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    3 Infinities Infinitesimals Continuousfunctions

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    3 Infinities Infinitesimals Continuousfunctions

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    Doanh
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    3.Infinities.Infinitesimals.Continuousfunctions

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    3 Infinities Infinitesimals Continuousfunctions

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    Doanh

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    of 15

    Limits

    Ninh Văn Thu

    School of Appiled Mathematics and Informatics


    Hanoi University of Science and Technology

    October 12, 2022


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Content

    1 Limits of number sequences

    2 Limits of functions

    3 Infinities. Infinitesimals
    Infinitesimals
    Infinities

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Content

    1 Limits of number sequences

    2 Limits of functions

    3 Infinities. Infinitesimals
    Infinitesimals
    Infinities
    Content

    1 Limits of number sequences

    2 Limits of functions

    3 Infinities. Infinitesimals
    Infinitesimals
    Infinities
    Content

    1 Limits of number sequences

    2 Limits of functions

    3 Infinities. Infinitesimals
    Infinitesimals
    Infinities
    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Definition

    Definition
    A quantity α(x) is called an infinitesimal when x → x0 if
    lim α(x) = 0.
    x→x0

    Example
    x m , m > 0, is an infinitesimal as x → 0.
    √
    e x − 1 is an infinitesimal as x → 0+ .
    cot x, cos x are infinitesimals as x → π2 .

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Properties

    As x → x0 :
    1 lim f (x) = a ⇒ f (x) = a + α(x), where α(x):
    x→x0
    infinitesimal.
    2 If α(x), β(x) are infinitesimals, then so is
    c1 α(x) + c2 β(x), c1 , c2 are constants.
    3 If α(x) is an infinitesimal, and f (x) is bounded in
    (x0 − ε, x0 + ε), then α(x)f (x) is also an infinitesimal.

    Example
    3x sin x1 + 5 ln(1 − 2x) is an infinitesimal as x → 0.

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Comparison of infinitesimals

    Definition
    α(x)
    Let α(x), β(x) be infinitesimals as x → x0 and lim = k.
    x→x0 β(x)
    If k = 0, α(x) is of higher order than β(x), α(x) = o(β(x))
    o(β(x)).
    Or β(x) is of lower order than α(x).
    If k 6= 0, ∞, α(x) and β(x) are of the same order,
    α(x) = O(β(x))
    O(β(x)).
    In particular, k = 1, α(x) and β(x) are said to be equivalent,
    α(x) ∼ β(x)
    β(x).

    Q: If k = ∞, β(x) = o(α(x)).

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Example
    For m, n > 0: x m is of higher order than x n as x → 0 iff
    m > n.

    Example (Fundametal equivalent pairs of infinitesimals)


    As x → 00:
    sin x ∼ x ∼ tan x.
    ln(1 + x) ∼ x ∼ e x − 1.
    2
    1 − cos x ∼ x2 .
    (1 + x)α − 1 ∼ αx, α ∈ R.

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Applications to eliminating indeterminate forms

    In the process x → x0
    Proposition
    1 α(x) + o(α(x)) ∼ α(x).
    2 If α(x) ∼ α
    e(x), β(x) ∼ β(x),
    e then
    α(x) α
    e(x)
    lim = lim .
    x→x0 β(x) x→x0 β(x)
    e

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Example
    Find the following limits
    (2x − 1) ln(1 + 2x)
    1 lim
    x→0
    √ sin2 x√
    5
    1 + 4x − 7 1 + 2x
    2 lim
    x→0 x
    3
    x + sin x − 2 tan4 x
    3 lim
    x→0 e 2x − cos x

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Definition

    Definition
    A quantity A(x) is called an infinity as x → x0 if
    lim A(x) = ∞.
    x→x0

    1
    Note: A(x) is an infinity as x → x0 iff A(x)
    is an infinitesimal
    as x → x0 .
    Example
    x n , n > 0, are infinities as x → ∞.
    x n , n < 0, are infinities as x → 0.
    tan x is an infinity as x → π2 .

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Comparison of infinities

    Definition
    A(x)
    Let A(x), B(x) be two infinities as x → x0 and lim = k.
    x→x0 B(x)
    If k = 0, A(x) is said to be of lower order than B(x) as
    x → x0 , (B(x) is an infinity of higher order than A(x)).
    If k 6= 0, ∞, we say A(x) and B(x) are of the same order.
    In particular, k = 1, we say A(x) and B(x) are equivalent,
    written as A(x) ∼ B(x).

    Q: k = ∞?

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    Applications to evaluating indeterminate forms


    As x → x0 :
    Proposition
    1 If A(x) is an infinity of lower order than A(x). Then
    A(x) + A(x) ∼ A(x).
    2 If A(x) ∼ A(x), B(x) ∼ B(x), then

    A(x) A(x)
    lim = lim .
    x→x0 B(x) x→x0 B(x)

    Example
    x + 2x 2 + 4x 5
    lim
    x→∞ 2014x 2

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu


    Limits of number sequences Limits of functions Infinities. Infinitesimals

    PAY ATTENTION
    Be careful when substituting equivalent
    infinitesimals or infinities in a sum or a difference.
    Ex: sin x ∼ tan x as x → 0.
    3 3
    BUT sin x − x ∼ − x3! and tan x − x ∼ x3! are not
    equivalent as x → 0.

    Limits Ninh Văn Thu

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