Int J Life Sci Pharma Res.

ISSN 2250-0480; SP-14; “Health and Sports Sciences- 2021”

SP-55

THE EFFECT OF STATIC AND DYNAMIC CORE TRAINING ON SOME MOTORIC

CHARACTRISTIC AND TENNIS SERVICE VELOCITY OF TENNIS ATHLETES
Halit Egesoy*1, Aysegül Yapici Oksuzoglu1, Aydin Ilhan 1
1
Department of Sports Sciences, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
Corresponding Author: [email protected]

Abstract

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of static and dynamic core trainings on some motoric characteristics and tennis
service velocity of tennis athletes. Thirty-six healthy male (n = 21) and female (n = 15) junior tennis players who were between
the ages of 10-14 participated in this study voluntarily. Subjects were randomly and equally divided into control (n = 12), static
core training (n = 12) and dynamic core training (n = 12) groups. It was implemented the tests of ages, length, weight, body mass
index, vertical jump, flexibility, handgrip strength, 10 m speed, y-balance, seated medicine ball throw tests, velocity analysis and
radar specifications to subjects attended to this study.The normality distribution of data was checked with using Shapiro-Wilk test
and parametric analysis techniques were employed. The differences between pre and post tests were analyzed using Paired
Samples T test and variation ratio of numerical difference between some motoric characteristics and tennis service velocity of the
training and control groups were analyzed with Independent Samples T test. While there was a statistically significant increase (p
<0.05) between some motoric characteristics and tennis service speed pre-post test values of the training group athletes, there was
no significant difference in the control group (p>0.05). Core region strength is very important in terms of being the starting point
of force and balance in a branch such as tennis where there is a lot of change of direction, mobility and imbalance. The inclusion
of core exercises in the training programs of athletes, trainers and conditioners who work with tennis athletes can contribute to the
performance development of athletes.

Key words: Core training, performance, athlete, tennis

Introduction

Tennis is a branch of sport which has physiological requirements similar to team sports, can be played on different grounds,
includes both aerobic and anaerobic energy metabolisms. 22 Achievement in tennis involves various physical, technical/tactical
and psychological factors together with a combination of abilities of agility, speed and power. 26
It is stated that the most important batting technique in tennis is the service shot, both because it is the kick that starts the game
and provides an advantage to the user, and it is a single hit that does not affect the opponent. 14 However, due to the nature of the
game, the most time the ball is in the game during a tennis match occurs in the rally part. The duration of the rally for one point in
tennis is approximately 8 seconds. The longest rallies are up to 43 seconds. 14 This covers 10-15% of the total game time on fast
courts and 20-30% on slow courts. A tennis player who makes a minimum of 2-3 hits even in the shortest rally must accelerate,
stop and make strong hits in a balanced position. When we look at the researches, some performance criteria come to the fore in
order to be successful in tennis. These criteria are stated as quickness, static and dynamic balance, force, reaction time and
coordination. 2, 9, 14, 26, 31, 33,
In recent years, core trainings have been included in training programs by trainers and athletes in order to achieve more sportive
efficiency in tennis, as in many sports branches. 29
The importance of core region strength increases in branches such as tennis where there are many changes of direction,
acceleration, rotations, jumps and the sequence of the kinetic chain frequently changes. The success of an athlete in tennis depends
on having developed muscular fitness.1 In terms of sportive performance, better core stabilization supports higher force generation
for the lower and upper extremities. 37

Core exercises are described in the literature as exercises that work the central part of our body. 36 According to researchers, it is
the motor part that provides the production of the power required for the extremities. 3 It is the 37 lumbo-pelvic-hip complex,
which is accepted as the starting point in all movements of the trunk and the production center of power and called the core
region. 29 Following the kinetic chain during hitting the ball, the force is transferred from the ankle to the knees, from there to the
legs, then to the hip, and then to the trunk, shoulder, arm, wrist and then the racket. 14 From the point of view of the tennis athlete,
the importance of the core muscles is once again revealed, as described by Kibler (2006) as "internal stability for external
mobility". All muscles generate high power when the ball is hit, and if the trunk cannot provide proximal balance and stabilization
at this stage, problems may occur in distal mobility that will reduce efficiency. 32 In other words, the core muscles play an
important role in both supporting the production of force and keeping the body stable by resisting that force. The improvement

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 Int J Life Sci Pharma Res. ISSN 2250-0480; SP-14; “Health and Sports Sciences- 2021”

and strengthening of such an effective muscle group is of great importance for athletes and trainers in terms of performance
development in tennis. 14
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of static and dynamic core training on some motoric characteristics and tennis
service speed of tennis athletes.

Methods

Subjects
Thirty-six healthy male (n = 21) and female (n = 15) junior tennis players (mean ± SD: age 11.75 ± 0.5 years, weight 44,45 ± 8.8
kg, height 1.48 ± 0.07 m) who were between the ages of 10-14 participated in this study voluntarily. Subjects were randomly and
equally divided into control (n = 12), static core training (n = 12) and dynamic core training (n = 12) groups. There were 7 males
and 5 females athletes in each group. The training groups followed the exercise programs presented in Table 1 and Table 2, which
were designed as 2 sessions (each session 25-30 min.) a week in addition to on-court trainings for 8 weeks. All players had a
minimum of 3 years of prior tennis specific training. Inclusion criteria for all subjects required each participant to be a healthy
tennis player, no history of upper extremity surgery, no shoulder pain for the past 6 months, no rehabilitation for the past 6
months, and no participation in a formal strength-training program the 4 weeks before the study. 30 players were right-handed and
6 were left-handed. The subjects were informed about the possible risks and benefits of the study and gave their informed consent
to participate in this study, which was approved by the Clinical Research Ethical Committee of Pamukkale University (60116787-
020/63661).

Experimental set up
This study examined the effects of a 8-week core training program on some motoric characteristics and tennis service speed of
junior tennis athletes. Because young athletes increase muscle through maturation, which can affect serve velocity, we used a
control group to compare to the experimental (training) group. To control the effects of age and training status on service velocity,
we employed a randomization process in assigning the subjects to the experimental and control groups. During the testing sessions
players were advised to have no strength or endurance training at least 48 h prior to the test and to take a carbohydrate rich meal 2
h before testing.

Study design

Measurements

Physical Measurements
The information about height, weight and body mass index (BMI) measurements of the subjects participating in the study was
recorded. The height of the subjects participating in the study was measured with Holtain brand stadiometer with a sensitivity of
0.01 cm. The length of the subjects was determined in anatomical position (barefoot) and the result was recorded as “cm”. The
weight measurements of the subjects were measured with a sensitivity of 0.01 kg in anatomical position (barefoot) and the result
was recorded as “kg”. BMI values were determined by “BMI = weight (kg) / (height)2” formula.

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Motoric Performance and Field Measurements

In the study, various tests were used to determine the motoric characteristics of junior tennis players.

Vertical jump test: The vertical jump (VJ) is one of the most frequently used tests of power and explosiveness in strength and
conditioning. Standing erect with the feet flat on the floor, the client reaches as high as possible on the tape, with the arm and
fingers fully extended and the palm toward the wall. This is recorded as the beginning height. Standing about a foot away from the
wall, the individual brings the arms downward and backward, while bending the knees to a balanced semisquat position, and then
jumps as high as possible, with the arms moving forward and upward. The tape should be touched at the peak height of the jump
with the fingers of the arm facing the wall. The best of three trials were recorded as “cm” (Nieman, 2011).

Flexibility test: Flexibility of the trunk was determined from a sit-and-reach test using a standard sit-and-reach box. The subjects
sat in front of a sit-and-reach testing box, where the feet meet the testing box. The subjects were informed to reach forward, with
palms down and one hand on top of the other along the measuring scale of the testing box. The recorded score for this test was the
average of 2 trials. 15

Handgrip strength test: To assess upper limb strength, a handgrip strength test was performed with dominant hand using a
TKK5101 Grip D-class III dynamometer (Takey, Tokyo, Japan), accurate to 0.1 kg and complying with standardization standards.
Each participant performed the test twice with dominant hand with 1 min of rest between trials. Participants were instructed to
gradually and continuously squeeze for at least 2 s, standing throughout the whole test, keeping their arm straight and avoiding
touching the dynamometer with any part of their body, with the exception of the hand being measured. Subjects were encouraged
to do their best when performing the tests (Molina-López et al., 2020).

10 m speed tests: The speed skills of the subjects were measured by 10 meter tests. The subjects started the test from the starting
line located 1 meter behind the starting photocell (Newtest 2000; Newtest Oy, Oulu, Finland). Acceleration and speed values of
the subjects were recorded through the photocells placed at 10th meter. Each participant repeated the test twice, and the best one
was recorded as “seconds”.

Y-balance test: The Y Balance Test (YBT) is a simple, yet reliable, test used to measure dynamic balance for three reach
directions as the anterior (ANT), posteromedial (PM), posterolateral (PL). Subjects maintain a onelegged stance on an elevated
stance platform from which three pieces of plastic pipe extend in the specific ANT, PM and PL directions. With the nonstance
foot, participants push an indicator to a maximum distance along the pipe, marked with 0.5 cm increments.The average of three
successful test trails for each reach direction was used for data analysis. Limb length (LL) was measured from the anterior
superior iliac spine to the most distal aspect of the ipsilateral medial malleolus in supine lying.2 All reach distances were
normalized as a percentage of the stance limb length using the formula [% = (excursion distance/LL) x 100].
A composite score, which is an average of all three reach distances, [Comp= ((ANT+PM+PL)/(3 x LL)) x 100] was also
calculated for each limb. The absolute difference in the anterior reach direction distance (centimeters) between limbs was
calculated to assess side-to-side asymmetry (Stiffler et al., 2017).

Seated medicine ball throw test: The subjects were asked to sit on the ground facing to the throwing section, with their knees
bent, their soles on the ground and their toes just above the zero point. Later subjects grasped the medicine ball and were
instructed to forcefully push the ball away from the overhead as far as possible with double hands. The spot where the front end of
the ball hit the measuring tape was recorded. Subjects performed 3 trials with the 3 kg ball, with a 90-second rest between trials.
The best score was used for analysis
(Chad et al., 2011).

Velocity analysis and radar specifications

A radar gun (Stalker Professional Sports Radar, Radar Sales, Plymouth, MN) was used to measure the serve velocity of tennis
players. The radar gun was set on “Peak mode” to detect maximal ball velocity between the range of 80 to 232 km·h-1. Before
each experimental session, the radar gun was calibrated in accordance with the manufacturer’s specifications. The radar was
positioned on the center of the baseline, 2 m behind the server, aligned with the approximate height of ball contact (~ 2.2 m) and
pointing down the center of the court. After a brief warm-up for the joints involved in the service motion (i.e., dynamic
movements in the shoulder, plus five slow services), players performed five maximum serves, all to the advantage court. To be
recorded, serves had to be in the service box. The highest speed recorded was used for analysis. The intertrial reliability for serve
velocity was 3.2%, similar to previous research (Hornery et al., 2007).

Training Program

The training groups followed the exercise programs presented in Table 1 and Table 2, which were designed as 2 sessions (each
session 25-30 min.) a week in addition to on-court trainings for 8 weeks.

Table 1: Static core exercise program for 8 weeks

Exercises 1-3 rd weeks 4-6 th weeks 7-8 th weeks

Exercise Time/Rest Time/Sets Exercise Time / Rest Time / Exercise Time / Rest Time /
Sets Sets

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Front Plank 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2

Side Plank (Right / Left) 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Leg Raise Hold 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Dead Bug 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Bird and Dogs 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Banana 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Superman 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Posterior Plank 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Glute Bridge Hold 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
(Willardson; 2007)

Table 2: Dynamic core exercise program for 8 weeks

Exercises 1-3 rd weeks 4-6 th weeks 7-8 th weeks

Exercise Time / Rest Time / Exercise Time / Rest Time / Exercise Time / Rest Time /
Sets Sets Sets
Plank Climbers 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Supine Plank Leg Lift 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Russion Twist 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Dead Bug 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Bird and Dogs 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Leg Raise (up and down) 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Side Plank Leg Lift 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Plank Leg Extension 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
Reverse Crunch 20 sec / 20 sec x 2 30 sec / 30 sec x 2 40 sec / 40 sec x 2
(Willardson; 2007)

Statistical Analysis

Data analysis was carried out using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version 21. The normality distribution of data was
checked with using Shapiro-Wilk test and parametric analysis techniques were employed. The differences between pre and post
tests were analyzed using Paired Samples T test and variation ratio of numerical difference between some motoric characteristics
and tennis service velocity of the training and control groups were analyzed with Independent Samples T test. The values obtained
are presented as means and standard deviation. Statistical significance was set at p≤0.05.

RESULTS

The demographic characteristics of the participants are presented in Table 3. According to the pre and posttest analysis results,
there was no significant difference between the groups in the specified parameters (p> 0.05) (Table. 4,5). As a result of the tennis
specific strength training exercises, It was determined that the service velocities developed as 5.96% in the static core group and
6.24% in the dynamic core group. These changes are statistically significant (p<0.05). In the control group, on the other hand, this
change occurred as 0.72%. It is statistically insignificant (p>0.05) (Table. 6).

Table 3. The Demographic Characteristics of the Participants

Variables n Min Max X Sd

Age (year) 36 10 14 11,75 1,48
Height (cm) 36 129 175 147,916 11,804
Body Weight (kg) 36 30,9 60,7 44,455 8,414
Training Age (year) 36 3,00 8,00 5,10 1,74
BMI (kg/m2) 36 18,01 24,45 20,01 2,25

Table 4. One-Way Anova Analysis Table of the Pre-test Results of the Groups
Test Group X Ss F p
Static Core 25,10 6,81
Countermovement jumps (cm) Dynamic Core 22,90 5,24 1,06 0,36
Control 26,31 5,31
Static Core 18,39 3,96
Flexibility (cm) Dynamic Core 17,67 2,99 0,11 0,90
Control 18,16 4,41

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Static Core 20,03 6,29

Handgrip strength dominant side (kg) Dynamic Core 18,18 6,22 0,33 0,72
Control 20,23 7,86
Static Core 1,98 0,12
10 m sprint (s) Dynamic Core 2,00 0,18 0,35 0,71
Control 2,03 0,10
Static Core 110,05 11,95
Y-Balance with right leg (cm) Dynamic Core 105,02 11,58 0,47 0,63
Control 107,04 14,62
Static Core 0,30 10,90
Y-Balance with left leg (cm) Dynamic Core 109,28 9,48 0,30 0,74
Control 109,16 11,60
Static Core 2,98 0,65
Seated medicine ball throw (cm) Dynamic Core 2,88 0,49 0,17 0,85
Control 2,88 0,14
Static Core 98,25 30,08
Serve velocity (km.h-1) Dynamic Core 95,58 30,87 0,03 0,97
Control 96,37 25,30

According to Table 4, there was no significant difference between the pretest analysis results of the groups (p> 0.05). It can be
said that the groups are homogeneous.

Table 5.One-Way Anova Analysis Table of the Posttest Results of the Groups

Test Group X Ss F p
Static Core 27,37 5,93
Countermovement jumps (cm) Dynamic Core 25,94 5,01 0,22 0,80
Control 26,80 4,86
Static Core 18,74 3,38
Flexibility (cm) Dynamic Core 17,85 3,18 0,54 0,68
Control 19,22 3,32
Static Core 24,52 7,18
Handgrip strength dominant
Dynamic Core 23,03 6,12 0,77 0,47
side (kg)
Control 20,95 7,79
Static Core 1,97 0,15
10 m sprint (s) Dynamic Core 1,99 0,17 0,53 0,59
Control 2,03 0,10
Static Core 113,67 12,87
Y-Balance with right leg (cm) Dynamic Core 109,64 16,46 0,37 0,69
Control 108,77 14,96
Static Core 113,79 10,90
Y-Balance with left leg (cm) Dynamic Core 111,11 9,33 0,53 0,59
Control 109,27 11,99
Static Core 3,11 0,66
Seated medicine ball throw
Dynamic Core 3,03 0,51 0,63 0,54
(cm)
Control 2,89 0,16
Static Core 104,11 31,51
-1
Serve velocity (km.h ) Dynamic Core 101,54 29,39 0,18 0,83
Control 97,07 25,75

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According to the posttest analysis results, there was no significant difference between the groups in the specified parameters (p>
0.05).

Table 6.Pretest-Posttest Within Groups T-test Analysis Table in Dependent Groups

Test Test Mean Ss t p

Pretest 25,10 6,81
Countermovement jumps (cm) -2,86 0,02*
Posttest 27,37 5,93
Pretest 18,39 3,96
Flexibility (cm) -1,59 0,14
Posttest 18,74 3,38
Pretest 20,03 6,29
Handgrip strength dominant side (kg) -11,50 0,00*
Static Core Group

Posttest 24,52 7,18

Pretest 1,98 0,12
10 m sprint (s) 0,88 0,40
Posttest 1,97 0,15
Pretest 110,05 11,95
Y-Balance with right leg (cm) -1,33 0,21
Posttest 113,67 12,87
Pretest 112,17 10,90
Y-Balance with left leg (cm) -3,99 0,00*
Posttest 113,79 10,90
Pretest 2,98 0,65
Seated medicine ball throw (cm) -6,43 0,00*
Posttest 3,11 0,66
Pretest 98,25 30,08
Serve velocity (km.h-1) -4,00 0,00*
Posttest 104,11 31,51
Pretest 22,90 5,24
Countermovement jumps (cm) -3,65 0*
Posttest 25,94 5,01
Pretest 17,67 2,99
Flexibility (cm) -0,95 0,36
Posttest 17,85 3,18
Pretest 18,18 6,22
Dynamic Core Group

Handgrip strength dominant side (kg) -10,36 0*

Posttest 23,03 6,12
Pretest 2,00 0,18
10 m sprint (s) 1,35 0,2
Posttest 1,99 0,17
Pretest 105,02 11,58
Y-Balance with right leg (cm) -2,61 0,02*
Posttest 109,64 16,46
Pretest 109,28 9,48
Y-Balance with left leg (cm) -5,2 0*
Posttest 111,11 9,33
Pretest 2,88 0,49
Seated medicine ball throw (cm) -8,83 0*
Posttest 3,03 0,51
Pretest 95,58 30,87
Serve velocity (km.h-1) -7,83 0*
Posttest 101,54 29,39
Pretest 26,3 5,3
Countermovement jumps (cm) -1,42 0,18
Posttest 26,8 4,9
Pretest 18,2 4,4
Flexibility (cm) -2,69 0,02*
Posttest 19,2 3,3
Pretest 20,2 7,9
Handgrip strength dominant side (kg) -2,17 0,05*
Posttest 21,0 7,8
Control Group

Pretest 2,0 0,1

10 m sprint (s) 0,51 0,62
Posttest 2,0 0,1
Pretest 107,0 14,6
Y-Balance with right leg (cm) -3,59 0,00*
Posttest 108,8 15,0
Pretest 109,2 11,6
Y-Balance with left leg (cm) -0,13 0,90
Posttest 109,3 12,0
Pretest 2,9 0,1
Seated medicine ball throw (cm) -0,78 0,45
Posttest 2,9 0,2
Pretest 96,4 25,3
Serve velocity (km.h-1) -1,64 0,13
Posttest 97,1 25,8

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We look at the difference between the pre-test and post-test values of the static core group, when a significant difference was
found between the pre-test and post-test values of countermovement jump, dominant side handgrip strength, Seated medicine ball
throw, left leg y-balance and serve velocity values (p <0.05). Accordingly, it can be said that static core exercises have an effect
on jump and strength values.

We look at the pre-test and post-test values of the dynamic core group, when we also see countermovement jumps, dominant side
handgrip strength, y balance right and left leg, It was observed that there was a significant difference (p <0.05) in seated medicine
ball throw and serve velocity values. Compared to the static core group, a significant difference was found in more parameters
between the pre-test and post-test values in the dynamic core group. Accordingly, it can be said that dynamic core exercises are
more effective in performance parameters than static core exercises. In the control group, it is seen that there is only a significant
difference (p <0.05) between flexibility and y balance with right leg values as the effect of unit training during the week of
exercises. It can be said that this difference has an effect on the flexibility and lower extremity balance parameters of tennis
training.

We look at the pre-test-post-test comparisons in all groups, when it can be said that core exercises do not have a significant effect
on flexibility and sprint values of tennis athletes.

Table 7: Effect Size Values

Parametres ɲ2

Countermovement jump (cm) 0,01

Flexibility (cm) 0,03

Handgrip strength test – DH*(kg) 0,05
10 m sprint (sn) 0,03
Y-Balance with right leg (cm) 0,03
Y-Balance with left leg (cm) 0,02
Seated medicine ball throw (m) 0,03
Service velocity (km/h) 0,04
*DH: Dominant hand

According to the effect size values, it can be said that the 8-week core training program applied to athletes has a low effect on
countermovement jump, flexibility, 10m sprint, y balance, seated medicine ball throw, valueline, and medium effect on handgrip
strength test and service velocity values.

Discussion

The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of static and dynamic core training on some motoric properties and tennis service
speed of tennis athletes. According to the findings of the study; While there was a statistically significant increase (p <0.05)
between some motoric characteristics and tennis service speed of the training group athletes participating in the study and the
flexibility pre-post test values of the control group, no significant difference was found in the other parameters of the control
group (p> 0.05).
It has been determined that there are few studies in the literature investigating the effect of core muscles on the service speed of
tennis athletes 26 (Thompson et al., 2007; Lephart et al., 2007; Lust et al., 2009; Hamed and Hassan 2017). In this study, a
significant correlation was found between the speed of the ball and the dominant hand isometric force in the static and dynamic
core group (p <0.05), and a non-significant relationship in the control group (p> 0.05). In a study similar to this study, it was
found that while the service speed values of young tennis athletes increased significantly compared to the control group as a result
of 6-week strength training, the service hits did not change. 26 Similarly, the positive effects of core exercises have been clearly
demonstrated in most of the studies on hitting and launching speed (belonging to the shoulder joints). Thompson et al. (2007), in a
study conducted on golf athletes, it was found that after 8 weeks of functional training, there were significant increases in golf
club kick speeds. In another study on the subject, a training program consisting of open and closed chain exercises was applied to
the players of the 3rd League college baseball team for 6 weeks. In the study, a group performed extra core stabilization exercises.
According to the study findings, significant improvements were reported in the launch speed of the athletes in the group that
performed extra core stabilization exercises. 35 Sever et al. (2017), an 8-week core training program was applied to some of the
male tennis players in the 11-13 age group and at the end of the process, it was determined that the accurate service speed of the
core training group increased by 6.6%.
Lephart et al. (2007), in their research on golf athletes, reported that core exercises applied for 8 weeks increased the swing speed
of the golf club by 5.2%, the speed of the ball by 5% and the total distance traveled by the ball was 6.8%. Szymanski et al. (2007),
similar characteristics were measured in the study of baseball athletes and statistically significant increases were found in the
swing speed and swing distance of the baseball bat. Hamed and Hassan (2017), in their similar study, also applied an 8-week core
training program to athletes and reported that there was a 28% improvement in dunk hitting speed and 14% in dunk hitting rates of
badminton athletes. In another similar study by Eren (2019), it was found that the 8-week core training program applied to tennis
athletes caused significant improvements in the forehand and backhand ground strike speeds of athletes.

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In our study; tennis strength program was designed so as to include both upper and lower extremity exercises and service
simulations. In this respect, by using the lower extremities, the produced strength during service movement was also transferred
instead of using only the upper extremity muscle groups. For high velocity services, trunk rotation should be maintained, which
enables power production. Energy transfer from the lower extremity to the upper extremity through kinetic chain is an assisting
factor in power production and medicine balls and core exercises are recommended to perform in power production (Ellenbecker
and Roetert, 1999). For tennis players, the speed of transition from the lower extremity to the upper extremity, achieving trunk
rotation and the transfer of the strength to the racket and finally to the ball are considerably important.

Medicine ball throwing test was used in our study, where we examined the effect of core training on upper extremity strength, as
used in the literature. According to the posttest findings of the study, medicine ball throwing value of 10-14 age group female and
male tennis athletes was determined as 3.01. It is seen that there are inconsistencies in this regard in the literature. Gül et al.
(2006), while the medicine ball throwing value of 10-12 age group male students was 6.14 m, Aslan et al. (2007), the throwing
values of 8-13-year-old male students were found to be 3.37 m. Arabacı et al. (2008) The values of the 11-12 age group 112 girls
and boys were found to be 8.04 m for boys and 6.6 m for female students. Erikoglu et al. (2009), in the measurements made
according to the Eurofit test battery, the medicine ball throwing performance average of 40 students in the age group of 12 was
reported as 2.82 m for girls and 2.81 m for boys. According to these results, our results were lower than all other results except
Eriklioglu's and Ayan's studies. Similar to our study, only the sitting medicine ball throwing method was used in the study of
Ayan and Mulazimoglu (2009). But Eriklioğlu et al. (2009), the method of ball throwing technique above the knees was used in
their study. In other studies, it is understood that the standing throwing method was used, even though it was not clearly explained
in all of them. In addition, the weight of the medicine ball used in most studies was not specified. Due to these factors, it was
difficult to compare our study with the literature.

In the literature, it has been determined that the studies examining the effect of core training on flexibility differ from each other.
In the study conducted by Pense and Serpek (2010) on female basketball players aged 14-16, while the flexibility values of female
athletes playing basketball were 28.14 cm, it was 24.01 cm for those who did not. Aktas et al. (2011) in their study on male tennis
players aged 12-14, the average flexibility values were found to be 17.70 cm in the experimental group and 18.05 cm in the
control group. In Yilmaz's (2014) study, the average flexibility for the 13-16 age group was found to be 18.70 cm for women and
14.58 cm for men. In the study conducted by Diker and Muniroglu (2016) on football players aged 10-12, the average flexibility
values were reported as 16.40 cm. In Bagci's (2016) study on 12-14 age group wrestlers, the average flexibility values were found
to be 24.35 cm in the experimental group and 20.80 cm in the control group. Diker et al. (2017) found flexibility values as 12.26
cm in females and 10.15 cm in males in her study on 9-13 age group tennis players. According to the posttest results of our study,
the flexibility values of the participants were determined as 18.74 cm in the static core group, 17.85 cm in the dynamic core group
and 19.2 cm in the control group. It can be said that these results are in line with the results in the literature.

The vertical jump results of the participants are examined in the literature, different results are encountered. According to the
posttest findings of our study, the vertical jump values of the participants were 27.37 cm in the static core group, 25.94 cm in the
dynamic core group, and 26.8 cm in the control group. In terms of the vertical jump performance of the athletes, a significant
improvement was found between the pre-test and post-test values in the static and dynamic core group (p <0.05) and a non-
significant (p> 0.05) improvement in the control group. Behm et al. (2008) found that the vertical jump values of 12 age group
tennis players were 37.09 cm. In Bagci's (2016) study on wrestlers in the 12-14 age group, the average vertical jump values were
found as 43.65 cm in the experimental group and 35.10 cm in the control group.
In the literature, it has been determined that there are few studies showing the effects of core exercises on the sprint performance
of athletes. In the study, it was determined that there was no significant improvement between the pre-test and post-test values of
the athletes in terms of 10 m sprint values (p> 0.05). In the study by Steffen et al. (2008) in which female soccer players evaluated
core stabilization, balance, dynamic stabilization and eccentric hamstring strength, it was found that athletes did not have
significant improvements in lower extremity isokinetic strength, isometric hip strength, vertical jump, 40m sprint and shot
distances. In another similar study by Sever (2016), the effect of static and dynamic core exercises on the speed and quickness
performance of football players was investigated. It was determined that there was no significant improvement between the pre-
test and post-test values of the athletes in terms of 10 m sprint values.
However, contrary to the scientific data that positively affect the performance above, in some scientific studies on the subject, core
training; max. VO2, running economies, 46 lower extremity isokinetic strength, 40m sprint, jump force, 47 abdominal force, 19
concentric force, 20 medicine ball throwing backwards and vertical jumping 42 have been reported to have a significant effect on
factors affecting sportive performance.

Conclusion and Recommendations

As a result, in the study, it was determined that core training has positive effects on the ground strike speed and some motoric
properties of the athletes due to their functional structure.
It is very important to include strength, which is one of the important factors affecting performance in tennis, in training programs
in terms of being developable. Core region strength is very important in terms of being the starting point of force and balance in a
branch such as tennis where there is a lot of change of direction, mobility and therefore imbalance. In addition, its protective
feature from possible injuries and its ability to be used in the post-injury period are among the things that should be known. For
these reasons, the inclusion of core exercises in the training programs of athletes, trainers and conditioners who work with tennis
athletes can contribute to the performance development of athletes.

Acknowledgment

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The author would like to thank all athletes for their willingness to participate in this study. There was no grant funding for this
study.

Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest about this manuscript.

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