Communication Fundamentals

-LabELECT 222 Winter 2012 AN Section

SUPERHET 108T ELENCO AM / FM RADIO

Audio Amplifier
January 9, 2012

B. David Koski

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Overview
The Elenco Superhet 108T AM/FM Radio Kit is a superheterodyne receiver of the standard AM (amplitude modulation) and FM (frequency modulation) broadcast frequencies. The unique design of the Superhet 108 allows you to place the parts over their corresponding symbol in the schematic drawing on the surface of the printed circuit board during assembly. This technique maximizes the learning process while keeping the chances of an assembly error at a minimum. It is very important, however, that good soldering practices are used to prevent bad connections. The Soldering Guide should be reviewed before any soldering is attempted. The actual assembly is broken down into 9 sections. The theory of operation for each section, or stage, should be read before the assembly is started. This will provide the student with an understanding of what that stage has been designed to accomplish, and how it actually works. After each assembly, you will be instructed to make certain tests and measurements to prove that each section is functioning properly. If a test fails to produce the proper results, a troubleshooting guide is provided to help you correct the problem. If test equipment is available, further measurements and calculations are demonstrated to allow each student to verify that each stage meets the engineering specifications. After all of the stages have been built and tested, a final alignment procedure is provided to peak the performance of the receiver and maximize the Superhet 108Ts reception capabilities. The purpose of section 1, the Audio Amplifier Stage, is to increase the power of the audio signal received from the detector to a power level capable of driving the speaker. Section 2 includes the AM detector circuit and the AGC (automatic gain control) circuit. The AM detector converts the amplitude modulated IF (intermediate frequency) signal to a low level audio signal. The AGC stage feeds back a DC voltage to the first AM IF amplifier in order to maintain a near constant level of audio at the detector. Section 3 is the second AM IF amplifier. The second AM IF amplifier is tuned to 455 kHz (Kilohertz) and has a fixed gain at this frequency of 50. Section 4 is the first AM IF 2 amplifier which has a variable gain that depends on the AGC voltage received from the AGC stage. The first AM IF amplifier is also tuned to 455 kHz. Section 5 includes the AM mixer, AM oscillator and AM antenna stages. When the radio wave passes through the antenna, it induces a small voltage across the antenna coil. This voltage is coupled to the mixer, or converter, stage to be changed to a frequency of 455 kHz. This change is accomplished by mixing (heterodyning) the radio frequency signal with the oscillator signal. Section 6 is the FM ratio detector circuit. The FM ratio detector has a fixed gain of about 20. Section 7 is the second FM IF amplifier. The second FM IF amplifier is tuned to 10.7MHz (Megahertz) and has a set gain of approximately 20. The 3dB bandwidth of this stage should be approximately 350 kHz. Section 8 is the first FM IF amplifier. The first FM IF amplifier is also tuned to 10.7MHz and has a set gain of approximately 10. It also has a 3dB bandwidth of 350 kHz. Section 9 includes the FM mixer, FM oscillator, FM RF and the AFC circuits. The incoming radio waves are amplified by the FM RF amplifier, which is tuned to a desired radio station in the FM frequency bandwidth of 88MHz to 108MHz. These amplified signals are then coupled to the FM mixer stage to be changed to a frequency of 10.7MHz. This change, as in AM, is accomplished by heterodyning the radio frequency signal with the oscillator signal. The AFC stage feeds back a DC voltage to the FM oscillator to prevent the oscillator from drifting. Each of these blocks will be explained in detail in the Theory of Operation given before the assembly instructions for that stage.

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Section 1 Description Audio Amplifier

The purpose of the Audio Amplifier is to in-crease the audio power to a level sufficient to drive an 8 ohm speaker. To do this, DC (direct current) from the battery is converted by the amplifier to an AC (alternating current) in the speaker. The ratio of the power delivered to the speaker and the power taken from the battery is the efficiency of the amplifier. In a Class A amplifier (transistor on over entire cycle) the maximum theoretical efficiency is .5 or 50%, but in a Class B amplifier (transistor on for 1/2 cycle) the maximum theoretical efficiency is .785 or 78.5%. Since transistor characteristics are not ideal, in a pure Class B amplifier, the transistors will introduce crossover distortion. This is due to the non-linear transfer curve near zero current or cutoff. In order to eliminate crossover distortion and maximize efficiency, the transistors (Q11 and Q12) of the audio amplifier circuit are biased on for slightly more than 1/2 of the cycle, Class AB. In other words, the transistors are working as Class A amplifiers for very small levels of power to the speaker, but they slide toward Class B operation at larger power levels. Transistor Q10 is a Class A amplifier that drives Q11 and Q12 through the bias string R44, D5 and R47. Q13 and Q14 are current amplifiers that amplify the current of transistors Q11 and Q12. The AC and DC gain are set by the DC current in transistor Q10 and the collector resistor R44. The AC gain of the Audio Amplifier is approximately equal to 100, while the DC gain equals approximately 50. The transistors Q13 and Q14 self bias so that the voltage at their emitters is approximately 1/2 the supply voltage. R45 provides feedback to the base of Q10 which is biased at approximately .7 volts. Capacitor C40 couples the audio signal from the volume control to the input of the audio amplifier. Capacitor C43 blocks the DC to the speaker, while allowing the AC to pass.

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AC GAIN
The AC gain can be calculated in the same manner as the DC gain except for two differences. For AC, capacitor C42 bypasses the emitter resistor R46 leaving only the effective emitter resistance, and there is a resistance seen at the output of Q13 and Q14. The AC gain of Q10 can be calculated as R44 / Rj or 3300 / 22.6 which equals 146. When the input signal is positive, there will be a current flowing in Q11, which we will call I(Q11). This current will then be multiplied by the Beta of transistor Q13 or Beta x I(Q11). The total current at the output is equal to I(Q11) x (1 + Beta). The resistance of R48 is also seen at the output. The resistance is effectively divided by Beta, R48 / Beta. Assuming Beta of the output transistors are equal to 100 than the resistance seen at the output is equal to 1 ohm, 100 / 100. This means that there is a voltage divider between the output and the 8 ohm speaker. The signal is now divided down so that the output is equal to the AC (gain of Q10) x (8 / (1+8)), or 146 x (8 / 9) which equals 130. This is also true when the input signal is negative. The only difference is that Q12 and Q14 are now conducting. Normally the AC gain is measured at a frequency of 1kHz. Your VOM, however, may not be able to accurately read AC voltages at this frequency. Therefore, it is recommended that this test be performed at 400Hz. Set the audio generator at 400Hz and minimum voltage output. With the power ON, set your VOM to read an AC voltage of 1 volt at test point TP1. Increase the volume control about half way. Slowly increase the amplitude of the audio generator until your VOM reads 1 volt AC. Leave the audio generator at this setting and move the positive lead of your VOM to the base of Q10. Please see Fig 1 Test Point Values.

DC GAIN
The DC Gain of the audio amplifier is set by the current transistor Q10. Looking at the circuit and assuming the output bias of of V+ or 5.2 volts this is because there is a negligible voltage drop across R48. This means there is 3.8 voltage drop across R44.the current through R44 can be calculated as 3.8/R44 or 3.8/3.3 K which equals 1.15mA. Since D5 and R42 are used for biasing Q11 and Q12, the current through Q10 can be assumed to be 1.15mA. The DC gain of Q10 can be calculated as the collector resistor, R44, divided by the emitter resistor plus the effective emitter resistance. The effective emitter resistance is actually the dynamic resistance of silicon and can be calculated by the approximate equation; Rj = 26/I (in mA) Therefore Rj = 26/1.15 = 26 ohms. Now we can calculate DC gain as R44/ (R46 + Rj) or 3300/ (47+22.6) which equals 47.4.

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DC Values / 8.979 VDC Source TP15 to TP1 2.866 V Q10 Base 739 mV Emitter 80 mV Collector 2.243 V Q11 Base 3.436 V Emitter 2.852 V Collector 8.4 V Q12 Base 2.237 V Emitter 2.828 V Collector 678 mV Q13 Base 8.384 V Emitter 9.002 V Collector 2.832 V Q14 Base 678 mV Emitter 0 V Collector 2.829 V D5 Drop 624 mV
Fig 1 Test Point Values

AC Values / 12.5 mVpp Source @ 1kHz TP15 to TP1 2 Vpp Q10 Base 12.5 Vpp Emitter 12.5 Vpp Collector 2.6 Vpp Q11 Base 2 Vpp Emitter 2 Vpp Collector 60 mVpp Q12 Base 2.2 Vpp Emitter 2.08 Vpp Collector 250 mVpp Q13 Base 60 mVpp Emitter 20 mVpp Collector 2 Vpp Q14 Base 250 mVpp Emitter Noise Collector 2.02 Vpp D5 Drop 882 mVp

CIRCUIT CHARACTERISTICS
AC Gain = Vclip = 3 dB drop 153 22 mVpp Input 3.5 Vpp Output 67 kHz (LF Corner)

Instructor Evaluation
On Time (20 points) Cover Page (10 points) DC Value Chart (10 points) AC Value Chart (10 points) Schematic (10 points) Labels (10 points) Description (30 points) TOTAL:

Instructor initials:________________ date: __________________

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