (DDT) was turning up everywhere. In her
book, she revealed that human action always has unforeseen ecological consequences and she
demonstrated that inorganic compounds can enter a system of ecological flows that begin locally
before spreading across vast distances. Public concern triggered by her book is said to have led to
the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency in 1970, the first of his kind in the world.

‘Earth Summit’ : 1992 in Brazil, Rio de Janeiro

Public affair which became the biggest UN gathering ever held outside New York. Many feared that
the expectations were unrealistic and there was criticism about choosing to hold it in a city with
some of the worst urban slums and was responsible for alarming rates of deforestation.
However, it produced some important outcomes
Ø It heightened sense of responsibility
Ø Increased optimism about the possibility for global agreements and global action.

Achievements of the 1992 Earth Summit

- Action plan for environmental sustainable development which bore the name Agenda 21.
- Local Agenda 21: aimed at devolving responsibilities for ESD to sub-national levels of government,
putting this matter on the agenda for local government for the first time.
- UN Framework Convention on Climate Change -> binding protocol on reducing greenhouse gas
emissions for train.
- Development of an UN Convention of Biological Diversity
- Global Environment Facility (GEF)-> support ESD initiatives in ‘developing nations’.

Local residents of Rio were excluded from many parts of the city to make way for the influx of
international visitors. This symbolizes the fact that the poor of the world have little choice but to
watch and wait for meaningful global action.

Earth Summit in 1992 was a big success. Rio+20 in 2012 however was a disappointment. It did not
set in train any new global initiatives and an earlier promise to set up a new global fund for reduce
greenhouse gas emissions in developing nations was dropped.

3
Montreal; 1987
Examine ways to rapidly phase out the use of CFC (chlorofluorocarbons) gases. -> Montreal Protocol.
The relative success of the Montreal Protocol shows that effective global action can be taken when
there is sufficient political will. However, this was relatively easy because it had a clearly identified
cause.

Other global environmental convert, notably the onset of human-induced global climate change has
more complex and diffuse origins and technological solutions are much harder to find.

Kyoto 1997
This conference set targets for a steady reduction in the emission of greenhouse gases. While the
Kyoto gathering was primarily targeted at the governments of the world’s developed nations, the
governments of nations with rapidly growing economies (BRIC: Brazil, Russia, India and China) were
invited to Copenhagen. As with Rio+20 in 2012, the Copenhagen Summit undoubtedly suffered from
unrealistic expectations and its achievement were underrated. Such global gatherings undoubtedly
have an important role to play in putting pressure on participating nations to take more meaningful
action. However, the political will to act may only begin to match expectations when national
governments come under more sustained pressure from informed and concerned citizens and from
global movements.

Globalisation is often used to refer to the rise of an increasingly integrated global economy that has
been taking shape since the 1980s.
Many of the big sustainability challenges have become more globally integrated and complex; posing
the need for more international or global action rather than action by national or sub-national
governments and government agencies.

Environmental sustainability will commonly begin with a consideration of local impact before
considering wider, sometimes global, implications. This suggest a need to develop new ways to link
local and global action for change.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is widely used to identify efforts made by corporations to
seriously address the social and environmental consequences of their business activities.

Intergenerational equity to encourage greater consideration of the needs of people living in the
future.
Intergenerational equity by highlighting the importance of reducing the gap between the world’s
rich and poor.

UN Millennium Development Goals

Eight goals that were adopted at a special UN Millennium Summit held in New York in May 2000.

4
3. Consumption and Consumerism

Introduction
- Growing global population + spread of mass consumption (driven by increasing use of
energy) > more unsustainable consumption
- With a population of 9 billion people in 2050, we will need three planets to sustain our
current consumption levels (Global Footprint Network)
- More consumption has led to several negative effects:
o Reductions in biodiversity
o Nature resource depletion
o Waste streams
o Health effects > 65 per cent of Americans are overweight or obese
o ‘Cult of the individual’: decline in social participation

The Emergence of ‘hyper consumption’

- Lipovetsky (French philosopher): Development of ‘consumer capitalism’
o Consists of 3 stages:
§ Fast increase of low sold standard goods around 1880 till WW2
§ Rapid global increase of availability of consumer goods with a short
lifetime
§ Hyper consumption, a rapid expansion in the quantity of consumer
goods (1970)

Ø Hyper consumption leads to individualism > people tend to consume more and more
to create their own happiness

Geographical and time constraints on consumerism dissolve -> over consumerism as a way
of life: self-animating force, consuming your way to a better life.

Hyper consumption not equally spread; Per capita energy consumption (kg of oil) is a good
overall indicator of consumption levels compared to nations. i.e. people in North America
use around 35 time as much energy as people living in Bangladesh.

Individualism and cocooning

- Cocooning: People spend most of their non-work time in their own homes with their own
family, friends etc. Also, people are living in the outer margins of growing cities.
o This leads to (more traveling time) less connections with their neighbours
and the local community

Consequences
- losing sight of the outer world/ecological flows -> ignoring questions as ‘where does
water come from?’/’where do waste products go to?’ -> screening out environmental
and social intrusion. ‘home as safe haven’ -> unconscious of their environmental
impacts.

5
+ private home to feel safe from social threats /sense of not belonging. High dense urban
areas create possibilities for efficiencies in the provision of energy, food, water and waste
management

- Environmental, social and personal costs of hyper consumption:

1. Unsustainable use of natural resources and environmental pollution.
2. Loss of global biodiversity and habitats for non-human species.
3. Increasing emissions of ‘greenhouse gasses’ that are leading to global warming.
4. Rising economic costs related to increasing production and transport of goods and
the disposal of increasing volumes of waste.
5. A loss of social connectedness and a sense of belonging to community.
6. Stresses associated with working hard to sustain high levels of consumption,
including the problem of being ‘time poor’.
7. A relentless feeling of being on a ‘treadmill’ of never-ending consumption.

*Social flow = movement of people, goods, info, ideas

*Ecological flow = water, energy, nutrients

Planned obsolescence and the generation of desire

Planned obsolescence: economies are driven by growth, so they make efforts to reduce the
‘lifespan’ of a product, so that they need to be replaced.
o It has become cheaper to replace rather than repair clothing and footwear
o Consumers are led to believe that they need the latest consumer goods

Addictive consumption
- The cycles of consumption and purchases lead to addictive consumption
o Example: If we buy the Samsung galaxy S7, we meet our needs, but when a
new cycle of consumption, Samsung galaxy S8 is created, we think that that
new good will meet our needs, which will lead to addictive consumption
o Maslow’s pyramid of needs:
Self–actualisation have nothing to do with consumption > we need to think of
other ways to satisfy.

‘commodified consumption’ /commodities= the process of goods and services turning

tradable items within a market economy, within an endless cycle of production, and
consumption. (Ehrenfeld).

This term is being used by Ehrenfeld to refer to the cycles of purchase and consumption of
products which seem to address our perceived needs. However, the cycle is endless and our
needs seem never to be met.

-> Addictive consumption; commodified consumption does not always produce addiction,
since we also purchase commodities that satisfy authentic needs. However endless cycle of
purchase and consumption can make us think that new and more product will meet our
needs even better.

6
‘We have become addicted to having rather than being.’ (Oliver James) -> We need to take
the time to contemplate other ways to achieve life satisfaction.
We need to take time to understand the difference between needs and wants, and to
consider personal costs linked to being trapped within the endless cycle of addictive
consumption.

Maslow’s hierarchy of Human Needs

1. physiological needs (basic needs)

2. feeling reasonable safe and secure (basic needs)
3. the need of a sense of belonging within networks of personal relationships
(psychological needs)
4. self-esteem; measured by prestige or feelings of accomplishment (psychological
needs)
5. self-actualisation= the extent to which any of us might feel that we are able to
achieve our full potential, partly by having the opportunity to participate in creative
activities. (self-fulfilment
needs)

Criticisms for the pyramid:

● cannot do justice to
complex interplays of needs and aspirations, to ways we may find satisfaction and
fulfilment by finding creative or sustainable ways to meet basic needs.

*The notion of ‘self-actualisation’ overlaps with the search for ‘authenticity’ (Ehrenfeld), and
suggests that the deepest way to achieve fulfilment have little/nothing to do with the
consumption of goods and services produced by others.
Ethical consumption and voluntary simplicity

+ long-term benefits of individualized consumption can enable us to exercise more

conscious control over what we consume.

7
Ethical consumption and voluntary simplicity
Ways to achieve better personal and environmental outcome

1. Ethical consumption: choosing wisely about your consumption

- The desire to avoid consumer goods that are produced in conditions where the producers
are treated badly and trapped in endless poverty.
Consequences:
● Growth in individual concerns about healthy living.
● The introduction of laws and regulations by governments, to ensure properly labelled
products with information about what the product contains and where it comes
from.
● Future; star rating of products? (measurement of environmental impacts).
● Growth of global networks and projects, i.e. Fair Trade

2. voluntary simplicity: Learn to live with less

1. ‘downshifters’: i.e. buying an inexpensive car. Mostly high-income people, who may
be not able to sustain a low-consumption lifestyle.
2. ‘strong simplifiers’: radical decisions such as giving up well-paid job, moving to more
modest housing.
3. ‘simple living movement’: a global movement, with a frugal lifestyle. Easier to sustain
a lifestyle, when you are part of a global movement.

3. Collaborative consumption: refers to efforts to increase collaboration or cooperation in

the purchase and consumption of goods and services; most commonly driven by the view
that individual consumption is often wasteful and environmentally damaging. i.e.
● swapping goods and sharing goods; carpooling
● ensuring that unwanted goods can be delivered to people in need

+ Reducing costs and wastage

+ Social benefits; doing more things with other people, rather than alone.

*New communication technologies have given collaborative consumption schemes a greater

chance of success.

4. relocalisation: globalisation has gone too far, need to seek locally produced food e.g.
(might undermine developing countries and not suitable for ecology though, balance
between local and global)
- Local production of food and other goods do not always have the best social and
environmental outcome; reductions in global trade undermine employment in
developing countries and it may not suit local ecological realities conditions.

‘’ Real people are caught somewhere between the extremes of the local and the global.
Therefore, the consumer culture is messy, accidental, contingent, in a state of improvisation,
collapse and renewal.” (Richard Wilk)

8
Promoting behaviour change

ethical consumption + voluntary simplicity + collaborative consumption = focus on enabling

people to exercise their personal consumer power, to achieve better personal, social and
environmental outcomes.

Tim Jackson: governments need to create a policy framework that both encourages people
to break their existing consumption habits and penalises wasteful consumption.
Thinking about what government agencies can do to facilitate a wider public shift towards
reduced consumption; promotion of behavioural change.

For example, the Es model, advocated by the UK department of Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs:

● Ensuring that incentive structures and institutional rules favour more sustainable
behaviours;
● Enabling access to pro-environmental (and pro-social) lifestyle choices;
● Engaging people in initiatives to help themselves; and
● Exemplifying the desired changes within government’s own policies and practices.

9
4. Global Challenges as Wicked Problems

- It is useful to think of climate change as a ‘wicked’ problem of unprecedented scope and

likely duration. Wicked problems are commonly symptoms of other problems, and
there’s no true/false solution for them. We can try to understand them better and not
let them get the better of us.
- There’re three big global challenges: the emergence of human-induced global climate
change, the looming spectre of ‘Peak Oil’ and the intransigence of global poverty. More
are: deforestation, desertification, declining soil fertility, declines in global fish stock,
trans border pollution, unresolved wars and conflicts, refugees, nuclear power.
- The world is rapidly approaching a point of peak in the extraction and processing of oil
(first crisis 1973), and companies have to move to remote areas to distract ‘difficult’ oil
to sustain demand.
- Global poverty was, like oil, a key barrier to sustainability in the Brundtland Report.
- The World Bank states that the efforts to eliminate poverty have some success.
However, income is a very inadequate poverty indicator and the workings of the
globalized market-driven economy appear to be making poverty even worse in parts of
Africa, Asia and Latin America. The overall gap between rich and poor seems to be
increasing.
- Human industrial and farming activity is contributing to an observable rise in global
atmospheric and surface temperatures by pumping greenhouse gases into the upper
atmosphere.
- Increasing heat creates greater climate volatility, meaning that future predictions are
likely to be less reliable. However, the signs of change are accumulating with record low
levels of Arctic ice, increasingly intense and frequent floods, droughts and ‘extreme
weather events’.
- Incremental shifts in climate can actually increase the variability of the weather
patterns.
- Storms are often formed in the interplay between ocean currents and the movement of
water molecules in the atmosphere. A warming of climate systems makes such
interplays even more dynamic and less predictable.
- Natural systems rarely change in a linear way and ecologists have long known that a
seemingly stable ecosystem can suddenly experience a devastating ‘tipping point’. We
need to be prepared for the unexpected, but that runs counter to our cherished belief
that scientific knowledge can give us ever-greater certainty about how our world
operates.
- Ecologists have long understood that incremental changes to a self-regulating ecosystem
can eventually overwhelm its capacity to adapt to the changes; it reaches a tipping point
at which the functioning of the system undergoes rapid change.
- Since 2006, there has been a growing global consensus on the fact that human-induced
climate change is already taking place and that it will require significant change at all
levels of society, from the local to the global.
- The idea of avoiding dangerous climate change has taken the focus away from a need to
adapt to the onset of climate change or the need to question more deeply the beliefs
and assumptions that have enabled us to ignore warnings about our global
environmental impacts for so long.
- Climate change can be seen as an opportunity to open up meaningful dialogues about

10
 problematic cultural beliefs and practices and the need to make radical changes to the
ways in which we live.
- Income does not reflect numerous causes of poverty and disadvantage, such as access
to adequate food, clean water, health care and education. Entrenched poverty is spread
very unevenly across the world and there is a lot of data suggesting that entrenched
poverty is getting worse and that more people are struggling with rising costs of living.
- Poverty masks a complexity of forms and causes of environmental, economic and social
disadvantages and some economic development strategies aimed at reducing poverty
can make things worse.
- There can be no single strategy to reduce global poverty, and the fact that economic
‘development’ can increase the gap between the rich and the poor means that global
poverty should be seen as a wicked problem, rather than one which can be resolved.
- The hallmark of a caring and inclusive society will be that it pays constant attention to
emergence and/or continuation of poverty traps.
- By focusing initially on factors that seem to exclude certain people and communities
from opportunities available to other people and communities it may then become
possible to focus on strategies for inclusion, or pathways towards greater participation.
- People living within poor communities are likely to have the best understanding of the
various barriers to greater social inclusion.

Definitions:
- Wicked problems = complex problems that have no single complete or trial-and-error
solutions; problems which may emerge as symptoms of other complex problems.
- IPCC= Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
- World Bank poverty line= the concept of a poverty line has been in use since the early
twentieth century. Extreme poverty means that people exist on less than 1.25 dollar a
day.
- Desertification= land degradation in which an area loses its natural reserves of water
and existing forms of vegetation and wildlife.
- Trans border pollution= pollution that cannot be contained within national borders, or
waste materials that are deliberately transported beyond the borders of the country in
which they were generated.
- Climatology = subset of atmospheric science and physical geography devoted to
understanding the functioning of the Earth’s climate systems.
- Mitigation= attempts to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.
- Adaptation = refers to action taken to adapt to the impacts of climate change.
- Greenhouse gases= group of gases that have the ability to absorb and re-radiate solar
energy. Water vapour, ozone, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
- Greenhouse effect = certain gases accumulating in the upper atmosphere could
contribute to global warming by trapping solar radiation within the atmosphere.
- Ocean currents= can be caused by wind or by movement arising from density
differences in water caused by differences in temperature or salinity.
- Salinization = increasing concentrations of water soluble salts in soil which can impede
plant growth.
- Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment and Energy= independent research centre
that works with a number of German universities, Wuppertal is located in the Wupper
Valley not far from the large city of Dusseldorf; the institute was set up in 1991.

11
5. Energy and Society

Introduction
Access to sources of energy is of critical importance for life. The ultimate source of energy
for life on Earth is the sun.
Animals rely on the capacity of plants to trap solar energy in order to produce complex
compounds made of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms which then serve as the fuel for
animal bodily functions through the processes of digestion. Humans burn plant materials to
produce heat energy, which has extended to using fossilised plant material to produce the
heat that can be turned into electricity or used to drive motor vehicles. Burning fossil fuels
gives of ‘excess’ heat and the gas emissions known to produce the global greenhouse effect.
The cost of accessing enough oil to satisfy the growing demand for it would lead to relative
oil shortages and big increases in oil prices. The Peak Oil warning refers to the availability of
‘cheap oil’. The growing complexity of the systems we are using to satisfy the needs and
demands of human consumption is resulting in an ever-diminishing return on energy
invested.

Energy and ‘Progress’

There are direct connections between energy use and indicators of social development,
including life expectancy, infant mortality, doctors per 100,00 people, Nobel prizes per head
of population, and levels of meat consumption. Without easy access to dependable and
ever-increasing supplies of energy we could not lead the lives we do.

Energy and Economic Growth

Economic growth is dependent on energy and so belief in economic growth implies an
ability to increase supply and use of energy. Given the centrality of oil for all forms of
production and transport, rising oil prices increase inflation and this, in turn, deflates public
spending. Oil has become the critical energy source for all forms of manufacture and
without cheap oil our economies would grind to a halt.

Cultural ideas of ‘Progress’

The link between hyper consumption and our sense of personal well-being helps to explain
the cultural challenges posed by the need to reduce oil dependence.
Energy-driven complexity: the consumption of increasing amounts of energy to drive
increasingly complex systems, such as modern food production systems.

Focusing on food
A steady reduction in demand for human labour in agriculture coincides with the increasing
demand for labour in industrial manufacture and this sparked the process of urbanisation
which now means that more people globally live in cities than in rural areas. The switch in
sources of energy- from human labour to the use of mechanical engines- not only changed
where people live but also what they do on a daily basis. Industrial farming is highly
successful at producing more food from the same amount of agricultural land, and this has
reduced the spectre of famine countries. Many countries have moved from conditions of
food scarcity to an overabundance of food and calorie-rich diets are now causing a global

12
epidemic in diet-related diseases. Modern farms can produce more but use about 20x as
much energy to produce a certain quantity of food energy compared to a traditional farm
(10 units of energy for everyone unit of food energy)

Environmental and social costs of complex food production systems

Modern food distribution systems have become highly efficient they have become
incredibly expensive in terms of energy use. 20% of energy used to put our food on our
plate is actually used for production because the other 80% is used for transport,
processing, packaging, marketing, preparation and storage. There is an increasing use of
fertilisers and pesticides and the tendency towards monoculture farming, which has
disastrous long-term consequences for soil fertility and biodiversity. Genetic engineering
has been introduced to increase agricultural productivity but there can be unforeseen
dangers in tampering with natural genetic diversity. Efficiency depends on speed and the
implementation of ‘just in time’ principles for responding to market needs. Surges in global
oil prices quickly flow through price increases for food and this has particularly serious
consequences for poor people and poor communities (increasing food vulnerability)

Back to Hubbert’s predictions

The peak of the curve is the point at which demand for oil outstrips the ability to produce it
at reasonable cost and not the point at which supplies begin to dry up. Increasing global
demand is forcing producers to tap into smaller, more remote and low-quality supplies.
Increasing global demand is being driven by rapid industrialisation in countries such as
China, India and to a lesser extent, Brazil and Indonesia.

Energy Return on investment

The idea of Peak Oil relates to the human tendency to exhaust supplies of resources that are
easiest to reach. This has led to work on EROI (Energy return on investment). This involves a
calculation of how much energy it costs to utilise a particular energy source and the results
are revealing. EROI of oil changed from 100:1 towards 15:1. This trend reflects an increasing
reliance on offshore and Deepwater oil drilling because it is more difficult and expensive to
operate offshore and the operations are more exposed to disruption caused by bad
weather. EROI ratings for energy sources other than hydrocarbons commonly show that the
return on investment tends to be higher even if the total energy output is not high. Coal has
a high EROI due to its cheap production despite being a major contributor to the generation
of greenhouse gases.

Extending the chase for hydrocarbons

The effort involves squeezing oil out of low-grade sources such as tar sands or shale
‘fracking’ and extracting gas from extensive coal seams, and using biofuels such as ethanol
as a supplement. A massive tar sand operation led to extensive clear-felling of native forests
and the pollution of waterways. The EROI rating for tar sand oil extraction is very low and
the social and environmental costs for energy return both seem very high. A growing global
market for ethanol has resulted in deforestation and the conversion of productive farmland
for sugarcane production.

13
Pathways out of oil dependency
Many cities are trying to facilitate urban agriculture. The need to reduce ‘food miles’ has
been circulating in sustainability literature since the 1990s. Transport is however only one
aspect of food production that needs to be rethought. The growing popularity of ‘farmers
markets’ suggest that the desire to eat ‘fresh’ food that has not been transported and
stored for any length of time is gaining some momentum. We do not need to dispense with
all the benefits of globalisation in order to reduce carbon dependency but we will need to
make substantial social and cultural changes to reduce our dangerous dependence on
hydrocarbons. This requires a degree of ‘relocalisation’ of economic and social life.

14
6. Sustainability models, concepts and principles

Introduction
Triple Bottom Line (PPP)
- The three-sector model — environmental, economic and social.
- Introduced in the Brundtland Report (1987)
- First time noticed that economic development has to satisfy the other two sectors as
well.
Problems Triple Bottom Line
- Hard to compare i.e. economic result with effects in the social field.
- Conventional economic thinking dominates the three-sector model; narrow focus.

The 'Nested Diagram' Model

There is no separation between the three sectors.
Economy within social domain within environment.
Unwanted effect: economy is seen as starting point

Adding a Fourth Domain

What is in the 'social' sector in the three-sector model?
Fourth Pillar: Cultural vitality, since communities have a great value.
Fourth Domain: RMIT separates 'social' in 'political' and 'cultural'.
'Environmental' is named 'Ecological' to focus on the interaction between
humans and non-humans.

The Social Ecology Model - Stuart Hill

• Environmental
• Social: economic, cultural, political
• Personal
The focus on the personal makes that the individual does not lose sight of the big global
picture. Sustainability is for all of us.

From 'Efficiency' to 'Redesign'

Efficiency is not enough if the original design is not optimised. Start thinking about how to
redesign personal practices.

Systems Thinking (+- 1920)

- Step back to get the bigger picture
- Ludwig von Bertalanffy: General Systems Theory. Systems are constructed similarly.
A system has to have feedback loops to be self-regulating.
Open system — many inputs and disturbances
Difference hard and soft system
- Hard system is predictable.
- Soft system: Unpredictable because humans / animals make decisions that influence
others. 'Soft Systems Methodology' — first map a rich picture.

15
Double feedback loops
Donella Meadows
Linear conceptions because of two-dimensional frame.
Model is never the truth, but can be a useful starting point.

Ecological Thinking
'Separation of the Human system' and the 'Natural system’.

Scales
Human and natural 'boundaries’

16
7. Risk and Resilience

Introduction

- Resilience (chemical): substances that have a capacity to return to their original form
after being bent, stretched or compressed.
- Resilience (ecological): what makes some species or ecosystems more adaptable to
change than others and why do some individuals seem more capable of bouncing
back after shocks or setbacks.

It’s important to look for ways to minimise risk and hazard exposure: ‘’refers to human
exposure to materials or processes that have a known potential to damage health or cause
injury.’’

Ecologists have focused on the kinds of properties that make some living systems more
resilient: summarised in book by Brian Walker and David Salt.
Walker and Salt argue that principles of systemic resilience can be designed into the systems
we create for human communities and the relevance of those principles will be explored in
relation to impacts (e.g. hurricane Katrina). We need to learn the lessons of past disasters in
order to give more substance to the rhetoric about disaster resilience.

Risk Measurement and Management

Risk exposure: human exposure to situation which may or may not damage health or cause
injury.

Reasons for concern:

- Human induced hazards can no longer be contained to local regions.
- Increased movement of people is increasing the threat of epidemics or pandemics of
disease.
- Social conflicts have spilled over national borders and have become globalised.
- Climate change is increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather.

Driving factor of risk industry

- Insurance companies cannot cope with increasing levels of hazard exposure

Public authorities are concerned about being held accountable for increasing risk exposure
à shift responsibility for risk management to private sector or community-based
organisations.

Risk industry: important techniques anticipating and assessing risks in advance à

encouraged culture of extreme risk avoidance.

17
Cultural differences on risk and resilience
In many non-western countries, the infrastructure would be deemed to be unsafe, there is a
lower emphasis on public safety and risk avoidance. The risk management is seen as a
responsibility for individuals. People who live in significant levels of risk are (often) more
resilient.
In Europe, its managed by public authorities whereas in less developed countries its
individual responsibility.

Hazard exposure and risk tolerance

Often poor people and communities tend to live in areas where they are exposed to
‘natural’ hazards, they struggle to survive when the environmental disaster arrives. Much
can be done to reduce hazard exposure of vulnerable people and communities to develop
their own risk strategies: people may accept it in order to enjoy the benefits (living by the
sea) or self-reliance, having a greater adaptive capacity.

Poor people suffer more from natural disasters. à Much has to be done to reduce the
hazard exposure of vulnerable people and communities across the globe (Adger, brown
2009).
At the same time, exposure to risk can enable individuals and communities to develop their
own risk management strategies. People may accept it in order to enjoy the benefits (living
by the sea) or self-reliance. People in these situations tend to have a greater adaptive
capacity.

Back to beck and the risk society

Beck (scientist): Rather than admitting that we have little choice other than learn how to
live with increasing levels of risk, Beck argue that the response within western societies has
been;
1. To ‘externalise’ risk through the implementation of management plans
2. To ‘individualise’ risk by using legal processes to settle questions of responsibility
3. For authorities to ‘minimise’ risk by suggesting that risk can be adequately managed

Beck noted; ‘’No one should be exposed to new hazards without being told’’.
Globalisation of risk will have a long-term positive effectà The inadequacies of prevailing
risk management strategies will become increasingly apparent à will prompt a widespread
desire to rethink attitudes to risk.

Increasing global environmental risks might foster greater public awareness of how global
ecological systems work (Beck 2005)

Risk and innovation

Major breakthroughs in human history have involved risk. Innovation often requires a leap
of imagination. Innovation occurs when curiosity overrides the avoidance of risk.

“The black swan effect”: we need to be much more attuned to the highly improbable or
unforeseen outliers. We need to focus more on things we do not know and can only imagine
rather than what we think we know, to embrace unpredictability rather than fear it.

18
‘’We need to focus more on things we do not know and can only imagine rather than what
we think we know.’’

Personal Resilience
Perceptions can be socially amplified in the way that risk is discussed publicly in any
particular society of culture.

Slovic (2010): feelings associated with lived experiences of risk play a significant factor in the
ways in which people weigh up the dangers and benefits associated with risk taking. It is the
feeling of risk more than knowledge of possible dangers that influences risks tolerance,
slovic argue, and this suggests that prevailing risk management or avoidance strategies are
largely ineffective.

If prevailing risk management strategies are doing more harm than good in teaching how to
live in a risky world, then there is a need for a cultural shift in the way that risk is perceived
within westering societies, in particular.

Insights from ecology

Why are particular communities of plants and animals more resilient to changing
circumstances or perturbations than other?
Focus on interaction between all components of a particular ecosystem.
- Resilience (Walker and Salt): the ability of a system to absorb disturbance and still
retain its basic function and structure.
Resilient ecosystems tend to be non-hierarchical in form and yet they also feature high
levels of mutual dependence between the different plants and animals that constitute to
the system. When the system dynamics are thrown completely out of balance the tipping
point (refers to a point at which incremental changes trigger a major change in the system)
is reached. The ability to adapt requires diversity within the system and genetic variability
which can result in hybrid species. Functional diversity is very important.

Characteristics of resilient systems

• Resilient systems will always incorporate a fairly high degree of diversity, even if
such diversity sometimes seems redundant to the immediate needs of the system.
Diversity provides alternatives if particular features of a system fail to function
effectively.
• A resilient system will sustain its functional diversity, even if this might appear to be
wasteful in the short term. The danger created by not sustaining ‘functional
diversity’ can be illustrated by noting that ‘monocrop’ agriculture leaves crops
vulnerable to insect attacks and it depletes the fertility of the soil over time.
• Resilient systems display modularity rather than forms of hierarchy so that the
system as a whole can continue to function even if particular parts of it fail. It makes
sense, for example, to ensure that power supply to a big city is not centralised in
particular forms of infrastructure in case any of it fails.

19
 • It is important to know the difference between incremental changes – or ‘slow
variables’ – and ‘thresholds’ of tipping points. Resilient systems can cope with the
former but not necessarily the latter.
• A resilient system needs to have tight feedbacks so that all changes in circumstances
and function are monitored. We need to know when a system is beginning to show
signs of stress that might indicate an approaching threshold.

Designing resilient human systems

Many systems we design do not cope well with changes and human subjectivity sometimes
makes it difficult to design functioning systems on a big scale.
How to can humans learn from nature to deliberately design resilience into systems we
create:
1. Avoid inflexible hierarchical structures
2. Introduce modularity
3. Create physical spaces and allow time for people to think creatively
4. Monitoring and effective communication
5. Give time to reflect
6. Balance between conservation and innovation

Lessons from hurricane Katrina

• Hierarchical disaster planning and management failed.
• Little attempt was made to stop to rethink what was going wrong.
• Monitoring systems were not in place to ascertain whether the felt needs of
disaster-affected people were being addressed.
• Communication systems were hierarchical and there were few opportunities for
affected communities to learn from each other’s experiences.
• The social and cultural assets of a culturally diverse urban community were not
sufficiently valued; emphasis on a new start for the city was lacking.
• Top-down approaches to the rebuilding effort divided the multiracial community,
which exacerbated racial and cultural divisions.

20
8. Environmental dimensions of sustainability

Some continuing and rising global concerns.

- Ecological flows: movement of water, nutrients and other materials through local
and global ecosystems.
- Human activities drive species to extinction, current extinction rates are 1,000 times
higher than any such natural rate, almost 200 species extinct every year.
- Global loss of forest was highest in 1990s, now it’s still 5.2 million hectares per year.
- Desertification lead to loss of arable land. 52% of agriculture land is affected by soil
erosion.
- Water tables: boundary between dry ground and ground that is saturated with water
that has penetrated into the ground. These water tables are failing.
- Coral bleaching is becoming more frequent.

From the global to the local.

Focus on global concerns, ignores taking action on local levels. Changes on global levels
effect local ecosystems. Act local to influence global. Ecological flows help to understand
why this happens.

Ecological flows.
Movement of water, nutrients and other materials through local and global ecosystems
(mostly cycles). Nitrogen or Carbon cycles are examples of ecological flows. The terms
‘sinks’ and ‘storage’ are weird in flows and cycles but help us understand what is
happening. Carbon cycle: humans alter the balance between carbon ‘stored’ in marine and
terrestrial plant matter compared to carbon ‘stored’ in gasses in atmosphere. Humans
accelerate the flow of carbon into the atmosphere.

Following the flows of water.

Human waste effects the life of sea creatures à influence birds and other creatures, system
misbalance. Water cycle very large, oceans, rivers, lakes, clouds etc.

Understanding biodiversity.
Darwin’s evolution theory explains why there are so many species. Biodiversity came up in
the 1980s. 4 different forms of diversity: genetic, species, ecological and functional.
Functional diversity: level of diversity required by a biological community to make it
resilient to disturbance or capable of change and adaptation. Hybrid species occur where
different ecosystems come together. Diversity is good, as long as they serve the same
purpose in a system. Ecosystem services: all the benefits humans derive from the presence
of healthy ecosystems.

The Biosphere.
Zone where all life exists. Earth is a planet with finite resources.

21
Revaluing ‘the commons’.
Certain areas within the biosphere need to be set aside for the conservation of global
biodiversity. The commons been used to refer to areas set aside for public benefit rather
than private use.

Resilient nature.
Nature highly fragile. Emphasis on value wilderness, untouched nature. Wildlife also found
in big cities, not only in remote forests. Nature is more resilient than we imagine.

22
9. Social dimensions of sustainability

Introduction
The social ecology model of sustainability moves the functioning of the economy into the
social domain, Karl Polanyi: economics must be embedded in culture and society. From the
perspective of the global environment, economic planners need to put aside their
discipline’s obsession with growth to consider limits and constrains.

This chapter will argue that the functioning of the economy is only one dimension of social
planning because it is also important to focus on cultural vitality and the politics of
participation. The RMIT principles that underpin this discussion are:
- acknowledge that there are limits to growth
- remember that prevention is better than cure
- work to improve intergenerational equity
- face up the challenge of intergenerational equity
- respect requisite diversity in nature and culture

In summary, the chapter touches on:

- The need to widen prevailing economic thought and action to ensure that it can deliver
better outcomes in relation to both environmental and social well-being.
- The need to make value judgements more transparent in policy-making, with a
particular emphasis on increasing social inclusion and political participation.
- The importance of cultural vitality as a measure of social well-being.
- The need to constantly create and reinforce inclusive communities.

The rise of environmental economics

Kenneth Boulding: Economic theory needs to be far more attentive to the long-term social
consequences of economic development.

Economic growth is good because it helps people out of poverty, but:

- It increases inequality and this makes people unhappy
- There is no direct connection between economic growth and happiness
- There are environmental costs

Environmental economics: find ways to ensure that the environment can be given ‘value’
within economic policy and practice and that economic development should consciously
aim to ‘improve’ the natural environment rather than result in resource depletion and
environmental degradation.
Often used in environmental economics:
- Cost-benefit analysis (most used), tries to monetise both costs and benefits
- Life-cycle analysis (LCA)
o Responsible for introducing the term cradle-to-grave, focus on whole-of-life cycle
production. However, this concept does not complete the cycle so there was
suggested that it should be replaces with an emphasis on cradle-to-cradle
production.

23
 o LCA has become a powerful tool for thinking about a wide array of both
environmental and social consequences flowing from resource extraction,
production processed and the disposal of waste material.

- Contingent valuation (CV)

o First technique used to put a value on previously neglected environmental
‘assets’.
o In order to turn qualitative assessments of value into something more
quantitative CV has worked with the principle of ‘willingness to pay’, or
‘willingness to accept’.
o Weakness: it is hard to bring wide-ranging conversations about values into any
kind of consensus on a measurement.
o Its strength: it forces economic policymakers into processes of consultation with
known and potential stakeholders who have divergent views about
environmental values.

The economics of happiness

Sustainability scholars have long focused on the shortcomings of Gross Domestic Product
(GPD) as the indicator of choice for measuring the economic performance of nations and
regions. A lot of work has gone into replacing the GPD with something like a Genuine
Progress Indicator. A key concept here is to shift the focus form production to the
improvement of social ‘well-being’.

Growing concerns about the social and personal impacts of hyper consumption have put the
achievement of happiness on the agenda of economists and policy-makers in a range of
highly developed nations.

Evidence-based and value-based policy

Evidence-based policy:
- Has helped to make policy-makers more accountable for the decisions they make. In
making policy-making more transparent it reduces the dangers of political corruption or
the arbitrary use of political power and influence.
- But it tends to favour supposedly unbiased facts and figures over perceptions, feelings
or sentiment.
Value-based policy:
- There is no such thing as an objective fact, data used to support one policy option over
others always reflects the assumptions and presuppositions of people who have
collected the data.
- Argumentation is the key process through which citizens and policy-makers arrive at
moral judgements and policy choices.

Social inclusion and the politics of participation

Deliberative democracy:
- Key concern: make policy development more socially responsive. So, it is better to take
time to ensure wide participation in the development of policy rather than implement
policies that may favour some people over others, or divide people and communities.

24
- Key principle: decision making needs to be as transparent as possible in order to reveal
any influence that may be exerted on the policy-makers by interest groups or lobbyists.
- Critics: it is too slow and cumbersome to achieve clear and efficient policy outcomes.
- Opponents tend to argue that representative democracy is far more efficient because
elected representatives can speak on behalf of their constituents without resorting to
cumbersome processes of consultation.

The starting point of forming policies should be genuine respect for the diversity of views
and approaches, so that efforts can be made to find some common ground. Of course,
policy formation cannot always reach a consensus. However, a deliberative process is likely
to reduce polarisations in policy-making debates and also reduce resistance to the final
outcomes.

The politics of shared space

Multicultural communities:
- The coexistence of groups of people with different beliefs and practices can cause
division and conflict.
- However, it can also force people to openly negotiate terms for peaceful coexistence,
this can create more tolerant and culturally diverse local communities.
- Diversity of past experiences may give the community an increased capacity to adapt to
changing circumstances.

Through new communication technologies communities are no longer just defined by

location on earth. However, environmental sustainability forces us all to think about our
impacts on both the local and non-local ecosystems form which we draw resources and into
which we dump waste materials. Our focus that has shifted to globally now has to return to
a more local one.

Cultural diversity and cultural vitality

Culture:
- If we think of it as being the beliefs and practices that are in use within particular human
communities, we can see it as a source of resistance to change.
- At the same time, the culture of a community can be seen as the conscious
representation
(art, magazines, films) of prevailing or alternative beliefs and assumptions.

While cultural representations may have the intent, or effect, of reinforcing existing beliefs
and practices they can also generate conversations about the ongoing relevance of
particular beliefs and practices; thus, opening a door for cultural change.

Creating more inclusive communities

Regardless of the personal choices we make about community participation, Delanty and a
range of other prominent sociologists have argued that the desire to find a sense of
belonging to community is likely to intensify in an increasingly risky and uncertain world

25
10. Personal dimensions

The key aim of this chapter is: How can individuals create the kinds of communities and
societies that can rise to the challenges we face globally?

A fully sustainable society is not something that can be reached by just governments and
scientists, this confronts every person on this planet. However, the experts and
governments do have a critical part in encouraging the individuals to take action.

Nikolas Rose (sociologist from England) states that society consists of communities created
to give us each a sense of purpose and belonging, however the construction of these
communities should begin with the individuals instead of the other way around.
the key aim of this chapter is to consider how individuals can create communities and
societies that can rise to the challenges we face globally.
It is important that we understand the limits to individual action, Anthony Giddens (another
British sociologist) notes that individual beliefs, actions and attitudes are shaped by the
community in which they are born.

Cultures tend to resist change because beliefs and practices are upheld by social
institutions. However, the increasing global movement of people, goods and (most
importantly) information is undermining the influence of these local and even national
institutions. Also, we live in post-traditional societies, societies where less effort is put into
socializing individuals into a particular way of thinking (individualization). New
communication technologies make it easier for people to join non-local communities
(communities of practice).
Digital story telling gets more popular, because it’s harder for the individuals to make sense
of their own diverse lives (because of their diverse communities).

This chapter aims to give substance to the last two of the nine RMIT Sustainability
principles, namely

1. Move from consumerism to quality of life goals

2. Learn how to travel hopefully in a world of uncertainty

It will focus on:

• The possibilities for taking individual action in a ‘runaway world’.

• The creation and sharing of life stories.
• Opportunities presented by the ‘digital age’, including possibilities for joining
communities of practice.
• Some reasons for feeling hopeful about the future.

Individuals who are prepared to take risks and live with uncertainty cope best with
unexpected changes (personal resilience). Rather than focus our thoughts on where we
want to be, at some point in the future we can focus more on the journey we are already
making, unforeseen challenges and opportunities included. We need to look inside
ourselves to find a sense of self-worth, because if you live according to opinions you will
never be rich (as a person). However, our sense of self is strongly influenced by prevailing

26
cultural beliefs and practices. Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs backs this up (see
chapter 3). However, personal resilience cannot ignore the influence of culture.

Taking and sustaining action

2 reactions to feeling insignificant and powerless with respect to global challenges can be:

• Powerlessness encourages individuals to throw themselves into activism that cannot

be sustained for long periods of time, and has little effect.
• Individuals decide that that personal action is insignificant and worthless.

Inaction = irresponsible and effective action = poses deep dilemmas.

Many of these challenges discussed in this book can leave individuals feeling powerless,
people may decide to start activism that won’t sustain long, but people can also decide that
individual action is worthless, no action is not an option and effective action is elusive.
Stuart hill (British social ecologist) describes this dilemma, he states that no individual
action is insignificant because it’s part of a bigger plan however, this individual action should
be sustained.

Effective action needs effective monitoring, therefore there should be feedback loops. This
requires the help of other people, who can help reflect the meaningfulness of your actions.
Positive feedback will motivate, while negative feedback will help you redirect.

Ulrich beck and Anthony Giddens had similar conclusions on the downfall of social
institutions due to global flows. They argued that individuals are more likely to be the
authors of their own stories, they say we need to find a life of one’s own in a runaway
world. Richard Sennet adds that individuals are more obliged to make sense of their life
experiences, also the ability to share life stories can help to overcome social isolation.
Sometimes the writing of stories helps the author to make sense of his own life, but at the
same time it helps other people who are in the same situation make sense of theirs.

In the late 1990’s Anthony Giddens became an enthusiastic supporter of the Blair Labour
governments social inclusion. The goal of this institution was to get rid of adversary politics
(a deep consensus between main political parties). He wanted to bring Britain together, the
term social inclusion is important here.

New opportunities in the ‘digital age’

Digital storytelling technologies and techniques have greatly increased the capacity for
people to create and share short stories based on lived experiences. However, people
should not become mesmerised by success stories.
New communication technologies make it easier to build the global movement for
sustainable living.

Communities of practice
The dangers of digital overload are offset by the fact that some online communities can
have enduring significance and they can enhance the capacity of participants to take and
sustain action in the world.

27
Arguments of hope
We can take hope from the fact that humanity has only really been thinking about global
sustainability challenges for just over a quarter of a century and that is a short time within
the long span of human history.

• The biggest challenges sometimes bring out the best in people

• We have unprecedented global awareness and incredible powers of communication
• Growing global challenges may mean that the imperative to cooperate may overtake
self-interest and competition
• A lot of the intellectual work for knowing how to live more sustainably has already
been done; we need to focus now on building social and political will to change
direction
• We have the exciting opportunity to participate in the biggest social movement in
history

Entering a new phase in the history of humanity

We are witnessing a major transition stage in the history of life on Earth.
Anthropocene: homo sapiens had the capacity to change the conditions of life of all other
organisms.

The creation of our universe and the evolution of life on our planet can inspire us to feel
deep sense of solidarity with all other forms of life.
The emergence of human consciousness is part of that unfolding story and we might
eventually learn to think of life on Earth as a ‘communion of subjects rather than a
collection of objects’. To learn how to live graciously together would make us worthy of this
unique, beautiful blue planet that evolved in its present splendour over some billions of
years. If we can revere how things are, and can find a way to express gratitude for our
existence, then we should be able to figure out, with a great deal of work and good will,
how to share the Earth with one another and with other creatures, how to restore and
preserve its elegance and grace.

28
11. Taking Action

This chapter focuses on what individuals can do in the wider organisational, social and
cultural settings.
Parts with focus on discussion question are marked with a red note.
Key actors and actor networks:

It is important to distinguish these Actor roles: question 1

Stakeholders: who may have an interest but little capacity to act.
Actors: who may be able to play an active role within a particular scenario
Key actors: A person who assumes -or is given- responsibility to implement change within
an organisation or community.
- The selection of key actors cannot be based solely on old friendships or associations.
Careful, strategic and consideration is needed to really be able to get the tools to
make a change.
- Any proposal that fails to convince key actors is doomed to failure so changes have
to be sufficiently researched.

Actor networks:
Key actors which have been recruited to a certain cause have to work together with many
different kinds of people. And this may cause inertia or even resistance.
Cultural change within an organisation or community of people s difficult to achieve
because we all operate with a habit of acquired natures and unconscious assumptions
Pierre Bourdieu says. So, people can react emotionally to a change because they see it as a
threat to their normality. Patience is needed for this.
People who are being recruited will mostly have a rather complex relationship with other
actors.
Question 2
Bruno Latour has popularized the actor network theory: which goes beyond the concept of
networks of human actors, it sees a role for non-human components in such networks. It
has deepened understanding of the behaviour of human networks.
Effective Actor networks focus on building strong relationships and on certain tasks or
desired outcomes. So, it contributes to achieve changes even though there are
unpredictable cultural changes.

Stakeholder Consultations
The ‘contingent valuation’ * approach has advocated widespread consultation with people
who may have a direct or indirect stake in the preservation or exploitation of particular
natural resources.
* Contingent valuation is a survey-based technique for estimating the value of non-market
resources, such as benefits derived from preserving the natural environment.
The benefits of these stakeholder consultations are now widely accepted, though it is very
hard to reconcile the competing interests of different stakeholders and time-consuming.
Because of this the consultations are often performed in superficial ways (manipulation f.e.)
Question 3

29
But these kinds of consultations increase the division and resentment among the
stakeholders and this can bounce back to those responsible. Clear distinction between
stakeholders and communities is needed.

Making and monitoring policy

To make sure all the desired changes are sustained and/or integrated they may need to be
set within policy frameworks. These frameworks aim to put together the orientation and
commitments of the organisation or community in relation to the issues being addressed.
Policy responses vary from restrictions to protocols, environmental policy has become an
established field of practice at levels ranging from private corporations to various agencies
of the UN. Good policy should drive changes in attitudes and practises.
The word policy has many meanings:
- Vig and Kraft (1994) say that policy states an intent to achieve certain goals and
objectives through a conscious choice of means, usually within some specified time
period.
- Davis (1992) described environmental policy processes as ‘issue attention cycles’.
The attention often fades once a policy has been formulated only to re-emerge
when the issue or problem re-emerges in a slightly different form. This implies that
policies need to be constantly revisited a reassessed: a cycle. Question 4
- Thomas and Murfitt introduce this as a ‘policy cycle’: Thomas and Murfitt noted that a
policy review may reprioritise
the problem being addressed
but this does not mean that the
Periodic problem has been solved. It
Policy highlights the fact that priorities
review must be chosen and this comes
back to choices based on values.
policy
Identify
monitorin
Reused or new problems
g/evalutai
policy and issues
on

Reused or Policy
new implemen
policy t-ation

Performance indicators
‘Performance indicators’ are goals that are expressed as benchmarks against which actual
performance can be measured.
The policy cycle also comes down to difficult choices about which performance indicators
should be used for the monitoring and evaluation; the choices are being reflected in the
selection of ‘key performance indicators’(KPIs.)
For a long time, there was only focus on quantitative indicators (performances that can be
measured in numbers or statistics). This gives little information about the overall well-being

30
or happiness. Question 5 (this is why caution is needed). It has become more common to
mix quantitative and qualitative indicators.
The addition of qualitative indicators increases the choices available to the organisation or
community wanting to set KPIs. But still do they need to make value-based choices.
! It is helpful to remember that the selection of KPIs can be revised for any particular policy
cycle, this is important since the possibilities are endless.
Scerri and James state that the effort to reach an agreement on KPIs can be very informative
to all involved, the process of the choice may be just as important of the final choice.

Regulations and market mechanisms

An everlasting debate in countries with highly developed economies is whether it is better
to rely on government regulation or market-based incentives to achieve environmentally
sustainable development.
Economic incentives might include government subsidies or tax cuts but they might extend
to labelling systems or public rewards for businesses and organisations that show ‘corporate
responsibility’ in taking environmental sustainability seriously.
Rating systems: comparisons made between different items, products, performances that
indicate performance in relation to particular goals, such as minimal use of energy.
These rating systems enable consumers to select products that are ‘ethical’ in terms of their
use of products and raw materials have become more prevalent. But not only do these
products need a market edge, regulations are also needed.

People who run private corporations are obliged to focus on long-term sustainability of the
‘business model’. A number of sustainability concepts have been drawn from business
management literature:
- Stakeholder consultation
- Scenarios mapping: was initiated by separately by the US military and by Shell Oil in
the early 1970s to encourage contemplation of different scenarios that might evolve
in the future and the particular challenges they might pose for those involved in the
contemplation.
- Business plan: refers to the formal presentation of a set of goals that involves cost-
benefit analysis and the reasons why the plans are achievable.
Within the business plan economic costs and benefits will always be a consideration but
they need to be contextualised within a wider consideration of social and environmental
costs and benefits.
- Balance sheet: refers to a concise presentation, usually in table form, of anticipated
financial costs and incomes. However, the notion of ‘balance sheet’ has been
extended to refer to any cost-benefit analysis.!: turning costs and benefits into
numbers makes it easier to make this.

Important people: Question 5 (useful concepts)

- Nicolas Stern: In a 2006 report het wrote for the UK government about the
economic consequences of climate change. He argued that the costs associated with
maintaining an economy that is heavily dependent on the use of oil will steadily rise

31
 while corporations that shift to low-carbon production will eventually benefit
economically, even if there is a short-term transition cost.
è He urged that the government would make policies that would encourage and
reward the development of the low-carbon economy.
! problem: policies may come out disappointing since individual businesses want
policy certainty before changing long-term investments and governments are
reluctant on impose pressure. Some projects even made things worse (danger
relying on market mechanism)
- Joseph Stiglitz: an influential critic of free market approaches to the development of
a global economy who called for much stronger policy interventions on the part of
national governments.
- Wolfgang Sachs: stated that the trend of globalisation should be reversed so every
society can develop an indigenous model of prosperity based on stable or shrinking
volumes of production.
Community Engagement
The transition to more sustainable ways of living requires public education and/or
community engagement. But the word ‘community’ is widely used and frequently
abused.

Gerard Delanty (2003) argues that a sense of belonging to community only exists today
if it is ‘wilfully constructed’ and that we can now belong to a variety of real and virtual
communities. He pays attention to the formation of human communities in a wide
variety of settings and contexts instead of a local, place-based community.
The breadth of source material that is used by prevailing discourses on sustainability is a
strength. But this creates the idea that strategies for achieving sustainability are a
matter for relevant ‘experts’ and so the expertise must be taken to communities, rather
than found within them.
Question 6:
A handbook produced by an international team of planning and community
development professionals, Wendy Sarkissian among them, has stressed people supress
their opinions if they run the risk of appearing ignorant. People are likely to think that
any communities they belong to are too weak or fragmented to take effective collective
action.
è Action on sustainability requires an understanding of key concepts but once a
motivation for change is firmly established it can become stimulation to build
stronger communities.
è The book shows examples of community building: Patience is needed and it is
important to take time to gain trust and turn ideas into action. People suited
should like ‘kitchen table conversations’. The book is focused on working with
local communities but the key principles can be applied to other settings.

Fostering sustainable behaviour

For an individual, it is hard to keep up good (environmental) behaviour, especially when

other non-sustainable/environmental friendly behaviour is more beneficial. It makes is

32
easier to sustain good behaviour when more people bear the same “burden”. So, to get
people to change, one should engage communities.

Changes of success are boosted when there has been a collective effort (not individual) to
identify the ‘barriers and benefits’ and when a selected initiative or programme is piloted
and evaluated before being properly launched or dropped.
- Mackenzie and Smith argue that sustainable behaviour can often be motivated on
the basis of long-term economic self-interest (economic term: community-based
social marketing)
- They also draw from the international practice of community development. In the
late 1960s and early 1970s community development practice originated in the UK
speak to other countries.
Mackenzie and Smith focused on strategies for motivating behaviour change, others have
focused on the kinds of public policies that might foster behaviour change at local levels, the
focus shifted to barriers and incentives (stimulation).
An interesting model emerged out of this by UK DEFRA (2005) It recommends an equal
emphasis on policies and initiatives.
Enable

Encourage Catalyse Engage (communities to

take up such behaviour)

Exemplify
A narrative approach to culture change

Question 6 pitfall: The US natural history academic and writer Tom Wessels concludes that
the time has come to shift the emphasis from behaviour change to cultural change, since all
the rational and scientific arguments for sustainability have failed to stop the human belief
of unlimited progress (myth of progress).
John Greer (2008) has argued that the myth of progress has emerged and persisted as a
kind of antidote to the ancient myth of apocalypse, which suggests that the golden age of
humanity is already in the past because we have set out on a path towards self-destruction.
Fear of apocalypse makes us cling to the belief of limitless growth.

Question 7 benefit: Myths that are deeply embedded with any particular human culture are
likely to have ancient and forgotten origins and have been passed down in traditional oral
cultures. This was never for entertainment alone and many old stories continue to circulate.
The rise of empirical science has only partially diminished their importance.

33
Narrative inquiry (storytelling research) has become a specialised form of qualitative
research operating across many social science disciplines. The ability of storytelling has been
acknowledged, especially now new communication technologies have opened up greater
opportunities. Stories are widely seen as being cultural artefacts but can also understood as
modes of persuasion for social and cultural change.

For tips to being a change agent, go to page 172 in the book.

34
12. Introduction to assessment and monitoring tools

Environmental impact assessment: refers to a study of all the possible environmental

impacts of a proposed project to be carried out before the project begins. A requirement to
conduct EIAs as a precondition for any new project was first enacted in the US National
Environment Policy Act of 1969 but the practice has now become widespread. The term
Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is often used to refer to the report of an EIA.

Assessment and monitoring tools (to carry out an EIA):

Footprint calculator: First Ecological Footprint Calculator was developed by Mathis

Wackernachel in the 1990s.
- To convert an estimate of raw materials used and waste generated by any unit of
production and consumption into an estimate of how much land is required to
produce the raw materials and dispose the waste.
- “Footprint”: to indicate a relative share of planetary resources needed to sustain the
targeted unit of production and consumption.
- Great tool for raising awareness on environmental impact, but has limits as it is
difficult to quantify all environmental consequences of consumption and production
(unreliable).

Inventories and audits:

- Inventories: a list of raw materials used and waste generated. Consciousness-raising
exercise. Problem: resource use and waste generation cannot be determined
precisely.
- Audits: official examination of the energy/water use for the selected unit of
production and consumption. The surveys and analysis of energy/water flows for
particular buildings. à To reduce supply requirements/set up energy efficiency plans
- Risk assessment and management: To determine the distinction between acceptable
and unacceptable risks, in order to generate conversations on which risks need to be
avoided or managed. This determination is
influenced by cultural beliefs, the severity of
the impact and the frequency of occurrence
and it requires cooperation between those
who may be exposed to risks and who may
expose others to risk. There is a grey area
between acceptable and unacceptable risks,
see image (Risk assessment matrix).
-

Life-cycle analysis (LCA): since 1960s, the notion of thinking through the consequences of
production or activity cycles from ‘cradle to grave’.

35
 - According to environmentalists: emphasis on recycling by looking at the possibilities
for turning this into genuine cycles from ‘cradle to cradle’ à Concept was developed
by William McDonough and Michael Braungart (2002): products should meet criteria
regarding recycled material used, waste produced and transport from production to
consumption.
- Thomas and Murfitt have amended the model from an emphasis on interpretation
and diagnosis to an emphasis on action, they recommend the following stages:
- The scoping stage: goals and system boundaries are agreed.
- The inventory stage (brainstorming phase): data on raw materials/component
parts, energy and waste are compiled.
- The impact assessment stage: flows of materials and energy are considered in
relation to environmental concerns/trends.
- The improvement assessment stage (challenging): better ways to use
materials/energy are identified (completing the cradle-to-cradle cycle).
- LCA and social sustainability: LCA includes social dimensions of sustainability for
production or activity cycles, by focusing on how raw materials/component parts were
extracted, grown or manufactured before reaching the nominated site of production
or consumption or where waste is being disposed. Knowing the identity of sites of
extraction or production à ethical consumption (educational tool)/social awareness.
- LCA shows the environmental costs resulting from the use of fossil fuels used for
transporting (parts of) products in the production chain.

Cost-benefit analysis (CBA): since 1808 used for environmental purposes (especially for
water management). To determine the economic viability and to assess the environmental
sustainability of a particular project or activity.
- Turning assessments into recommendations.
- Critical point: assumptions that underpin final conclusions are narrowly received.
- The main stages in a CBA:
1) Project definition: set physical boundaries of the project, identify who/what will be
effected, consider project options.
2) Identify all relevant costs and benefits: identify impacts arising from the project,
exclude those that cannot be directly attributed to the project, finalise the
cost/benefit inventory.
3) Value all the included costs and benefits: collect data on monetary costs and
benefits.
4) Select and apply a discount rate for changes in value over the life of the project:
discount rate (4, 6 or 10%), consider the possibility of new investment
opportunities.
5) Assess the economic viability of the project: compile a financial balance, run model
with different sensitivities (who/what is in- or excluded).
6) Make recommendations bearing in mind the final monetary assessment of costs vs
benefits and margins of error/inaccuracy.
- Weakness: awarding monetary values to things that are hard to quantify, therefore
environmental valuation techniques were developed:

36
 a) Contingent valuation: estimation of ‘willingness to pay’ to preserve an
environmental asset.
b) Travel cost valuation: the cost people are prepared to pay to travel to specified
site.
c) Hedonic pricing: estimation of the cost of preserving an asset for people to enjoy.
d) Opportunity cost: estimation of the value of the asset if it was used for a different
purpose.
Benefit valuation techniques: environmental externalities are considered.
Weakness valuation techniques: based on personal judgement and human-centred.
- Criticisms of the use of CBA:
1) Uncertainty in the awarding of monetary values for many costs/benefits and
environmental valuing techniques.
2) The choice of discounting rate is rather arbitrary.
3) No distinction is made between the people or non-human beings that may benefit
from the project and those that are likely to be victims.
4) The focus on units rather than systems undervalues interactions.
5) The focus on a single project excludes interactions with other projects.
6) CBAs are open to manipulation/abuse due to many arbitrary decisions in the
awarding of values.

Scenarios mapping (scenario = ‘postulated sequence of development of events’)

- Scenario planning (contemplating a range of diverse future scenarios) focusses
on the understanding that future scenarios are not predictions of what will
happen but are an effort to sketch out a range of possible settings in which
designated actors will find themselves. Important: contemplating a range of
possible future scenarios, to develop a capacity to adapt to changing and largely
unforeseen circumstances. Term is misleading as it exaggerates the possibilities
for determining outcomes.
- Scenarios mapping: term works better when working on preferred scenarios.
- Relies on scope, time-frame, key uncertainties and data available on relevant
trends and predictions.
- Goal: the articulation of a range of possible future scenarios, to increase adaptive
capacity and to gain greater foresight.

37
 13. Focusing on water

Water is commonly underrated whereas access to freshwater has already brought conflict
and tension among human societies. The objective would be to put water on a higher value
so we can start reducing waste and pollution.

Aims of this chapter:

• Highlight the importance and value of water as it moves through the global hydrosphere.
• Introduce some concepts that can help us to rethink our relationships with water.

In history, humans have always settled around rivers and water sources (Nile, Tigris and
Euphrates, Indus and Ganges, etc.) which means there are more people who are likely to
fight over water when it becomes scarce. Several civil wars were related to having a fair
access to water (Israel, Sudan, etc.) in order to improve their health standards. 2.5 billion
people live without adequate sanitation and 88% of diarrhoeal (Diarrhoea: biggest cause of
illness and deaths in the world) deaths are linked to water access problems. Differential
access to water is an indicator of social inequity.

It’s hard to think of water as an exhaustible resource because we use it every day in various
ways but water has to be valued more highly. We need to appreciate the ecological flows of
water on a global scale and reducing waste by learning from people who cope with scarcity
and by ensuring water security for the world’s poor.

Water molecules circulate globally within the hydrosphere and enable us to think of water
as a single planetary system. Water operates as a kind of global thermostat by absorbing
heat and reducing fluctuations in surface temperature through water vapour in the
atmosphere.
An important flow of water is created by ocean currents, which carry warm water from the
Pacific into the Atlantic and cold water from the Atlantic into the Pacific. This is called the
“great conveyor belt” coming along with the movement know as “thermohaline circulation”
that is generated by the differences in the density of seawater.

An ecosystem is defined by the interactions between plants, animals and a range of

resources within a shared physical space.
Humans have been transporting water over increasing distance using streams and lakes as
waste disposal systems or boundaries rather than being the focus for an interacting
community of plants and animals. The movement of water can bring in “outside” elements
from nutrients to toxins and polluted freshwater can travel through boundaries into other.
Therefore, we need to see water as an ever-moving element flowing through time and
space within a global cycle.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates that 69% of global
fish stocks are either fully exploited or overexploited. This is partly due to indiscriminate and
destructive fishing techniques such as “longlining” and “drag-net
fishing”.

38
Water flows do not end when freshwater streams and thus pollution enter the ocean. The
hydrological cycle makes us closer to marine creatures than we often imagine and their
environment is not an inexhaustible resource. The marine protection begins with what we
consume and the way we manage the water flowing through its surrounding journey.
A result toward these environmental threats is the establishment of 4000 marine protected
areas (MPA) in the world.

Environmental flows: The water volume in streams and lakes fluctuate regularly but
chronically low levels of water can be toxic for many organisms. Environmental flows are
flow regimes required to sustain plant and animal communities. This concept enables
authorities to impose limits on the amount of water that can be extracted from waterways
and when it has to be released from storages.

How to reduce water waste?

We basically need to focus on using finite supplies of freshwater more efficiently and more
selectively.
70% of global freshwater is used for agriculture therefore; stronger restrictions need to be
imposed on the use of water for irrigation. The agricultural production is driven by market
opportunities ignoring long-term environmental costs.
20% is dedicated to industry where stronger restrictions should also be applied to the use of
water for waste disposal. Much more can be done to increase the use of recycled water in
industrial production.
For the remaining percentage, there are a multitude of simple gestures that can be taken
like public education campaigns to reduce waste and encourage forms of recycling or simply
reductions in water used in washing and toilet flushing e.g.

How to reduce water pollution globally?

Water pollution can be seen as a change in water quality that can harm humans and other
living organisms. It can either come from a single (point) or diffuse (non-point) sources.
Point sources are easy to identify and control but non-point sources include run-off from
agriculture and public spaces.
Some solutions are trapping and treating the polluted water or simply fostering public
education on water pollution through monitoring water quality programmes (stream watch)
for example.
It has to be noted that many streams have the capacity to cleanse themselves as long as
they are not overloaded with pollutants and a lot more can be done to reduce the volume of
waste or to collect and recycle waste materials.

Catchment management
According to Carolyn Merchant, “catchment consciousness” can be a starting point for
ecological awareness to avoid the run-off of pollutants into the waterways.
This has led to a change of policy in catchment management to restore the health of
degraded waterways and river systems. Catchment consciousness has helped to reframe
flood mitigation strategies and it will be helpful for many parts of the world. Along with a
good understanding of environmental flows and the help of flood-prone countries, we could
improve our capacity to manage major flooding.

39
14. Food & agriculture

Social services benefits for humans: including the production of food and the generation of
employment
Environmental services: include the release of oxygen, the pollination of plants, carbon
storage and the preservation of biodiversity

Expanded production has increased the environmental impacts of agriculture

Agriculture productivity increases are typically achieved in 2 ways
1. By increasing the yields generated per unit area
2. By increasing the area of land that is used for agriculture

3 systems of agricultural production

• Resource-poor: (traditional, unimproved, rain fed, on marginal land, subsistence
farming) Has resulted in a steady decline in per capita production, mostly in
underdeveloped countries.

• Industrial :(Capital and input intensive, large scale, mono-culture, rich farmers)
Increased global food production but drawback for the environment. Generates a
wide

• Green Revolution: Refers to agriculture research and development that occurred

between 1940-1960 with the aim of increasing crop yields in countries where hunger
is common. Requires large input of water and inorganic fertilisers and pesticides.
Led by US agriculture researchers.

Increased agricultural productivity over the last century has been driven by the Green
Revolution, global productivity for certain crops may have reached a plateau, the increased
productivity has also been driven by changes in global diets.

As countries become more developed and urbanised, diets tend to shift to rice and wheat
and include more meat and milk products. Now feed crops are being increasingly diverted
to support livestock production rather than directly providing for human consumption. So,
diets high in animal products make less efficient use of Earth’s natural resources. Even
though improved diets are available for developed countries the gap between first and third
world countries is widening.

Food is unconsumed due to a combination of factors including poor harvesting and

transport practices and market and consumer waste

Free trade VS tariffs

Tariffs: taxes imposed by a government on imports
CAP (EU Common Agricultural Policy (since 1957) originally meant to build agricultural
cooperation; but evolved into a pricing mechanism;
• Operates by providing price guarantees and directing payments to landholders who
produce certain products ---> promotes overproduction, inflates prices,
overproduction

40
Global Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); a plea for removal of tariffs; since 1994 part
of the WTO.

- Nations with strong economies are more able to ignore demands to reduce tariffs and
subsidies and therefore farmers in these wealthier countries have a greater capacity to
withstand downturns in global market prices. This means that millions of farmers in poorer
countries are disadvantaged by the terms of trade and the fluctuations in prices.

- The application of tariffs and subsidies to the global trade in agriculture is actually reducing
food security in many parts of the world and particularly for poorer nations with higher food
vulnerability. As long as food is treated as a global commodity within a market economy,
global food security is certain to decline, especially when richer nations can undermine ‘free
trade’ with the selective use of subsidies and tariffs.

Ø Application of tariffs and subsidies to the global trade in agriculture is reducing food
security.

FAO: Gap between demand and production increased and still increases, FAO compiles a
price-index which is a measure of monthly changes in the international price.

Agriculture’s heavy reliance on the petrochemical industry has created a dangerous

vulnerability.

There is growing evidence to suggest that high food prices, and consequent food shortages,
are triggering or provoking social conflict. Sustained high food prices were a factor for the
Arab spring.

Impacts natural resource depletion

• reduction biodiversity
• land clearance for agriculture
• Reduction in farming practices themselves: food production becomes more uniform:
thirsty crops (rice, cotton see next) leading to soil salinization (hinders plant growth),
erosion, soil acidification following drainage

Twentieth-century increases in global food production coincided with growing concerns

about the environmental impacts of both industrial and Green Revolution agriculture. A
large rise in the use of external inputs, ranging from fertilisers and pesticides to machinery
and financial credit; and the provision of infrastructure support. All of these have impacts on
natural resources by depleting soil fertility; reducing biodiversity; more environmental
pollutants; more pressure on freshwater supplies; more use of fossil fuels. The use of
freshwater for agriculture varies from one country to another, but underdeveloped
countries usually have the highest rates of water usage for crops. The countries are often
the most vulnerable for their water and food security.

The most significant consequence of farmland expansion has been an associated reduction
in natural biodiversity at local, regional and global levels. Many animal and plant species are

41
going extinct or are threatened by the expansion of farmland. Many tropical forests are
cleared to make space for agriculture.

UNEP: Promotes awareness, advocates. protection policies, produces assessment reports.

Soil erosion
• Causes: reclamation by removal of original vegetation cover, overgrazing
• Effects: Landslides, Dust storms Eutrophication of inland surface waters and coastal
areas by sediments
• Overall decline in the fertility of soil, reduction in certain soil constituents such as
calcium, magnesium that help neutralise soil acidity.

When soil acidity increases it cannot support plant life anymore which will lead to reduced
productive capacity

Nonpoint source: refers to pollution that cannot be traced to a single source. Generation of
variety of pollutants.
• Agro-chemicals (pesticides)

Chemical Pollutants: antibiotics, neonicotinoids, DDT, Pesticides.

The excessive use of pesticides also results in ‘pesticide resistance’, where some pests
become resistant to certain pesticides. Pesticide resistance refers to decreasing
susceptibility of a pest population to a particular pesticide.

Non-toxic agro-chemicals nutrients (N, P and K):

In contrast to pesticides, fertilisers are non-toxic products that are used to promote the
growth of agricultural plants. This has contributed to the great increase in agricultural
expansion. However, while fertilisers have substantially contributed to the global growth in
agricultural production, their release into rivers, lakes and coastal waters can stimulate
growth of algae leading to Algal blooms. A natural blooming of algae sounds harmless, but
when the algae die and decompose they starve the water of oxygen, creating hypoxic ‘dead
zones’ where aquatic animals die off.

Sources:
P and K are in rocks (weathering)
N2 is in the atmosphere (fixation -> N)
K is leaching easily; PO4 adsorbs to soil

N runoff --> algal blooms → hypoxia --> species loss

Hypoxia: general term of low level of oxygen

Not all agricultural pollutants are water-borne. Agro-chemicals and dust particles can be
carried long distance by the wind, generating health problem for people located many
kilometres from the site of the application

42
Farms also emit other substances into the environment that can be more harmful than
imagined. For example, the runoff into groundwater and nearby streams of livestock shit.
Agro-chemicals and dust particles can be carried long distances by the wind, generating
health problems for people located many kilometres from the site of their application.

Ø Agriculture contributes to the generation of greenhouse gasses, it is responsible for

one-third of greenhouse gas emission resulting from human activity.
• N2O (fertilizer use)
• CH4; CO2 (soil degradation, drainage)
It is estimated that in a century methane could overtake CO2 as the biggest contributor to
global warming because it is more efficient in re-radiating absorbed solar radiation.

Climate change threatens to impose new

stresses on already stressed agricultural
production systems. This increases the need to
redesign systems of production and distribution
to reduce the vulnerabilities and impacts.

Climate change effects on Agriculture

• Disrupts normal seasonal cycles
• Hard for farmers to plan ahead
• New stresses on already stressed
agricultural production systems

43
15. The urban challenge

Introduction
Cities cannot be seen as sustainable, they produce economic/cultural goods and services
but cannot provide their own food and water supplies. Urban growth is a challenge that
threatens the planet’s capacity to support human life. We need to consider resource
consumption, waste but also impact on ecological systems such as rivers, bays and
hinterlands (= areas used to provide resources for the city). Around the world cities develop
differently. However, economic globalisation causes distinctions between western and non-
western to become less apparent. This results in different challenges in different places, but
also some common challenges. Urbanisation (= more people in urban than rural areas) can
cause environmental and social problems. We need city-wide planning and governance.

1. The urban age

We have entered the urban age. First cities in western world 19th century, and now
rapid urban growth all over the world in the 20th century. Since 2008 half earth's
population lives in urban centres. Especially in developing countries, cities grow with
an alarming rate and people move from rural to urban areas.

2. Urban environmental impacts

a. Population → possibly will increase to 9.3 billion in 2050, and then decrease
relieving pressure on resources. But 9 billion might already be too much.

b. Food → people in city more food choice than rural area. As a result, meat
consumption goes up in developing countries.

c. Greenhouse gasses → more will be emitted because fossil fuels are used for
collection and transport of materials used to construct and sustain city.

Developed countries outsource emission by importing goods from developing

countries.

3. Urban sprawl

Tendency for cities to expand in size in a largely unplanned way. There is a high
consumption of land for a low population. Think of suburbs in the USA. Problems:
a. High car dependency
b. Lack of waste management
c. Social isolation
d. Segregation rich and poor
e. Loss agricultural land within easy reach
f. Destroy habitats animals and plants

4. Urban decline

The USA has a lot of megacities (= more than 10 million inhabitants). Many of them
have either stabilised or shrunk. Factors causing urban decline:

44
 a. Closure of factories and traditional forms of industrial production
b. White middle-income families moving to suburbs
c. One city can have multiple local government bodies, sometimes working
against instead of with each other.

5. Peripheral growth and urban slums

European cities developed differently from post-1945 USA cities. Densely populated
city cores, good public transport and a mix of residential/retail/commercial and
other land uses. However residential development on the peripheries has increased
substantially since the 80s. Suburbs are growing but due to regional planning (denk
aan Randstadt en het groene hart) there is not as much urban decline and sprawl
compared to the USA (?). For example, the density in the city fringes is much higher.

Big cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America are known for their slums. Some argue
slums have strong social networks and their own economic development. But others
say they are incubators for disease and crime. In many cities people are moved from
the inner regions as these areas are being redeveloped. So, the poor as well as the
wealthy live in the urban fringes, but still segregated. Informal settlements (=
settlement not officially planned or sanctioned, less negative than slum).

6. Privatised governance

In many developing countries, western cities are being replicated. The same
suburban houses found in the USA can now be found in Jakarta as well for example.
Local industrialists have noted that they can make money by investing in real estate.
This can be problematic, because for private profit short- and long term
environmental consequences are not being taken in consideration.

7. Australia and Canada

The Australian population is concentrated mostly in cities. Two third lives in the 5
biggest cities. There is gentrification (= transformation of working-class areas into
middleclass areas), people with higher education/income live in the city centre. One
of the drives is access to cultural amenity (voorzieningen) and urban heritage (=
historically significant buildings and infrastructure). Canadian cities exhibit a
combination of American and Australian trends.

8. Focusing on the hinterlands

The importance of hinterlands for the future of cities is being underestimated by a

lot of people. They are being threatened by urban sprawl, urban periphery (= outer
edges city, urban expansion putting pressure on earlier forms of land use). They
produce food, host water supplies, offer opportunities for recreation etc. They can
be protected by city limits or green belt (= area deliberately preserved in agricultural
or natural state) zones.

45
16. Rethinking waste
Waste: matter out of place/any material that we have failed to use.
Because waste flows are not contained within boundaries, we need to understand the
diverse social, cultural and economic contexts within which global waste circulates.
-The contemporary challenge.
The global waste is increasing due to: urbanization, electronics, consumption increase.
Of particular concern is the flow of waste from developed to developing countries, where
the environment laws are less restrictive.
-Understanding of value.
Our thinking about how we give value to waste is dominated by economics.
Attitudes towards waste are more changeable than most people imagine.\
Globalization has probably increased the global gap of the things that people can access and
use. This influences value about waste, in ways that are only partially reflected in economic
indicators, such as price and demand.
-Tracing global waste flows.
Global waste trade is difficult to monitor because it can involve long chains of movement
and exchange in which informal or illegal activities intervene.
Unlike flows of new goods which are dominated by transnational firms, global commodity
networks for used goods are brokered by multiple actors.
-Transitioning from waste to resource in developed nations.
Since the 1990’s the focus for waste management in the developed countries switched from
“waste disposal” to “resource recovery”.
linear flow à circular flows
In developed countries waste is categorized in three waste streams: municipal waste,
construction waste and hazardous waste.
We must eventually reduce the volume of waste streams by reducing the volume of
production. This is really hard to accomplish in a market-oriented economy.
-Glossary:
Environmental justice: a need to ensure that all sectors of society can have access to
healthy natural environments.
Trans border waste flows: waste generated in one nation is often transported to other
nations for disposal or recycling.

46
Material flows: materials which constitute the raw materials or component parts for a
product commonly travel a large distance before and after they are contained within that
product.
Informal waste retrieval: unregulated exchange in which poor nations take waste from
developed countries and recycle it.
Global commodity networks: commodities can pass through many hands during processes
of production, consumption and disposal.
Waste streams: waste does not simply disappear at the point of disposal but can enter into
the dynamics of various natural systems.
Industrial ecology: study of material and energy flows through industrial systems.

47