Human Learning, Cognition and Instruction-1-1

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EDP 2101 Year 2 HUMAN LEARNING, COGNITION &

INSTRUCTION
LECTURER: HELEN CHRISTINE AMONGIN
Some Key Definitions

What is a concept?
This is a term that refers to one or more attributes of an object e.g. a tree that has roots, a stem,
leaves, etc.
What is Learning?
This is a change in behaviour through acquisition of knowledge and skills. It is acquiring
information, e.g. the difference between: “You went through the university” and “The
University went through you”. It is a more or less permanent change of behaviour of or in an
individual as a result of past experience. There should be observable change of behaviour to
show that people have learned.
Hilgard and Bowle (1991), give three definitions of learning:

1. It is when a person becomes aware, able and capable of doing something differently from
the way he used to do it.
2. It is that which endures over time. However you must exclude temporary behaviour
changes due to drugs, fatigue, etc.
3. It is that which occurs through practice and other forms of practices.
An Idea: is a loose unscientific knowledge about a concept - such a concept in different places
and encounters makes a generalization of the idea or person, e.g. to say that a chair has 4 legs is
a generalization because some have only one leg.
A Generalisation: is that unscientific observation based on a number of experiences.
A hypothesis: is an unconfirmed generalization e.g. girls are poor in mathematics. When the
hypothesis is tested and it is true, it becomes a theory. Educational theories are a conglomeration
of some scientific, philosophical and psychological theories.
A fact is a temporary truth.
A law is a proven theory. Psychological and educational rules and laws do not comply with
natural scientific laws because human beings are complicated, different and difficult.
Psychological laws may be subjective. Pure science laws are objective.
Types of Learning
1. Trial and Error
2. Classical Conditioning
Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

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3. Operant Conditioning
4. Verbal
5. Social and Cognitive: Observational; Latent; Insight
6. Democratic
7. Cooperative/ Peer
8. Incidental learning
Theories of Learning
THE ASSOCIATIONIST THEORY/CONTIGEROUS THEORY- THORNDIKE
Associationism is a tendency to learn by associating things together, i.e. there is no learning
without association. He propagates the law of Effect in learning and reminds us that:
1. Reward or reinforcement is vital in learning and it must be immediate, through the use of
any form that will help the learning e.g. praise.
2. If the intention of learning is to weaken some bad habits, the learner should not be
punished because punishment is not an effective way of eliminating undesirable
behaviour.
3. Students will be able to repeat those activities that are satisfying and teachers should
endeavor to present them with those activities that will make them happy. Learning
should involve a cordial teacher-student relationship.
Classroom Learning
Even when the teachers are aware of the types of learning processes, they cannot force the
learner to use those processes on the intended information, i.e. the teaching and learning
processes. If for example, one is thinking about home, learning will not take place. Teachers
should be aware of what influences learning, these include facts and concepts. This involves
associative processes and conceptual processes, hence, association and conceptualization
processes. For example, in teaching children about a tree, the teacher will bring out types of
trees, classification of trees, tree habitats, scientific and local names of trees, etc. These are the
facts. The learners learn these facts by association.
How? 1. The learner forms a connection between one bit of data and another. 2. This association
reaches the Long Term memory (LTM) through rehearsal and repetition. There is a connection
between the data and the answer. 3. There is a store from which you search until you get the
association.
What causes association to occur?

1. Research shows that it is contiguity or simultaneous presentation of S ---- R. Here, the
pieces of data are presented together when the learners are learning i.e. the whole is
better than its parts, and these remain associated in the learners memory. Names,
birthdays of friends, etc. are remembered due to association with the persons attached to
them. Associations are formed due to contiguity.
2. Association also occurs due to reinforcement. Successful associations which are
reinforced are repeated. An association is thus, formed due to that. An association can be
formed between reinforcement and a comment e.g. “Your spellings are poor!” is a

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negative reinforcement given in a harsh tone. Therefore, the teacher must give
appropriate and timely reinforcement while teaching.
3. Discriminative stimuli: Here the leaner associates the cues which are part of the original
learning environment with successive behavior. Once again in the presence of those cues,
the learner will use the behavior that worked. For example, Mr. Odit gave tests every
month. Otim tried to be successful through cheating/copying. Because Mr Odit never
noticed this, Otim continued the practice. Otim tried to do the same in Mr. Okots tests,
but was caught and disciplined. He never did it again! Otim thus, learnt the association
between his behavior and the two situations. The former: cheat because you were not
caught; the latter: dont cheat because you were caught. He made an association between
the reinforcement “success” and his behavior, and he made the discriminative stimuli in
the presence of his behavior and the negative reinforcement.
Conceptualisation
Conceptualization refers to the logical mathematical manipulation of an idea/concept. The
manipulation constitutes intellectual activity. Learning does not consist of storage first before it
goes to memory because human beings always manipulate the data through their senses. They
give meaning to the environment.
A student may not associate historical facts unless he had had an idea of them. He may also just
rely on his own intellectual cognitive processing. Thus, he manipulates the facts known about a
given issue and draws a logical conclusion on the same without prior knowledge of its facts.
This kind of situation is complex. It means that a child needs to attain the cognitive operational
levels of thinking for them to be able to conceptualize.
MEADS SYMBOLIC INTERACTION
Human beings act towards things in terms of their meanings. People exist in a SYMBOLIC as
well as a physical environment: the importance of a social interaction is derived from the
meaning it holds for the participants. The interaction refers specifically to the fact that people
communicate with each other, which provides the opportunity for meanings to be learned.
Because we share a common language and have the ability for symbolic thought, we can look at
the world from the point of view of other perceivers, i.e. TAKE THE ROLE OF THE OTHER.
In so doing, the self develops.
The self is not a mental state, i.e. something privately going on inside the individual but like the
mind, it is a cognitive process lodged in the ONGOING SOCIAL WORLD. Self and society are
two terms that are reciprocally in the process of interaction. Knowledge of self and others
develops simultaneously, both being dependant on social interaction: self and society represent a
common whole and neither can exist without the other.
The human being is an organism with a self. This makes him a special kind of actor; transforms
his relation to the world; and gives his actions a unique character. The human being is an object
to himself, i.e. he can perceive himself, have conceptions about himself, communicate with
himself, etc. He can interact with himself and this self-interaction is a great influence upon his
transactions with the world in general and with other people in particular.
Self-interaction is A REFLEXIVE PROCESS, which is Meads way of making the I/Me
distinction. The experiencing I cannot be an object, it cannot itself be experienced, since its the

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very act of experiencing. What we experience and interact with is our me. As important as
language is in SELF- INTERACTION, the KEY PROCESS by which we develop the concept of
self is ROLE-TAKING. By placing ourselves in the position of others, we can look back on
ourselves. The idea of self can develop only if the individual can “get outside himself
(experientially) in such a way as to become an object to himself”, i.e. to see ourselves from the
standpoint of others.
The Symbolic Mode

Bruners main interest was in the TRANSITION from the iconic to the symbolic mode. He and
Piaget agree that a very important cognitive change occurs at around 6 to 7 years. For Piaget,
this is the start of LOGICAL OPERATIONS (tied to concrete reality), while Bruner sees it as
the appearance of the SYMBOLIC MODE. Language comes on its own as influence on thought.
The child is now freed from the immediate context and is beginning to be able to go beyond the
information given, i.e. to look for his own information.
Concept Formation
A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events and people on the basis of common
properties. Concepts are formed by definition e.g. a triangle has three sides. We also form
concepts by developing PROTOTYPES which is a mental image or best example of a category.
Matching new items to the prototypes provides a quick and easy method for including items in
the category, e.g. comparing feathered creatures to prototypical birds like a robin.
The more closely something matches our prototype of a concept, the more readily we recognize
it as an example of a concept. For example, maternal love and self-love are both love. But
people will more readily accept maternal love than self-love because it matches their prototype
of love. People will more easily detect male prejudice against female than female prejudice
against female, or female against male.
Concepts allow us to relate experiences and objects otherwise everything would look unique to
us. Concepts grease the wheels of memory making it more efficient. They make us remember
the characteristics of the concept rather than each object or experience on its own.
Stages in Concept Formation

1. Develop hypotheses.
2. Test the hypotheses.
3. Make observations.
4. Follow the rules of grouping.
5. Bear in mind that cultural experiences affect concept formation.

6. Bear in mind that concepts have an internal structure, i.e. some members of the concept
are more typical than others.

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THE BEHAVIOURALIST THEORIES
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov and Guthrie)

They believe that learning is a behaviour, hence learning is an external event. They believe that
for learning to take place there must be a stimulus and a response to that stimulus i.e. stimulus-
response relationship.
In learning therefore the stimulus —response bond is established. Without a response, learning
has not taken place. Practice intensifies the bond, and the reverse is true, i.e. lack of practice
reduces the bond.
R
S
Sometimes S R
Bond
Or, Stimulus Response
Implications of Pavlovs Theory

 Teaching begins from simple to complex.
 Teacher should be aware of selection stimuli to present.
 Lessons should be characterized by repetitions, reviewing and practice

to facilitate deeper understanding.
 Students can hate or love a subject depending on the teacher.
 Teacher should avoid reinforcing undesirable behaviours.
 Pause, prompt, praise. If a student is struggling pause to discuss the problem, then
prompt the student with specific suggestions to help them improve. When the student
improves, give praise.
Continguity
This is when two stimuli repeatedly occur together i.e. simultaneously, one stimulus acquires the
power to elicit conditioned response, and e.g. a teachers red shirt on Monday is associated with a
bad mood.
Neurosis
This is the breakdown of stimulus-response relationship if no reinforcement is supplied due to
gradual weakening.
Spontaneous recovery
This is the ability to recover a response that had weakened when the two stimuli are paired again
or reinforced, e.g. students have lost confidence in the school because results are bad. They
begin to recover when results start improving.
How does the Behaviouralist Learning take place?

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This is by a repeated exposure of learning to the stimulus-response bond. When you repeat this
exposure you become conditioned, meaning, used to, e.g. when you are called by name, you
automatically respond due to repeated exposure. This is called classical conditioning where once
you are used to something, you respond without thinking.
The biological reaction is called Reflex Reaction. A psychological reaction comes automatically
after the response has been exposed to you. In classical conditioning, theres a reward e.g. when a
child responds to its name, a positive or negative reward is given in the form of food or rebuke
respectively.
Negative reinforcement is when theres a disturbing stimulus that inhibits learning until it is
removed then learning is reinstated e.g. when theres a snake, a person cannot learn till it is
removed, or when a child is given a lot of money it distracts learning. The solution is to reduce
on the money.
Imitation takes watching and putting into practice what you have seen and then perfect it, e.g. a
song.
Practice is a psychological primitive way of learning, e.g. a baby breastfeeding.
The Purpose of Classical Conditioning in an Organism
Life security:
1. Children are supposed to be conditioned to certain things, e.g. the mother, to ensure
safety from strangers, for example.
2. Safeguards, customs and traditions are passed on from generation to generation and these
give a sense of identity, e.g. circumcision as a rite of passage. Classical conditioning is
therefore a learning experience.
3. Mastery of skills, e.g. in African culture, the skills in carpentry, pottery, hunting,
dancing, singing, cloth making, blacksmiths, etc.
4. Once a behaviour is not wanted it can be discouraged.
Disadvantages of Classical Conditioning
1. It is primitive in nature since it tends towards reflex action.

2. It doesnt provoke reasoning i.e. it has no mental involvement.
3. It can be dangerous in certain situations e.g. mob justice.
4. Theres blocks transfer of training e.g. in African culture, some people with skills dont
know how to teach them to others.
OPERANT CONDITIONING — B.F. Skinner (born in 1904)
Operant refers to the fact that an organism works on its environment and as it does so it is
responsible for generating consequences. This may be in the form of good marks, good crops or

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promotion at work. Since such consequences are rewarding, the response/behaviour of the
organism will be repeated and strengthened. Operant conditioning is therefore the relationship
between the organism and the environment, called instrumental conditioning, because the
organism is instrumental, or is solely responsible for generating reward for its activity or
behaviour.
Skinner gives 4 types of reinforcement: primary, positive, secondary and negative.

1. Primary: This is a reinforcement which strengthens a behaviour through the satisfaction
of basic physiological needs, e.g. hunger, sex, thirst or sleep. It is indirectly necessary for
learning.
2. Secondary: This is a reinforcement which encourages the repetition of a certain
behaviour. The reinforcement is satisfying psychologically and it does not necessarily
meet a physiological need, e.g. praise, money, a smile, medals, certificates, attention, free
time, etc. It is associated with primary reinforcement. It is directly relevant to class
learning.
3. Positive: This is a stimulus that strengthens a behaviour. It can take the form of rewards
like food, money, praise, etc.
4. Negative: This is the opposite of Positive reinforcement.
Skinner developed what is now called Skinnerian Boxes, a name given to the apparatus in his
studies. The box must have some mechanism like a bar or lever, which allows the animal being
conditioned to manipulate or operate. The box has an inlet for light, a screen, a food tray and
water.
Diagram

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Educational implication: The boxes refer to boarding schools. The learners need a hands-on
experience that encourages entrepreneurship where they will turn out to be job creators and not
job seekers as in classical conditioning.
Advantages
 Children who dont study are coached.
 Learning is programmed.
 It is the success that motivates the learner e.g. it is very rewarding to see people who
have passed, soldiers from war, i.e. it gives aesthetic pleasure.
Disadvantages
 The Skinnerian boxes do not give a natural environment, i.e., when you are in a hostel or
boarding school.
 Children survive on spotted work.
 This environment lends itself to dissatisfaction leading to strikes.
THE COGNITIVE THEORY
Cognition refers to thinking, meaningfulness and organization of information as a part of

learning. There must be thinking and insight for learning to take place. The learner has an
inherent capacity to learn.
Jerome Bruner is a learning and Instructional Psychologist, as well as a human

developmentalist. He believes that any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually
honest form to any child at any stage of development.
DISCOVERY LEARNING

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Bruner believes that learning should basically be by discovery. Learning by discovery involves a
learners finding out their level, e.g. boys show physique while girls show capability. Discovery
is coming up with something new: new to the learner but not necessarily new to others especially
the teacher. Discovery involves re-arranging and transferring knowledge in order to get new
insight. Bruner argues that a learner is capable of learning new information independently.
Bruner says a simple object can be presented to learners and is used to elicit different responses
from the learner by using probes. When you probe, you provoke and encourage discovery. It is
vital to give learners opportunities to involve themselves in thinking, insight and problem
solving as an integral part of education if they are to learn. (The question is: is there room for
discovery learning in the Uganda educational system? What chances are there for drama, play,
science fairs, travels, etc? The introduction of more subjects into the syllabus makes it harder to
make time for discovery).
The following should be borne in mind:

 Inductive processes are needed for children to learn. Children should try to discover the
underlying principles in justice, for example.
 Teachers should not reveal the major concept before the learners discover for themselves
what it is, i.e. let the learner find out for himself what seems to be common knowledge.
 The teacher should make sure that the principles have been learnt.
 The teacher should present the problem to the learners and become a facilitator in an
inductive process, not a discoverer. Step by step, help students discover from simple to
complex issues.
 Students should appreciate the functionality of the discovery. This helps them to arrive at
simple concepts first and major ones later.
 Discovery helps students learn the process involved in gathering data i.e. experiments,
observation, discussion and conclusions. This process helps learners make references
from such data.
 Discovery also makes learners learn from mistakes. They may never repeat these
mistakes later. They even become teachers later. Students need to be helped to learn
rather than waiting for them to fail and then tell them, which can be psychologically
damaging.
 The discovery method of learning calls for (a) active participation of the learner; (b) The
method is useful because the learners are able to retain information for a considerable
length of time; and (c) be able to transfer it to others.
 The disadvantage of discovery method of learning includes (a) being wasteful, (b) taking
a lot of time and (c) being expensive.
INTUITIVE THINKING
It is that way of thinking where you cannot easily give an explanation but you know the answer
[women have this more than men]. Bruner is unhappy that this is not very much encouraged in
school and yet it is vital especially with younger learners. This is the problem of the traditional
way of teaching. Today, UNEB requires that you must show a method of work. For example, a
thief is very intelligent but with disoriented intelligence. The disadvantage of this method is that
it can take long. Bruner emphasizes that the teachers must match the curriculum to the learners`
needs. They should read ahead of the material learned/taught e.g. the molar, Atomic weights,
etc. Even teachers may not know what they are teaching.

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Readiness to learn should be viewed in the light of the learners background, what he has
experienced, his goals, capabilities, etc. Bruner therefore, suggests a spiral curriculum —
Repeatedly introduce the same topic in depth as you go higher, at different levels, bearing in
mind that knowledge is not static.
Hi-tech- computer knowledge keeps changing, for example, and so the curriculum needs
reviewing every year, although it is expensive. We also present the curriculum from simple to
difficult and from known to unknown. Why move before the learner has grasped what is being
taught?
Curiosity leads to success, e.g. recently a 15 year-old boy, Jack Andraka won a Nobel Prize for
inventing a new “dipstick” test for pancreatic cancer that is 28 times faster than easier
assessments and far more accurate and less expensive. Jack won a medical trifecta, creating a
breakthrough test that is fast, cheap and spot on. We may think that Jack is preternaturally gifted
or have a very high I Q, but the truth is that his greatness rests in a quality we all have: curiosity.
(Internet: Positive Acorn February 18, 2013 — Positive Psychology)
Advantages of Discovery Learning.
1. Helps the learner to increase his ability to learn/grasp related concepts or materials.
2. Increases learners interest in the task in which he is involved - learner wants to own the
discovered information. “The more you discover the more you discover you dont know
enough and want to know more.”
3. Research therefore generates more research. It has been found that discovery contributes to
retention of information.
4. Discovery facilitates easy transfer of learning. You dont wait for the exact replica of the
information to know that it has been learned. It develops initiative in dealing with similar
problems. It trains the learners in important thinking operations e.g. comparing,
summarizing, interpreting and critiquing. It trains students on how to learn skills, e.g.
titration skills. It is the do it yourself method skill.
5. The teacher is enabled to learn some skills which he/she would otherwise have not learnt. It
teaches independent interaction/association. The teacher is basically a facilitator.
6. Learning with pleasure is good.
Discovery method should thus be used as one of the methods available to the teacher/learner
because:
1. The method may become boring to the teacher/learner.
2. It is expensive in terms of materials and labour.
3. It is time consuming. The curriculum does not make allowance for this
4. It is too demanding on the school for resources/materials, e.g. library, etc.
Disadvantages
1. It needs very careful planning by the teacher.
2. It demands a lot of time which the school system has not given.
3. The teacher has to be careful to make sure that each student has discovered or else the
child gets frustrated and gives up and thus becomes disruptive.

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4. The demand from society is otherwise: if students dont pass their exams, society will
complain. Discovery needs a lot of motivation.
Bruners Theory of Instruction
This is based on the following principles:

1. Motivation: This is paramount. The child must be eager to learn. There must be
maximum eagerness to read. This is exhibited in the childs curiosity and desire to explore
and learn, e.g. singing cards, talking dolls, etc. This should be taken advantage of by the
teachers in order to enhance learning in children.
2. Structure: What is learned must be in keeping with the learners cognitive
structure/intellectual understanding. The student should be able to link the new structure
to the old one. This is especially easy in science.
3. Sequence: When one event leads to another, from the simplest to the more complex,
early to latest, it is easier to learn, than when all is put together. The matter should be
sequentially arranged to enable learning.
4. Reinforcement: This includes feedback: smiles, compliments, high marks in class, stars
in primary school, big ticks, etc. Reinforcement encourages and sustains desirable
learning/behaviour.
The Diagram below shows types of Instruction and its relationships and interactions:
Instructional strategies determine the approach a teacher may take to achieve learning objectives.
Five categories of instructional strategies are shown in the diagram below. Instructional methods
are used by teachers to create learning environments and to specify the nature of the activity in
which the teacher and learner will be involved during the lesson. While particular methods are
often associated with certain strategies, some methods may be found within a variety of
strategies.
What children learn depends not only on what they are taught but also on how they are taught,
their development level, experiences and interests. Attention must therefore be paid to the types
of methods chosen in the teaching-learning experience.
Instructional Instructional
Skills Direct Skills
Instruction
Interactive Instructional Indirect

Instruction Skills Instruction

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Instructional Independent Experiential Instructional

Skills Study Learning Skills
Source: Instructional Strategies Online, August 27, 2013. Understanding the Common
Essential Learnings, Saskatchewan Education, 1988. (p.10).
Research in human learning has presented new insights into the ways that learners are active in
constructing their own understanding. Constructivist learning theories have shown the
limitations of viewing “learning” as something that we “give” to students to “receive” and learn
in exactly the same way and exactly the same time.
Source: Classroom Curriculum Connections: A Teachers Handbook for Personal-

Professional Growth Saskatchewan Education, 2001. (p.30)
Other Instructional Strategies for engaging Learners
1.Activating Strategies
Purpose: To activate students prior knowledge through the use of engaging strategies designed
to focus learning.
2. Cognitive Strategies
Purpose: To provide a structure for learning that actively promotes comprehension and retention
on knowledge through the use of engaging strategies that acknowledge the brains limitations of
capacity and processing.
3.Summarizing Strategies

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Purpose: To promote the retention of knowledge through the use of strategies designed to
rehearse and practice skills for the purpose of moving knowledge into the long term memory
(LTM).
“Teaching is Only as Good as the Learning that Takes Place”. (International Center for
Leadership in Education, Inc.1587 Route 146. Rexford NY. 12148)
Marzanos Nine Instructional Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning
1. Identifying similarities and differences

2. Summarizing and note taking
3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition
4. Homework and practice
5. Nonlinguistic representations
6. Cooperative learning
7. Setting objectives and providing feedback
8. Generating and testing hypotheses — deductive and inductive, but especially the former
9. Cues, questions and advance organisers
BLOOMS TAXONOMY/CLASSIFICATION
The Blooms are a group of people who gave a classification scheme of educational objectives.
Bloom distinguishes between knowledge and intellectual abilities and skills. The taxonomy gives
categories ordered from simple to complex.
Diagram

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1. Knowledge: which means knowledge of specifics like facts terms, and definitions. It also
means knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics like rules, classification,
schemes, methods and criteria. This also means knowledge of universals and abstractions
in a field and non-theoretical principles.
2. Comprehension: which means understanding and making sense of knowledge.
3. Application: which means to relate, to use the knowledge in a given situation or problem.
4. Analysis: this means to divide, tease out, separate, investigate knowledge in more detail.
5. To Synthesize: meaning to put together, combine, separate bits of knowledge into a new
whole.
6. Evaluate: which deals with judgments and employment of criteria in regard to
knowledge.
Functions of Blooms Taxonomy
 Provides useful instructional framework to the teacher, test-code instruments and

curriculum development.
 A teacher can decide on how many questions to include in which category of the
intellectual ability. This depends on the goal of the teacher. He may want more of
comprehension category where the learner must recall what has been learnt.
 In analysis, students may need an essay type of answer on his conceptualization process.
 A teacher may want to involve all levels of the taxonomy recognizing that the whole is
better that its parts.
The Gestalts Approach to learning

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The Gestalts is a German school of thought (including psychologists like Marx, Wolfgang,
Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka) that believes in THE WHOLE, i.e. a complete thing. The whole
has a form. It has a state. It has a configuration. It has an organization. It could be an object or a
concept. It can be an abstract, imaginary or real.
Their interest in learning was mainly in perception and awareness. Learning can be
environmental but it must be interpreted not just conditioned. They are interested in insight
learning. They studied perception and behaviour as a whole because the whole is greater than its
parts, e.g. parts of a person are not the whole person. They become a person when the parts are
put together. This is true of a tree, musical notes, a school, a nation, a ministry, a department, a
home, etc.
According to the Gestalts, a given object or concept is understood or perceived not by analyzing
one aspect at a time but by having a global picture of the object. For example,
A triangle or organized dots? The psychological discomfort leads us to call it a triangle

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A square? The imposition of past experience makes us call this a square.
In music, notes are put together to make a song.
s s m ` d s l d m` d
Together, these make a whole. Soprano, tenor, alto, and base, make a whole.
The Gestalts are interested in what is called the aha experience, i.e. insight. This happens
suddenly when a solution to a problem can be repeated during a similar event in future and
it has some transfer to the new situation, e.g. getting stuck somewhere, then you suddenly
get a solution. It is not trial and error. The insightful learning should be transferable to any
situation. Before an organization arrives at insight, it thinks and makes hypotheses. Once
they decide on which strategy should be used, an individual proceeds to act and solves the
issue by his/her insight.
Gestalts Laws on Learning
1. The Law of Proximity

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Parts that are close in time and/or in space tend to be perceived and so learned together.
E.g.
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
x x x x x x
Close rows Apart rows have light

Are easier to see; arriving later
Light arrives faster
2. The Law of Similarity

Similar parts are seen together as forming a group. The human eye imposes a structure
because we feel uncomfortable when things are not organized. The xs and circles appear to
be together (see rows and columns).
The Horizontal line has crosses and dots or circles. The Vertical line is alternated.
x x x x x x
O O O O OO
x x x x x x
O O O O OO
x x x x x x
O O O O OO
x x x x x x
3. The Law of Closure
Rectangle Square Square

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Disregarding what it looks like from reality, you are to tell what the diagramme is. This is a very
important law in mathematics and social psychology. The tendency is to complete unfinished
figures, i.e. to close the open part. The person feels psychologically uncomfortable to see
incomplete parts. We have the tendency of quickly drawing conclusions, e.g. a man being beaten
must be a thief.
4. The Law of Pragnanz

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This states that every psychological event has the potential of being meaningful, as well as
simple and complete. This leads to imposing meaningfulness on a map, for example. This means
that the cognitive balance is preferable to and more satisfying than a state of unbalance, i.e.
cognitive disequilibrium. If a state of equilibrium is disturbed, the object acts in such a way as to
restore the equilibrium. The psychological balance, if disturbed, seeks to restore its balance.
5. The Figure-Ground Relationship

For safety, road workers will for example, put on yellow attire.
The figure has two interpretations. It can be the figure of a face where the vase becomes the
ground, or the figure of a flower vase, or lamp where the face becomes the ground.

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When you are in a crowd and you hear your name, the name becomes the figure and the noise of
the crowd becomes the ground. The figure is not only dominant but is uniform and the centre of
attention. The ground is homogeneous and provides the setting for the figure.
NB
1. In a given environment we focus our attention on a certain aspect, e.g. a musician focuses
on the flute.
2. The rest becomes background to be safe.
3. The figure can become the background, hence transforming the background to the figure.
The determining factor is the degree of attention.
4. It is difficult to see the figure and the background at the same time i.e. you cannot
concentrate on both figure and ground at the same time.
6. The Law of Continuity
Figures and drawings are completed in the same way in which they are presented, e.g. the circles
and straight lines are completed in the same way as they started, not semi-circles although they
form such a shape, but as a wave.

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Classroom Implications of the Gestalts Theory of Learning

 When teaching something you should teach it as a whole and not in parts. As Gestalts
psychologists stated “The whole is more important than the sum of its parts.” However
critics of the Gestalts theory state that this depends on the task to be learnt. For hard
tasks, it is better to teach them in small parts through programmed learning. Simpler
tasks can be taught as a whole.
 As a teacher, you should instill creativity and critical thinking in your learners. Let them
study very carefully and critically, not superficially, i.e. they should perceive carefully
what they are studying.
 It is better to allow the learners to discover certain things by and for themselves through
insight. The discovery and inquiry methods can lead to this. Something which the
learners have discovered themselves will be learnt much more easily and will be retained.
 When teaching, emphasise important and crucial points. These are the figures. Other
points which are not so important are the ground. Be very clear and explicit in your
teaching.
 Highlight contrasting features, similar features and attach meaning to whatever you
teach.
DAVID AUSUBELS THEORY OF LEARNING CALLED THE SUB-

SUMPTION THEORY
The theory starts with reception learning referred to as meaningful or verbal or sub-sumption
learning. It is a theory that states that learning occurs as a result of whatever one learns being in
some way related to whatever he already knows. The most important single factor influencing
learning is what the learner already knows.
Reception learning means that the learner is presented with all possible information on a given
subject/topic in its final form because the whole is better than its parts.
Verbal learning means whatever is taught in the classroom or in school is based on language.
Meaningful learning is based on what the student already knows. The learner must be ready to
learn. He should be willing to relate new experiences to his/her existing experience.
How to Bring Meaningfulness
1. Draw learners attention to known related information, e.g.

When I talk of cows,
Imagine them coming home;
In the evening;
Printing their hooves in the earth;
In the receiving ground;
With udders touching the ground.
Interpretation of the Poem:

Background knowledge is the cows;
Evening shows that the cows must have been feeding;
Receiving ground refers to the earth that received torrents of rain;

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Udder refers to its being full of milk.
In this situation, you need to close your eyes in order to avoid being distracted.
2. If meaningful learning is to occur, the new material must potentially be meaningful/make

sense. Statements like:
“Slow men at work”, is ambiguous, which Ausubel is against.
Interpret the following poem:
Row, row, row your boat

Gently down the stream
Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily
Life is but a dream!
Derivative Sub-sumption
This refers to the meaning of a new concept being derived from higher order concepts. If one is
familiar with the learning culture, the new information would be understood or subsumed. For
example, if you are a Christian, you subsume the Christian culture. You derive a new concept
from a higher concept. If there is anything new, teach it properly using proper methods.
Correlative Sub-sumption
Here, the correlative sub-sumption refers to what is already known being modified according to
new information. If a student knows about the Iteso culture and is introduced to the Soga culture,
the new information will be an extension of the new culture. The information will be subsumed
in his cognitive structure. If the new culture is similar to the known one, then there will be no
sub-sumption of the new culture.
Whatever new information one acquires can be registered in a cognitive structure by means of
either derivation or correlative sub-sumption. This new knowledge is incorporated with what is
already known and becomes inclusive, called subordinate learning. This is what Piaget calls
accommodation or assimilation learning.
Meaning versus Rote learning

Here learning is said to be meaningful if it is related to what the learner knows. Absence of
meaningful learning becomes rote learning, i.e. committing to memory without serious attempt
to understand what is being learned. Rote learning has some use in mathematics where the
multiplication table has to be memorized, or formulae, standard deviation, correlation or foreign
language mastered. However it is very inefficient because it decays very fast. Meaningful
learning is efficient and superior to rote learning. Meaningful learning facilitates transfer of
learning. It is used in real life since it has a transfer element. It provides students skills and
elements that are transferable to everyday life.
Advantages: 1. New information is derived from its association with familiar and meaningful
concepts.
2. Meaningful concepts are stored within the long term memory and therefore the chances of
being forgotten are minimal.
3. Giving the existing general concepts here means there are identifiable themes to which the
new information can be related and subsumed or anchored.

23
Implications:
1. New information can be totally new yet it can be subsumed by simplifying terminologies
used or by drawing examples on whatever related elementary information the learner
possesses from past and present experience.
2. Teachers should begin with the most broad and general concepts before proceeding to
specific and differentiated topics.
MEMORY
Memory is storage of information, experiences, knowledge, facts, etc. If you do not remember, it
means you do not know and hence you did not learn. Unless past experiences can be
remembered it is not possible to conclude that learning has occurred. Memory is useful for
survival. Memory helps one to make progress at school or work. It helps one to recall names of
people or places. It helps one to deal with concepts of time in terms of past, present and future.
This can be illustrated thus:
Environmental Stimuli Sensory Register Short Term Store/Memory
Long Term Store/Memory
The stimuli include visual/sight, tactile/touch, auditory/hearing, smell and

gustatory/stomach/digestion. Many of the stimuli that enter the sensory system are not
registered/processed. It is only those that are processed that get to the STM chamber.
Factors that influence what gets to STM
The individual perceiver/receiver: physical, physiological, mood, health, motivational level, past
experiences, cultural background, interest, etc. The intensity of the stimulus also matters. The
environment matters too. The meaning attached to the information matters too.
Short Term Memory
The information is processed and stored for a short time. Retention does not take a long time
because room has to be created for more information. The information received in the STM must
undergo further processing and then passed on to the LTM. If it is considered not important, it
may be discarded. Research shows that human beings can retain 7 pieces of information at a time

24
in STM. What is going to be learned is organized in chunks. Human beings tend to be selective
in what they can manage to store in STM.
Long Term Memory
This is the passive memory i.e. the end part of the journey of the stimulus to the brain. LTM is
unlimited in capacity — clinically, neurologically. This means that it is capable of storing all life
experiences. Information stored in LTM is not easily forgotten. Hence if you have a traumatic
event and it is stored in the LTM, it will stay there forever. Usually you must have cues in order
to retrieve information from the LTM.
In education, a candidate may lament that he knew certain information but was unable to retrieve
it in the exam. The question did not provide sufficient cues to trigger retrieval. Students should
be given cues to the answers of questions we set.
Factors that Influence Memory
1. Recognition: This is made up of two aspects: (a) Stimulus/Concept, i.e. its intensity and
nature, e.g. a house has structure, design, colours, etc. (b) Information that the person
already has about the concept. Recognising a goat as a goat depends on the goatness of
the goat. This includes physical attributes, the height, ears, horns, tail. People recognize
reading only if printing is legible or spelling pattern is familiar. Unless you are of a
particular language, it is difficult to recognize spelling and meaning.
2. Rehearsal: This involves repeating/reciting vocally or sub-vocally the skill/information a
number of times as is necessary to commit to LTM. Many things are just crammed.
There are types of rehearsal: (a) Maintenance Rehearsal. This is when the information is
required for a relatively short time, e.g. taking a phone number. Usually a week before
exams, you have everything on your finger tips! (b) Elaborate Rehearsal. Information is
required for a long time stored in the LTM. There must be a link between new
information and the old one, and there must be meaning in it, e.g. images, ideas,
categories or relationships.
3. Order or Organisation of what is to be learnt. The stimulus must be presented in an
orderly, precise, clear and properly organised manner in order for it to be stored in the
LTM, e.g. the school syllabi.
4. Meaningfulness. When information learned has inherent or latent meaning, it is retained
in the LTM and information becomes meaningful if it can be related to what the learner
already knows. E.g. try to make meaning of the following: nehw noe solko ta a schild
sone noe lenacs ti. (when one looks at a childs nose one cleans it). How about: dyindk
saps het astap drouna?
5. Mnemonics/Acronym Devices. This is where new information has no bearing to what
the learner already knows. UNICEf, UNDP, etc. are special phrases or symbols used to
promote learning. This is useful in learning especially in mathematics and science.
Mnemonics are important in learning unfamiliar information. They are used to facilitate
the encoding of messages and retrievability; provide a frame work for organization of
unfamiliar information; put meaning to information which initially is meaningless i.e.
information gets associated with what is already known; provide learner with retrievable

25
cues that are embedded in the learners memory; and help learner to take an active role in
learning and be able to recall information later.
6. Ridiculous Associations. Learning and storage in the LTM is promoted when the known
is related to the unknown. But remembering can be associated with what may appear
funny or ridiculous, e.g. Peter- potato, Morris — more rice. It helps one to remember
historical events.
7. Activity. Research shows that students who take off time discussing remember such
information more than those who study quietly. This is true in learning a speech, poem,
drama lines. In addition to learning words the learner also associates the words with
meaning by acting them.
8. Attention. This is a process of selecting important information by the perceiver for
further processing and it is important that unless this is done learning is unlikely to take
place effectively. Attention is very important in remembering, hence learning. In
everyday life we meet various instances — we select stimuli to store in memory and we
decide which one to throw out. What we learn and retain in memory is a function of the
attention we pay in our experiences. At the moment we are attending a lecture. Other
activities are taking place but we are not bothered!
Other Factors Affecting Attention
o Intensity of the stimulus, e.g. a strong smell, loud voice/noise, bright colours,
anything strange, odd, etc.
o Change in stimulus, e.g. teaching style, dress.
o Anything that is new
o Some colours command greater attention than others, e.g. yellow, red, white, and
black.
o When low and high stimuli are present at the same time the tendency is to attend
to the high one.
o Directly using cues especially in teaching.
Internal Factors Affecting Attention

 This is basically interest in what is going on.
 Unsatisfied physical, physiological and social needs facilitate attention by
directing a person to what can be done to satisfy the needs, e.g. a sick
person looks for a doctor.
 Fatigue. The level of attention is reduced when a person is tired.
 Level of arousal. If you are sufficiently motivated the greater the level of
arousal, the greater the attention and to a certain extent, the greater the
learning. The value you attach to what is being learnt determines the
attention you give to it.
 Other factors include :Curiosity
 Exploration
 Manipulation
When you are teaching make sure the students are given a chance to perform at all these aspects.
Teachers Role in Improving Memory

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1. Through the use of mnemonics which are the use of artificial techniques designed to
make learning and memory easier. They provide for easy retrieval of information.
Mnemonics can be in 4 types: (a) Verbal mediation, e.g. HOMES of great lakes in
America. This stands for Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie and Superior. (b)Acronyms
which are a term from the first letters of a title or organization, e.g. UNEB. (c)
Acrosstick — this is where sentences are formed in which the first letter of each word of
the sentence represents some information, e.g. please is everybody coming? Where p is
planning; I is implementing, e is evaluation, and c is consultation. (d) Peg words and Key
words in which given words are associated with others, e.g. Peter with potato. (e) Loci-
the recall associated with landmarks in the place, e.g. Tororo Rock that reminds you of
Rock Hotel, Rock High School and Rock Primary School.
2. Practice: Students should repeat what they have learned from time to time.
3. Participation: Students should be given the opportunity to do the things they have
learnt.
4. Imagery: Students should be shown materials that can make it easy for them to form
pictures in their minds, maps, specimen, and real objects.
5. Over learning: students should be helped to study beyond the first practice i.e. students
should read and do remedial work beyond what is taught.
6. Advance organizers: This is introductory information given to learners before the
information to be learned is given to them e.g. you tell students to read a chapter before
the lesson.
7. SQR3: Survey, Questioning, Read, Recite, Revise.
All these require elaborate rehearsal.
REMEMBERING
This is related to recollection or the re-integration, recall, recognition, and re-learning. Therefore
the mnemonic device is for retrieval of what has been learned or part of it. It refers to the
process when ones 1st learning experience is recorded in ones memory and the ability to later
recall all or part of the information.
RECOLLECTION
This is remembering where one should give specific events and some detail e.g. “Oh yes!”
experience. This is usually used in treating psychological patients to recollect where they were,
what they did, etc.
RECALL
This is where one reproduces a piece of information or skill that he has come across or learnt
before. It is commonly used in school when students answer short questions. The amount
recalled is measured in percentages.50% is usually normal recall. Recall is the most primitive
form of learning.
RECOGNITION
This entails presenting someone with what he has experienced before identifying it as being
familiar e.g. evidence in court. In addition we use this in multiple choice tests e.g. PLE exams. A
recognition score is usually:
100 x right answer - wrong answer

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______________________
Total number of answers
RE-LEARNING
A body of information is given to the learner to learn. After a certain period, you give him the
same information or skill and measure how much he can remember. This is important towards
examinations, (compare to maintenance rehearsal).
The Laws of Learning:
The Law of Effect

A satisfying state of affairs leads to repetition of a given behaviour. On the basis of whether or
not this behaviour is reinforced people react to different stimuli differently thus establishing a
pattern of behaviour. The law of effect was modified in the following way: behaviour which is
followed by a pleasant state of affairs is strengthened whereas one which is followed by an
aversive stimulus does not necessarily lead to the extinction of the response. Annoyance aids
learning. It encourages the learner to try something else.
The Law of Readiness

Quates Herzehahn (1982) says:
1. If a person is ready or prepared to engage in a certain behaviour and is provided with the
opportunity to engage in such behaviour, the experience will be a pleasing and satifying
one.
2. If the person is denied the opportunity to engage in that behaviour for which he is ready,
it will result in frustration and annoyance.
3. If one is not yet ready to engage in a certain behaviour and yet he is forced to do so, the
end result will be annoyance. Interfering with good directed behaviour causes frustration
and making someone to do what they do not want is also frustrating. The teacher should
ensure that the students are ready to learn in terms of their attitude, motivation, age
interest, etc. The teacher should not teach the students above or below their learning
abilities. The wrong responses made by the students should be corrected immediately so
that they are not practiced or strengthened, through response substitution. Teachers
should know that they are responsible for determining the stimuli which the students
respond to. Consequences of behaviour are important variables in learning.
The Law of Exercise

A strong bond or connection is established between a stimulus and response as a result of
practice. In connection with this is the law of use and disuse. The law of use is a connection
between stimulus and response which is strengthened by frequent use. The law of disuse is that
the frequent use of a connection between stimulus and response weakens and is likely to stamp
out the connection. The law of exercise was later modified to say practice leads to mastery of a
response on condition that it is accompanied by a feedback which shows how the person is
progressing i.e. correcting errors and perfecting correct responses. The teacher is reminded of
the following: 1. The student should be given ample opportunity to practice what they have

28
learnt through activities, assignment, exams, etc. 2. Students should be given time to revise what
they have learned.
FORGETTING/AMNESIA
This is the inability to remember what one learned or part of it.
Causes of forgetting:
1. Lack of interest or motivation.
2. Lack of practice.
3. Lack of value/importance attached to what is learned.
4. Low intensity of what was learned, i.e. stimuli.
5. Age.
6. Difficulty of what was learned.
Theories of Forgetting
In the mind of the one trying to remember there could be:
1. Passive decay- theory. This is when on learns or encounters an experience and a
memory trace is made. After sometime, because of the infrequent use of the memory
trace, there is a memory failing of information. The trace slowly disintegrates and
becomes extinct, e.g. a path which is not used soon gets bushy. If there is no renewal of
the memory trace, weeds grow. Lack of mastery of what is learned, eagerness or urge to
learn, anxiety, physio-psychological phenomena, level of relaxation and arousal either
too low or too high, can lead to forgetting.
2. Systemic distortion-theory. The memory trace is systematically distorted. Some people
remember things that might have never taken place or taken place in a different way in
which they happened. An event is recalled at the time it happened rather than later.
People forget at the time the event is happening due to lack of attention.
3. Interference theory. Interference takes place between 1 and 2 points above. Point 1 is
where information is learned and point 2 is where information is required to be shown
that it was learned.
Two types of Interference include:

A. Retroactive interference where the new learning affects the old learning e.g. as you
register new students you forget the old ones. Hence, in the classroom there is a tendency of
the new information pushing out the old one from the LTM.
B. Proactive inhibition is where the old information is recalled, more than the new one, e.g.
on school time table, mathematics should not be followed by physics as it will lead to a mix
up of information. In social relations this can lead to problems when the new girl friend or
wife is called by the name of the previous one!
4. Retrieval theory. This is the failure to retrieve or access stored information in the
memory due to technical problems. Failure may be due to internal factors e.g. sickness,
frustration, etc.
5. Repressive theory. This suggests that one can forget due to ones motivated intention not
to remember which is usually disappointing e.g. politicians and religious people who
change face force themselves to forget the other one.

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The Teachers Role in Reducing Forgetting in the Learner

1. Make learning meaningful to the students by using affective teaching strategies e.g.
participatory approach.
2. Use variety of relevant teaching aids that will help the students to form mental pictures.
3. Provide a conducive learning environment, lighting, sitting.
4. Reduce proactive and retroactive obstacles e.g. rebuking and punishing students
5. Provide opportunity for active participation and practice by students.
SLEEP
This is a period/time of rest, when the body and brain partially suspend certain functions and
sensitivity to the external stimuli but can readily and easily be resumed. The younger the person,
the more sleep they need; 16 hours for a baby and 8 hours for an adult. One third of ones
lifetime is devoted to sleep.
Research has shown that there are stages to sleep. As one undresses to go to bed, the brain moves
at 14 cycles per second. In bed the body relaxes and the brain waves move at 8 — 12 cycles per
second. By the time the person gets to the 1st stage of sleep, the brain waves are at 3 -7 cycles
per second.
This stage has some characteristics:

 Brain waves slow down
 Slow rolling eye movements
 Dream-like imaginations
 Very light sleep from which one can easily be woken up
 The body temperature decreases metabolically
 Breathing slows down or becomes irregular
 Muscle tension decreases - relaxed
 The heartbeat slows down
The 2nd Stage of sleep consists of small bursts of electrical activities with brain waves at 12-16
cycles per seconds, and dont last very long.
The 3rd Stage of sleep involves more relaxation and deep sleep with brain waves between 1-2
cycles per second. Breathing and heartbeat rate slow down considerably.
We usually experience about 6 cycles of sleep, each lasting 100 minutes.
When we reach the 4th Stage we go back to stage 3, then stage 2, but not stage 1. Then you drop
to the most important Stage 5 or rapid eye movement stage — REM, which is the running gear
of sleep. Here you are in very deep sleep and cannot easily be woken up. It is the most satisfying
stage of sleep and most dreams occur here. When you wake up, you can better talk about the
dream than in the other stages. Dreaming is more frequent at this stage.

30
At this stage: dreaming is irregular; pulse rate is irregular; muscle tone is completely relaxed;
there is hardly any body movement — the body state almost goes to the state of paralysis; sexual
arousal and sexual dreams take place at this stage and some men get wet dreams.
The 1st 4 stages take about 90 minutes. The REM takes 10 minutes. The cycle is repeated about 4
times in the night.
Deprivation of Sleep
Research has shown that lack of sleep leads to irritability, fatigue, poor concentration, reduced
muscle coordination, reduced vigilance/not so energetic, reduced decision making, reduction in
communication skills, lack of attention, slowing down of pace, slowing down of learning,
forgetfulness and reduced general performance at work.
Functions of Sleep
1. Provides time and opportunity for the body to sort out physiology - sanity of the
individual.
2. Reinstates tranquility.
3. Refreshes body and mind.
4. Provides opportunity to dream.
Dreaming
This is that state of mind when the physiology of the body and nervous system are at their
lowest, but the cognitive aspects are out of pace with the body structure. It is a spill-over of the
mind. You have a lot on your mind and this spills over in the dream. The major function is to
give us wishful thinking fulfillment. It helps us in dealing with impossible issues. It helps us
resolve difficult issues and solve problems. It helps us maintain sleep in the face of physiological
activation of the brain.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: This is difficulty in falling asleep or not sleeping deeply throughout the night, and
waking up before it is time to do so. This is more common in women who are usually shy,
depressed, tired and complain about physical aspects their bodies.
Causes of Insomnia
 High level anxiety/tension
 Emotional problems e.g. stress at work; home conflicts; etc.
 Physiological pain e.g. asthma, hypertension, back-ache, etc.
 Use of drugs like cocaine, amphetamines, stimulants, etc.
Hypersomnia: This is the difficulty in keeping awake.
Bed wetting: This is natural in children but in adults, it is a sign of depression. It is a

psychological symptom of something wrong i.e. an emotional problem. In children it may be a
sign of immaturity of the nervous system, but should stop at 8-9 years of age. In children, it
could also be a sign of wanting to inflict pain to the adult. Older men and women may also
develop complications of the urinary tract, but this can be corrected surgically.
Sleep talking/walking: Fifteen percent of all children between 5-12 years sleep walk at least
once. 1-6 % do it regularly (Anders et al 1980). A sleep walking child sits up abruptly with his

31
eyes wide open, gets out of bed and moves about so clumsily that he needs to be protected so as
not to get hurt. His surroundings should be sleep walk proofed. Talking during sleep is usually
purposeless and the words are difficult to understand.
Educational Implications of Sleep

 Pupils need sleep to succeed in their studies. A good number of them dont have enough
sleep because of their expected daily routines at home.
 Some teachers have encroached on childrens rights by giving them a lot of homework to
do before the following day, right from Kindergarten!
 There are homes where there is so much activity that it is almost difficult for a child to
sleep e.g. when the business is beer selling.
 Some people tend to force themselves not to sleep for various reasons. In examination
times students put feet in water, take too much coffee, walk around, to try to depress the
nervous system. This has negative effects on the body and mind.
 Some people use drugs to stay awake. Some smoke to keep awake. However, an alert and
fresh mind free of sleep is most likely to absorb more, retrieve more information, etc.
than a tired one. Therefore, learners who dont have enough sleep are more irritable, less
alert, etc. Thus children should be given opportunity to have enough time to sleep. Let
them do homework at school. Teachers should follow this up with the parents and help
them help the children.
 Sometimes sleep is a sign of improper feeding. Parents should be helped to not only give
expecting/lactating mothers, and children a balanced diet but also how and when what
should be eaten. The health of the child needs to be improved.
LEARNERS INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Intellectual differences
To analyse intellectual differences we look at an individuals intelligence quotient (IQ). IQ is the
measure of intelligence. To calculate the individuals IQ the following formula is applied:
IQ = MA X 100
CA
Where IQ = Intelligence quotient

MA = Mental age
CA = Chronological age
The concept of mental age implies that an individual of a certain age is able to pass certain items
of an intelligence test which items are usually passed by other people of the same age.
Chronological age is the individuals normal age.
It is possible for an individual to have a very low chronological age and a very high mental age.
This individual would be gifted or highly intelligent or a genius, e.g. a person whose
chronological age is 15 but whose mental age is 30 would have the following IQ:
IQ = MA X 100
CA

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= 30 X 100
15
= 200
The reverse would be true:
IQ = MA X 100
CA
= 15 X 100
30
= 50
Such an individual would be mentally retarded.
This method works up to the start of adolescence. It is a traditional and rather old fashioned way
of calculating IQ. Today, psychologists use the concept of DEVIATION IQ for calculating
intelligence levels. This is done by looking at the characteristics of the group to which the
individual belongs such as the mean score and the standard deviation. Calculation of the
Deviation IQ is rather complicated.
Personality differences
There are big differences in the personality types of learners. Some will be shy, reserved and
may not want to participate directly in class work. They may not even put up their hands when
asked a question even if they know the answer. Such learners are called INTROVERTS.
There is another category of learners that are free and easily interact with others, are playful and
easily make friends. They are outward looking. These are called EXTRAVERTS.
Another personality type is of learners that enjoy punishing others and like fighting. They have
PSYCHOTIC tendencies and are sadists. Their joy is when others are sad. If they are not
controlled, they can become psychotics.
NEUROTICS are learners who are usually restless. They can say they are sick without any
psychological or physiological basis for the sickness. They are irritable, easily disturb and fail to
concentrate. This behavior may be due to a shattering experience such as a loss of a loved, which
can lead to hysteria.
AMBIVERTS are learners who can exhibit both introversion and extraversion at different times.
(Refer to Human Growth and Development for other personality types).
As a teacher, you need to cater to all individual differences of the learners.
Socio-economic status differences (SES)

33
Some parents are rich and can afford decent and a high level of education for their children.
They belong to a high SES status. SES is comprised of the type of occupation, years of
education, size of income, type of housing and location of a particular area of residence.
Children from high SES have an opportunity to learn well because they have the necessary
facilities. Children from low SES usually find it difficult to learn since they lack the basic
necessities.
Sex differences
Generally, intelligence levels of both men and women are the same but many researches show
that girls have a higher reading ability than boys. In terms of physical development, it has been
noted that girls generally mature earlier than boys. During pregnancy boys are more likely to be
aborted than girls (Willerman, 19997). This is because of the extra X chromosome that girls
have and it protects them but boys dont have it.
Age differences
The development of intelligence is closely related to age. Generally, as children grow from
childhood to adolescence the intelligence level increases. After adolescence, decline sets in.
Similarly, the sense of perception tends to decrease with age. The same case applies to the sense
of hearing. In tasks involving motor activity, older people work more slowly. Thus speed tends
to decrease with advancing age.
MOTIVATION
Motivation is an internal condition initiated by drives, needs or desires, and produces goal
directed behavior (Lefton 1985: 129). Motivation is a feeling within an individual which
activates that individual and directs him/her to the achievement of a certain goal(s). Thus,
motivation is goal-oriented and has a purpose. Without a reason for engaging in a certain
behavior and without hoping to attain something, there would be no motivation. The stronger the
motivation, the more likely the action will take place.
Psychologically, motivation occurs when there is an imbalance in the regulation of bodily

processes. The body in seeking to establish some equilibrium generates a need which has to be
satisfied. When a state of balance has been achieved, there will no longer be a need for
motivation. The state of balance is called homeostasis.
Both drives and needs are closely linked to motives. A drive is an internally aroused condition
that makes an organism want to satisfy a need. A need is a physiological condition existing in an
organism. It arises from an imbalance in bodily processes.
Motivation Theories
Drive Theory
Mowrer and Spence state that drives energize behavior. Previous experiences and tendencies also
determine the present behavior.
The theory says that if an organism is deprived of certain essentials like food, water, etc, then it
can be said that that organism is in a state of need. The need leads to arousal which is known as
the drive state. The drive state will make the organism engage in behavior that will reduce the

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need. Once the need has been satisfied, the drive will subside. But if the need becomes too great,
there will come a time when drive ceases to increase, e.g. when a person is too hungry, they may
reach a point when they become too weak to eat.
Expectancy Theory
According to Lefton (1985), this theory explains a persons expectation of success and the value
placed on that success. The theory is achievement oriented. People engage in behavior which
satisfies their need, success, mastery and fulfillment. Tasks which do not lead to fulfillment of
these goals are non-motivating and will be carried out with little energy and half-hearted
commitment. The theory emphasizes acquired or learned social drives and not inherited ones.
Arousal Theory
Sometimes people want to increase their stimulation and sometimes they want to decrease it.
This theory asserts that if arousal or stimulation falls too low, people will try to increase it until
they have reached the optimum level. The theory is summarized into a law, a scientifically
verified statement called YERKES-DODSON LAW. This law states that when a persons anxiety
and level of arousal are too high or too low, performance will be poor. A graph to explain this is
like an inverted U.
Diagram
Cognitive Theory
This theory emphasizes the role of thinking and decision making in motivation. An individual is
driven to change in behavior because of what he/she thinks i.e. his/her decision making process.
Individuals get involved in the determination of their own goals and how they will achieve them.
Individuals may be internally or externally motivated. Internal motivation is called intrinsic
motivation while external motivation is called extrinsic motivation. Hunger and thirst are
examples of internal motivation. But rewards like thank you are examples of external
motivation.
The Humanistic Theory

This theory postulates that the behavior of an individual is motivated by desires for creativity,
choice, and self-actualisation. The dignity, freedom and choice of the individual are important in
his/her motivation. Behaviour is engaged in by an individual holistically and not in bits and
pieces. The environment in which the individual operates, and the values that he/she holds, lead
to that individuals motivation. An individual who does not value himself/herself is not likely to
be highly motivated. Thus, self-esteem facilitates motivation.
Maslow is one of the Humanistic psychologists who put forward a theory to explain motivation.
He suggested a pyramid of needs which must be satisfied before an individual can be said to be
completely motivated. This is shown below:

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Self
Actua-
Lisation
Aesthetic
Needs
Cognitive
Needs
Esteem Needs
Belongingness and Love
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
According to Maslow, the individuals physiological needs should be met 1st before motivation
takes place. Needs like food, water, air, etc., should be satisfied 1st before an individual can
accomplish any task.

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After most physiological needs have been satisfied, the individual must feel secure if he/she
hopes to achieve anything. After that, the individual must feel that he/she belongs
(belongingness) and is loved. The individual must have a sense of identity and should feel loved,
and that their contributions are valued. Next, the esteem needs must be fulfilled i.e. the need to
achieve, to be competent, to excel, to gain approval and recognition.
Cognitive needs come next. These needs include the need to know, to understand and be
understood, and to explore. Once these needs have been satisfied, the individual goes on to
achieve aesthetic needs. These needs have something to do with appreciation of beauty. They
also take into account order and symmetry. The presence and ability to appreciate these things
constitutes aesthetics.
At the top of the pyramid is Self Actualization or self fulfillment. Self actualized people are very
highly motivated individuals who have achieved their true natures and fulfilled their potential.
Relevance of Maslows law of Hierarchy of Needs to the Classroom

 An individual whose psychological needs have not been met is very difficult if not
impossible to teach! You cannot teach a hungry or thirsty person. They cannot internalize
what is taught. It is not hygienic to teach learners in a crowded or poorly ventilated
classroom where they can suffocate. As a teacher therefore, ensure that the children you
teach are healthy and that most of their physiological needs have been satisfied.
 A person who is unsafe or feels unsafe can hardly concentrate on his/her studies. This is
why it is difficult to teach children in insecure areas. The academic performance of such
children is significantly low compared to performance of children in other areas.
 An individual, whose contributions are not valued by members in his/her immediate
society/community/class, may not be persuaded to achieve more. As a teacher you should
thus, show love, a sincere concern and a sense of acceptance (belongingness) to the
learners. Identify with them. Feel empathic towards them. Do not use corporal
punishment to humiliate them. Do not use sarcastic language to hurt their pride and self-
esteem. When teaching, ensure that everyone is involved in the lesson and is actively
participating. Even the children who do not put up their hands should be prompted to say
something.
 The best methods to use to ensure all these are participatory methods of teaching. These
child-friendly methods will make the learners optimize their contributions in the lessons
taught. All the activities outlined above will raise the self-esteem of the children, help
satisfy their cognitive needs, as well as their aesthetic and self actualization needs.
 As a teacher, encourage learning by doing, experimentation, improvisation and
recognition if you have to ensure the fulfillment of the needs of the learners as outlined
by Maslow.
 Finally, this will imply that both the extrinsic and intrinsic needs of the learner are being
attended to.
Types of Thinking:
Thinking

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Thinking or cognition refers to all the mental activities associated with processing,
understanding and communicating. As we think we form concepts that organize our world; we
solve problems and we make efficient decisions and adjustments.
Divergent Versus Convergent Production
When thinking is creative and open ended with no expected or defined results, it is called
divergent thinking e.g. how to get to a given place from where one is. You could walk or use a
motorcycle, or a car, or a plane. This is divergent thinking. But when there is a logical flow of
thought which has to end at only one solution to the problem, then it is convergent thinking.
Mathematics problems, science questions and multiple choice tests are examples of convergent
production thinking. Planning a programme, writing a poem or an essay or discussing a solution
to a current economic problem does not have one correct answer and so it is divergent
production thinking. In talking or thinking you either have to be focused or open ended. Both of
these are used in everyday life.
Problem Solving
This is a major way of thinking in teaching. It is an attempt to reach a logical solution to a
problem. The learner must utilize all operations of thinking, switching back and forth, i.e.
divergent, cognition, memory recall, etc. Evaluation can be used to check on progress and
accuracy of what has been done. Convergent production can be used for logical thinking.
Evaluation tells a person that a correct answer has been reached. Therefore, for one to solve a
problem one relies upon ones memory and storage of associations based on facts. A person also
relies on logical mathematical operations for data manipulation. Experience is needed with
previous problems which can lead one to adopt certain strategies for reaching a solution e.g.
space problems are first calculated in class.
Skills for Problem solving

These depend on an individual. There are no hard and first hand rules. Most educators suggest
the following:
1. Problem discovery - Identification and formulation of the problem. The learner must
correctly understand the problem to be solved. He must rehearse it in his own words to
make sure that it is clear.
2. There should be organizing and processing of the problem information. The learner must
know how to select relevant information from the problem stated. The leaner must be
able to identify missing information and organize that data so that a solution can be
produced.
3. Idea generation - the capacity to generate principles and concepts relevant to the problem
is mandatory to finding a solution. The learner must be able to carry out convergent and
divergent thinking in order to come up with possible solutions.
4. Evaluation of ideas - the learner must be able to judge the progress to a solution, and
adequacy or inadequacy of the solution itself. The leaner must decide for himself the
strengths and weaknesses of the solution. E.g. in a classroom there is a problem of
seating arrangement. The problem should be stated. There is need to brain storm on the
problem - may be the room is too small, or the room is just disorganized. There could be
too many chairs in the room. The door does not lock properly. The classroom is not
swept. Or there could be open sockets, etc.
5. Organization and Processing of the problem. This involves generation of ideas without
condemning any idea. Evaluate the ideas. Arrange them accordingly. E.g. a school is

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faced with the problem of poor meals for students. Clearly identify the problem, generate
ideas, organize, etc.
6. Solution - this could be a workable solution. If it does not work, retrace problem solving
steps or start the process again.
Creativity
This is the ability to produce or generate new ideas/responses which are unique or unusual but
which are relevant to what has already been learnt. This implies that given the associations and
conceptualizations available a creative person can develop a new and appropriate way to design,
make, or describe something. A person needs a minimum amount of intelligence (100% I.Q.) to
be creative. Beyond this, intelligence is not essential for creativity. Learning involves association
of material. Creativity is another way of problem solving.
How to Enhance Creativity

Teachers should provide opportunities for practice, discovery, minimize fear of failure and
teasing. Teachers should encourage class discussions. Dont entertain the word wrong. Teachers
should encourage learners to do things their way especially in the fine arts and aesthetic
performances. Appreciate individual differences. Derogatory statements should be avoided.
How do we teach for Creativity?
1. Train teachers within the curriculum to be oriented to creativity, i.e. in PTCs, NTCs,
Universities, etc.
2. Make the curriculum practical and challenging without highlighting failure
3. Creativity can be found in every subject, so teachers should cultivate it.
LEARNING STRATEGIES
Research has shown the following strategies:
1. Field dependence - Field independence. In Field dependence the students tend to
interpret information in the context they find it. They are not analytical. They find it
difficult to analyse content outside this context. They cant analyse parts of a sentence.
They want the whole and not parts of something. They tend to handle a situation wholly
and not in parts. The Field — independent students on the other hand, are more
analytical. They reason in parts of a statement without being tied to the whole. These
type of students can impose organization and structure on a chaotic scene more than the
field - dependent ones. E.g. in an art gallery a student can impose order in an abstract
piece of art. Field independent students will more likely detach components from the
whole component. Such students will do better in geometry and engineering while the
field dependent will do better at social sciences i.e. contexts and relations involving
people. Girls do better at languages than sciences because society imposes on them field
dependency.
2. External - Internal Control. This is to do with locus of control. The external learners
tend to be influenced by the environment in order to learn. Internally controlled learners
want to do it on their own. They take pride in doing things on their own (discovery
learning).
3. Impulsive - Reflective learners. The impulsive learner gives hasty answers. The
reflective learner will ask questions like why? He answers questions more slowly with
more awareness of other possibilities. Young children are usually impulsive. People

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become more and more reflective as they grow older. A reflective learner shows greater
success at learning and is more consistent and persistent.
How to Improve Learning Strategies

This is done by conceptualizing information through elaborate memory using the following
methods: SQ 3: Survey, Question, Read, Rehearse, Review.
Survey
Here the leaner schemes through the material to get the general organization and content of what
is learnt. In so doing, he takes notes of headings and sub-headings.
Question
A student asks himself questions e.g. what does the author mean here? The student should
involve himself in the ideas passed on.
Read
The leaner should read the material a 2nd time without taking notes. The student should tell
himself what the topics of the material are and what they say.
Rehearse
The learner should rehearse the material and look back at what he cannot recall. He should try to
think at this level in an effort to get answers to some questions.
Review
The student checks all material to find out whether he has misunderstood, omitted or missed out
anything. He may need to study more.
Rote memory
This can also improve learning. It is not the best way but sometimes it is essential. This can be
done through mnemonics, over-learning or rehearsal.
Study parts
Here you divide the information into smaller bits and practice them. Long bits of information are
very difficult to learn. Change the order of learning because research has shown that the 1 st and
last parts of learning are remembered more than the middle part.
Distributive practice
Get bits and pieces, shorter and more frequently than in a marathon, e.g. it is easier to run
100metres than 3000metres. Short daily sessions with rest in between are better than large
material at one sitting.
Why do we teach?
1. Because what is learnt in the classroom should be applied elsewhere in similar situations.
2. Knowledge acquired here is used to acquire more knowledge.
3. There should be transfer of learning. Transfer is that which one has learnt in one situation
and is used to learn something else or to carry out tasks in similar but different situations
in real life. Courses are thus, taught with the hope of making better teachers. E.g.
teachers should not beat students because they themselves were beaten at school.

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Types of transfer
Information learned can be transferred in several ways:
a. Identity. When there are identical elements in the given materials i.e. the closer the new
material to be learnt is to the already learnt information the easier it will be transferred. E.g.
students learn about road safety in class and as they go home they observe traffic rules
(association).
b. Positive transfer. If transfer facilitates behaviour, it is said to be positive, e.g. if mathematics
skills help students shop wisely, it is positive. Using rewards also enables positive transfer.
c. Negative transfer. If transfer hinders new learning, it is negative e.g. if the teacher uses
elaborate division methods to calculate simple mathematics it is negative.
d. Zero transfer. Is when what is learnt does not assist or hinder new learning, e.g. physics does
not assist in history.
e. Vertical transfer. Is when learning simpler tasks may help a student to learn more difficult
ones, e.g. effects of learned capability can be moved from one level to another in the same
subject.
f. Horizontal transfer. Is when learning spreads over a broad set of information at the same level,
e.g. using knowledge from one set to another e.g. from physics to mathematics.
Factors that Facilitate Transfer of Learning
1. Transfer appropriate processing: processing that transfers to a task that requires similar
processing practice on one task that will help you perform another task to the extent that
the 2 tasks require similar processing.
2. Breadth of processing: processing that organizes and integrates information into

previously stored information, often by making associations. Information is encoded
more effectively if it is ORGANISED and INTEGRATED into what you already know.
3. Elaborate encoding: encoding that involves great breadth of processing takes into account
the ability to organize and integrate information about numbers.
4. Distributed practice: studying in small chunks of time, spread out over time. Each chunk
helps you remember the next one.
5. Massed practice: studying all in one session or cramming.
6. Integrated learning: learning that occurs as a result of trying to learn. Effort is put on
trying to learn something.
7. Incidental learning: learning that occurs without intention.
Classroom Learning: Knowledge of Results
This gives self-competition and promotes learning. It is necessary for to give feedback in the
classroom (an exercise, preferably written). Repetition of responses is known to be successful
through reinforcement, i.e. know how well one is doing. There is also avoidance of mistakes. It

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is boring to always be good or always succeed. One should learn from mistakes. There is an
enhancement of motivation when one has done very well. The subject becomes more interesting
and a student wants to learn more. Going for further studies motivates one to learn more.
Psychological rewards, group or individual rewards motivate one to want to learn more. If the
feedback is scorn, one will not know where to start from to go on in learning.
Classroom Management and Instruction
What is a class? This is one or more learners assembled for the purpose of being taught by at
least one teacher.
Who is a teacher? This is someone who is accepted as more knowledgeable than the learners
engaged in transmitting his expertise to the learners.
What is a classroom? This is a place real or imaginary where a class assembles to be taught.
What is a group? In socio-psychology this is a number of people with a common goal and with a
leader or leaders and follower or followers. Two people can make a group. In the classroom, the
class is a group and group discussions of 2 to 5 people can be formed.
Why do people form groups? In the classroom there can be sub-groups or big groups. The class
is a group with the teacher as a leader. Leadership in a healthy group is not necessarily
permanent but the principles are permanent, one of which is conformity. With younger children
there is shifting of groups but in the older ones, groups are more permanent. Sub-groups have
leaders too, e.g. tough groups, guards, those waiting to harass others, etc. Sub-groups may
constitute persons who are nature-lovers, environmentalists, average achievers, future scientists,
those who love to read the bible, etc. Under-achievers for example, find solace and support in
each other.
Why do people form groups? 1. To obtain a common goal. 2. To safeguard identity. 3. To

engage in common activities for mutual as well as individual benefits, e.g. students who enjoy
films, concerts, discos, bible reading, etc. Adults form groups for political, social or religious
reasons.
The Social Comparison Theory by Leone Festinger

Festinger advanced the theory that people have a need for self evaluation of their opinions and
abilities. It is easy to evaluate ourselves because there are objective standards that tell us where
we stand compared to others, e.g. marks tell us how well we are doing in class in relation to
others. Discussions tell us how good discussants we are, i.e. when our points are accepted, or
why people reject what we say.
When there are no objective standards to help us judge ourselves, we tend to compare our
reactions with those of others. The more uncertain we are about our beliefs, the greater our need
for social comparison, i.e. what do others think; should I vote for this party or not? Let me first
consult so and so. As a rule, people seek out others similar to themselves to get the solution in
order to evaluate their own reactions, e.g. university students will ask room-mates or classmates
opinions on sex or intimate issues. These are regarded as more informed than their parents.

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Most people are set within the group, i.e. attraction to groups where members are similar to
themselves. Psychological research has shown that many people join groups in order to affiliate
with others as anxious or miserable as themselves, i.e. have common goals.
How Groups Influence Behaviour

There are certain standards of behaviour that one must have in order to belong to a certain group.
There is strong pressure on individuals to conform to the majority standards. The individual has
to behave that way in order to benefit from the group, e.g. Uganda Teachers Association,
football cheering clubs, political parties, Uganda Writers club, the Saved group, Gangs, etc.
Group standards are known as norms. Each group has different norms. This applies in the
classroom situation as well. One shares some of ones goals in a group and one identifies a part of
oneself in each of these goals. Groups originate from traits or feelings, norms, peer pressure,
family, etc. Research shows that people will want to associate with others who are as anxious or
miserable as they are.
The Teacher as a Group Leader

Rarely is any individual fully committed to one group only, e.g. a father is also a chairman of
PTA in a childs school. There must be a coherent force to hold together the group and help
members share ideas. In a classroom, this force is the teacher. He is the group leader. In a family
a child learns that there are leaders. This recognition leads to stability and cohesiveness of the
group. A child sees this in a teacher in the classroom. Leaders among children include class
monitors and prefects. The team captain, coach, head of department, president, local council
chairman, clan head, etc. are all leaders that hold groups together.
It is possible to have a group with many leaders, e.g. in class there is a football captain, class
coordinator, mobilizer, councilor, judge, etc. Research has shown that an individuals achieved
status is the function of their personality. The question of whether leaders are born or not does
not include monarchies who simply inherit leadership. Here leadership is in the blood and it
radiates wherever the person goes. There is sufficient evidence on the other hand, that leadership
is an emergent phenomenon created by others around. Selection of a leader is a foundation of the
task that has to be done, i.e. it determines the composition and culture of the group. It can
therefore, be argued that an individuals leadership is the function of his personality and the
group setting. It is possible to have a leader in a group but the setting is not conducive for him.
Therefore, the teachers role as a leader is defined by his personality, his attitude towards
learners, and by the constraints and demands of the teaching profession itself, together with the
learning environment.
Classroom Control
A classroom is a social institution. An institution must have basic regulations governing
members of the institution. Without proper running of the institution, there will be no achieved
goals. Discipline must be present, i.e. control, which is the way leaders enforce regulations for
proper running of the institution in order to bring about proper learning. To say that something is
not within ones discipline means that it is not within ones body of knowledge, which is different
from classroom discipline. Without control, there develops anarchy and chaos, hence, no proper
teaching and learning.

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Discipline is trying to carry out the regulation. Failure to observe the regulation does not make
the person undisciplined. There will only be reprimand measures. Discipline will mean
controlling as well as practicing training of students to obey rules, regulations and the code of
conduct using punitive measures to maintain order and to correct wrong doing or disobedience,
i.e. shaping the learner.
The Elements of Discipline

1. A class has leaders and followers. There must be rules and regulations to be used as
guides.
2. Rewards and punishment should be enforced for good and bad behaviour respectively.
3. There must be democracy as a method of electing, selecting, nominating or appointing
leaders.
4. There should not be rigidity in ensuring that rules and regulations are enforced.
5. Members must have responsibilities: this applies for both learners and teachers.
Origins of good and bad behaviour
A. Children
1. The child rearing practices. These may or may not be congruent with those expected at
school or classroom, e.g. respect other peoples property. Some cultures circumcise as a sign
of maturity. An uncircumcised teacher will be considered immature therefore, and will have
problems disciplining students from such a culture.
2. Conformity to peer pressure to avoid rejection can lead to a given type of behaviour
especially when there is unrest in class or school. This can happen even when learners know
that it is wrong, but as long as the majority side with it, e.g. a strike. If the majority of the
students like the teacher the few who dont like him have to keep quiet.
3. Immaturity. For some reason some people just never grow or mature, and this affects their
behaviour.
4. Frustration at school or home. Students come to school with their own frustrations and thus
find an object to transfer their anger to, e.g. a teacher or fellow students. A student who is
finding difficulty in learning can get frustrated and do unacceptable things.
5. Encouragement at school or home. Some parents and teachers praise students while others
scold them. Some teachers encourage students to go against other teachers to gain cheap
popularity, which is against the teachers professional ethics.
6. Attention seekers. Individuals will do anything to attract attention, good or bad. This is
common in classes with poor performance.
7. Desire not to make mistakes and be scorned or reprimanded. If a child cant make it, they
look for other ways of making it, e.g. cheating.
B. The Home as Origin of Good or Bad Behaviour.

A child who lacks love and good care at home is most likely not going to respect teachers and
regulations. He may extend this perception of his parents to all adults. Some students get so
preoccupied with problems at home, especially parents marital problems that they are unable to
concentrate in class.
The economic status of parents can also affect students. Some parents try to satisfy their
children. Some students miss school because they are carrying out home errands. They normally
come late to school, sleep in class, etc.

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Parents sometimes negatively discuss teachers in front of their children.

Some parents disregard the role of education. They didnt go very far with education and are very
rich. So, they dont see the purpose of going to school and following school regulations.
Some parents and adults have little respect for female teachers.
Some parents have too much love for their children.
Some parents are too harsh on their children.
Some parents seek cheap popularity from the children by downgrading the other parent.
Teachers disagree with fellow teachers in front of students or children at home.
SCHOOL DISCIPLINE & CLASS DISCIPLINE
Pupil versus Pupil

This can be due to performance. If one child is doing better than the other it can breed
disagreement. They can be called names, wiseacres, etc. There is jealousy between the clever
and less clever children; able and less able children. There could be envy between ethnic groups.
There could be disagreement between opposite sexes. Disagreement could be due to difference
in socio-economic status. It could be due to political affiliations that affect even school elections.
Disagreement can be due to lack of respect for each other or their property. There could be
personality differences. It could be due to rivalry for favour.
Pupils versus Teachers and Administrators

The guidelines, rules and regulations that exist in the school and classroom influence the
discipline in the class and school. The personality of the teacher and that of the Head teacher
also influence discipline. This goes hand-in-hand with the approach that is used in conducting
business at school or class. Students are rarely consulted on issues to do with meals, fees,
content, methodology of teaching, etc.
There is lack of trust between students and teachers. There is too much of they as opposed to us.
In the school there must be both students and teachers. The two are interdependent. The students
role is to understand what is taught. There shouldnt be suspicion between the two groups. Where
there is suspicion, there will be mistrust and lack of communication especially in money matters.
The Head teacher needs to be transparent and explain how funds are used in the school.
Training Programmes
How teachers are trained can also influence discipline in the schools and classes. Some teachers
are trained to be authoritarian (dictators). A teacher should accept correction, guidance and
counseling. Guidance and counseling should start at kindergarten and go on throughout life.
Poor training programmes bring about poor teachers expectations. After qualifying as teachers,
the teachers still need in-service courses, seminars, workshops, etc. and not just get too busy
teaching only.
Political Policies
These can also lead to indiscipline in school or class. Policies such as UPE and USE have not
been clearly understood and implemented. The success of such policies depends on the attitude
of the teachers.

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Differential Treatment of Teachers among students and vice versa

This can also lead to indiscipline. Students can form biases for and against given teachers
leading to indiscipline.
The creation of streams in classes according to performance can lead to indiscipline.

The creation of super schools like Layibi, Sir Samuel Baker, etc. can also lead to indiscipline.
Poor facilitation of schools can also lead to indiscipline.
The nature of the curriculum and syllabi can also lead to indiscipline.
Characteristics of a Good Classroom Atmosphere

1. It is not super and not dilapidated.
2. It has room orientation against sun, wind, rain, etc.
3. It has adequate light, ventilation, fresh air, sitting space, seats, furniture, shelter,
numbers, etc.
4. It should be cool: a shade, bamboo, papyrus, banana leaves, spear grass, etc.
5. It should have chalk, chalkboard, board rubber/duster and notice board.
6. It should be located where there is minimum disruption.
7. It should be near a toilet with water and soap.
8. There should be a fire extinguisher and a 1st Aid Box.
9. It should have storage and library facilities - this can be a box.
10. It should have books and reading materials.
11. There should be a time table displayed at a strategic position.
12. There should be a nature table or corner in primary schools.
13. The class teachers and subject teachers names should be at some corner.
14. Students names and sitting arrangements especially for primary schools, should be
displayed.
15. The classroom should be labeled on the door, e.g. S.1.
16. There should be a free period on the time table for discussion and free association with
students.
Characteristics of Ideal Pupils/Students

1. They should be healthy and alert.
2. They must be smart and preferably in uniform, for identity and conformity. This
minimizes socio-economic differences.
3. They should have the basic requirement, e.g. pens, pencils, rubber, exercise books, text
books, etc. The school can provide when the child cannot do so. Childrens things should
be labeled and checked.
4. The child must have some freedom in the classroom. Peer teaching is important to allow
for minimum acceptable interaction.
Characteristics of an Ideal Teacher

1. He should be knowledgeable, understanding, innovative, emotionally and logically
stable, confident and concerned about children. He is everything in the classroom.
2. He should be smart.
3. He should be friendly but a friend of none.
4. He should be healthy and alert, not sickly and sleepy — no waragi, smoke, red eyes, etc.
5. He should consistently be efficient.

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6. He should adhere to the time-table and attend staff meetings regularly.

7. He should respect parents, fellow teachers, students and the community around.
8. He should be given the optimum teaching load, not over - or under-loaded, to avoid
inefficiency or redundancy.
9. He should have a parental personality.
10. He should be facilitated to teach in a conducive teaching—learning environment.
Characteristics of a Good School Atmosphere

1. There should be a clear boundary between the school and the community to avoid
unnecessary conflicts such as when goats stray into the school premises.
2. There should be regulations for entering and leaving the school.
3. The staff quarters should be clearly marked and be clearly out of bounds to students and
other visitors for security reasons.
4. There should be adequate classrooms and facilities.
5. The class size should be controlled. The Head Teacher should not work at home.
6. There should be properly trained teachers who should be properly catered for, e.g. be
given fringe benefits like adequate housing, an allowance, etc.
7. The Head Teacher should not allow teachers who stay in funny places like slums.
8. There should be proper communication, transport, postage, banking, telephone, basic
medical care including maternity care and the presence of a nurse.
9. The education allowance should be given to teachers, e.g. the 1st 4 children are educated
freely.
10. Meals should be balanced and well cooked.
11. There should be library service which is properly organized where books can be
borrowed, read, returned and news papers displayed.
12. Children who fall sick should be attended to by a doctor.
13. There should be a guidance and counseling department in both primary and secondary
schools.
14. There should be a support staff department including laboratory attendant, cooks,
security officers, cleaners, bursar, etc. Their terms of service must be clear.
15. There should be clear school rules and regulations printed and displayed including a copy
of up-to-date syllabi. New teachers need a letter of appointment, copy of the syllabus,
code of conduct and school standing orders.
16. There should be a stable staff turn-over. Teachers should not over stay or they get
fossilized. They should not also stay for too short a time. A cycle of 6 years is enough,
i.e. S.1 to S.6.
17. The Head teachers office should be easily accessible to both teachers and pupils/students,
not just for caning.
18. The office staff, i.e. secretaries, office managers, etc. should be friendly, understanding
and honest.
19. The Head teacher should also have a time-table and teach in order to know the mood of
the students. He should be a model to convince the community that he is a teacher.
20. The guidance and counseling Head should also teach. Students respect their own class
teacher in case of a strike, for example.
21. There should be a proper accounting system which is elaborate and transparent.
Accountants should be audited. They should have photocopies of all cheques.
22. There must be an emergency room adequately equipped with bed and mattresses,
especially in primary schools. At home children may not get enough sleep.

47
23. Games should be properly organized and time-tabled, not just physical education. This is
when one can identify children with disabilities; develop social relationships, team spirit,
etc.
24. Debates and talks should be properly organized. These teach social interaction, speech
and logic.
25. There should be prompt payment of teachers salaries.
ATTITUDES AND BELIEFS and their Role in the teaching-learning interaction
Definitions:
Nature:
Components:
Functions:
Attitude formation:
Attitude and behavior:
Persuasion:
Resistance to persuasion:

48
Cognitive dissonance:
Effort and recognition speak to the attitudes and beliefs of students. Teachers should show the
connection between effort and achievement.
TEACHERS CODE OF CONDUCT; PROFESSIONAL ETHICS,

RESPONSIBILITIES AND ETIQUETTE
[CURRICULLUM; SCHOOLMANAGEMENT; SYLLABI; ETC., FROM

CURRICULLUM DEPARTMENT.]

49

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EDP 2101 Year 2 HUMAN LEARNING, COGNITION &

LECTURER: HELEN CHRISTINE AMONGIN

Some Key Definitions

Hilgard and Bowle (1991), give three definitions of learning:

A Generalisation: is that unscientific observation based on a number of experiences.

A fact is a temporary truth.

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

What causes association to occur?

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

MEADS SYMBOLIC INTERACTION

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

The Symbolic Mode

Stages in Concept Formation

2. Test the hypotheses.

4. Follow the rules of grouping.

5. Bear in mind that cultural experiences affect concept formation.

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

THE BEHAVIOURALIST THEORIES

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov and Guthrie)

Implications of Pavlovs Theory

 Lessons should be characterized by repetitions, reviewing and practice

How does the Behaviouralist Learning take place?

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Practice is a psychological primitive way of learning, e.g. a baby breastfeeding.

The Purpose of Classical Conditioning in an Organism

4. Once a behaviour is not wanted it can be discouraged.

Disadvantages of Classical Conditioning

1. It is primitive in nature since it tends towards reflex action.

OPERANT CONDITIONING — B.F. Skinner (born in 1904)

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Skinner gives 4 types of reinforcement: primary, positive, secondary and negative.

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

THE COGNITIVE THEORY

Cognition refers to thinking, meaningfulness and organization of information as a part of

Jerome Bruner is a learning and Instructional Psychologist, as well as a human

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

The following should be borne in mind:

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Advantages of Discovery Learning.

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Bruners Theory of Instruction

This is based on the following principles:

Interactive Instructional Indirect

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Instructional Independent Experiential Instructional

Source: Classroom Curriculum Connections: A Teachers Handbook for Personal-

Other Instructional Strategies for engaging Learners

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Marzanos Nine Instructional Strategies for Effective Teaching and Learning

1. Identifying similarities and differences

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

Functions of Blooms Taxonomy

 Provides useful instructional framework to the teacher, test-code instruments and

The Gestalts Approach to learning

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

A triangle or organized dots? The psychological discomfort leads us to call it a triangle

Helen Christine Amongin, FEH, Educational Psychology, Gulu University

A square? The imposition of past experience makes us call this a square.