Class 11TH Physics Notes

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Chapter 1: Physical World
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Physical World
Science
Science is a systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena in as much detail and depth as
possible, and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and control phenomena.
Scientific method can be called as a method to acquire knowledge in a systematic and in-depth
way. It is having:
• Systematic observations
• Controlled experiments
• Qualitative and Quantitative reasoning
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Mathematical modelling
• Prediction and verification (or falsification) of theories
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• Speculation or Prediction
Science will be not having any final theory. The observations which are made using improved,
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accurate tools will be creating improved knowledge and perspective. Tycho Brahe’s research on
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planetary motion has been used by Johannes Kepler for improving Nicolas Copernicus theory.
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Quantum mechanics was developed in order to deal with atomic and nuclear phenomena. Work
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of Ernest Rutherford on nuclear model of atom made the basis of quantum theory suggested by
Niels Bohr. The discovery of antielectron (positron) was led by the Antiparticle theory of Paul
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Dirac by Carl Anderson.

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Natural Sciences: Natural science can be considered as a branch of science which is discussing
about the description, prediction, and understanding of the natural phenomena which is on the
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basis of an observational and empirical evidence. It will be included of the disciplines mentioned
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below:
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• Physics
• Chemistry
• Biology
Physics
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Physics is a fundamental science concerned with understanding the natural phenomena that
occur in our universe.
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It has many branches such as Mechanics, Electromagnetism, Thermodynamics, Modem Physics,
etc. Between 1600 and 1900, three broad areas were developed, which is together called
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Classical Physics. These three areas of study are classical mechanics, thermodynamics and
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electromagnetism. But by 1905 it became apparent that classical ideas failed to explain several
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phenomena. Then some new theories were developed in what is called Modem Physics such as
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Special Relativity, Quantum Mechanics, etc.
Physical World
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The physical world is referred to as the complexity in nature and solving its own complexities will
give us new insights into this physical world. It is referred to as the analysis of nature conducted
in order to understand how the world around us performs.
Top Concepts
• Physics is the branch of science that deals with nature and the natural phenomenon that
occur.
• Physics has two domains - microscopic as well as macroscopic.
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The microscopic domain contains atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomenon, whereas the
macroscopic domain includes phenomena taking place at the laboratory, terrestrial and
astronomical scales.
• Science has a great influence on technology. Some of the technological advancements which
are governed by scientific concepts are given below.
Technology Scientific concept
Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves
Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion
Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics
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Steam engine Law of thermodynamics
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Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light
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The Fundamental Forces of nature
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Gravitational Force: it is a universal force that exists which is of mutual attraction between any
two objects by virtue of their masses.
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The gravitational force has the following properties:

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1. It obeys the inverse square law.

2. It is always attractive in nature.
3. It is a long range force and extends up to infinity.
4. The graviton is the field particle of gravitational force.
5. It is the weakest force operating in nature.
6. It is a central force and hence a conservative force.
Electromagnetic Force: is the force between charged particles. If charges are in a state of rest, it
is given by Coulumb’s law whereas when they are in motion, they generate a magnetic field,
hence the name electromagnetic forces as they are inseparable. They also act over a large
distance as seen in the case of gravitational forces without the intervention of any medium.
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The properties of electromagnetic force are as follows:
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It obeys the inverse square law.
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1.
2. It may be attractive or repulsive in nature.
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3. It is a long range force.
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4. The photon is the field particle of electromagnetic force.
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5. It is about 1036 times stronger than the gravitational force.
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6. It is a central as well as a conservative force.
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Strong Nuclear Force: in a nucleus it binds protons and neutrons. It is the strongest of all the
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fundamental forces and is charge-independent acting between proton-proton, proton-neutron,

or neutron-neutron
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Weak Nuclear Force: observed only in some nuclear processes. Example: β-decay of a nucleus. It
is not as weak as the gravitational force but weaker than electromagnetic and strong nuclear
force
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The nuclear force has the following properties:
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1. The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus. The weak nuclear
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force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as beta decay.
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2. A strong nuclear force is the strongest force in nature. It is about 100 times stronger
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than the electromagnetic force. Weak nuclear force is stronger than the gravitational
force but weaker than the electromagnetic or strong nuclear force.
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3. It is a short-range force and is operative only over the size of nucleus.

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4. A strong nuclear force is responsible for the stability of nuclei.

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Name of force Relative strength (w.r.t. Rane Operates

strong nuclear force) among
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Gravitational 10-39 Infinite All objects in

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universe
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Weak nuclear 10-13 Sub-nuclear size (10−16 Electron and

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Electromagnetic 10-2 Infinite Charged particles
Strong nuclear 1 Nuclear size (10−15 m) Nucleons and
heavier elementary
particles
Unification of Forces
The unification of forces is the idea that it's possible to view all of nature's forces as
manifestations of one single, all-encompassing force. Scientists have made great strides toward
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the goal of understanding how the forces can be combined
Conserved Quantities: In any physical phenomenon governed by different forces, several

quantities change with time, while several quantities remain constant. Such quantities are
called conserved quantities.
• Law of conservation of linear momentum: It states that if no external force acts on a
system, the linear momentum of the system remains conserved. The law of gravitation is
exactly identical on earth and moon even when the acceleration due to gravity at moon is
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𝑡ℎ than that at earth.
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• Law of conservation of energy: In accordance to the general Law of conservation of energy,
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the energies will be fixed over time and get transformed from one form to another. The law
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of conservation of energy will be applied to the whole universe and it has been considered
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that the total energy of the universe is fixed. The nature develops symmetric results at
different time under similar conditions. It states that energy can neither be created nor
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destroyed; however it may change from one form to another.
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• Law of Conservation of Mass: A chemical reaction can be defined as a rearrangement of
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atoms among various molecules. The difference will be formed as heat and the reaction is
exothermic when the total binding energy of the reacting molecules will be less than the total
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binding energy of the product molecules. The opposite will be correct for energy-absorbing
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reactions such as endothermic reactions. As the atoms are not destroyed, only just
rearranged, the summation of the mass of the reactants will be identified as the total mass of
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the products in a chemical reaction. Mass will be in relation to energy through Einstein
theory, E= mc2, where c will be the speed of light in vacuum.
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• Law of conservation of angular momentum: It states that if no external torque acts on a

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system, then the total angular momentum of the system remains conserved.
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Laws Of Physics
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By nature, laws of Physics are stated facts which have been deduced and derived based on
empirical observations. Simply put, the world around us works in a certain way, and physical
laws are a way of classifying that “working.”
Physical laws are just conclusions drawn based on years (or however long it takes) of scientific
observations and experiments which are repeated over and over under different conditions to
reach inferences which can be accepted worldwide. These are continuously validated by the
scientific community over time.
The different properties of laws of Physics which shed information about their nature are given
below:
• True, under specified conditions
• Universal and do not deviate anywhere in the universe
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• Simple in terms of representation

• Absolute and unaffected by external factors
• Stable and appear to be unchanging
• Omnipresent and everything in the universe is compliant (in terms of observations)
• Conservative in terms of quantity
• Homogeneous in terms of space and time
• Theoretically reversible in time
Physics in Relation to Other Sciences
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Physics is a very significant branch of science which plays a crucial role in understanding the
developments pertaining to the other branches of science such as Chemistry, Biology etc.
Relation to Biology: The conceptual study of pressure and its measurement has helped us to
know blood pressure and hence the functioning of heart. Invention of X-rays developed the
field of diagnosis. Electron and optical microscopic designs have revolutionized the study of
medical.
Relation to Chemistry: The concept of X-ray diffraction and radioactivity has helped to
distinguish between the various solids and to modify the periodic table.
Understanding the bonding and the chemical structure of substances is easy with the help of
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the concept of interactions between various particles.

Relation to Mathematics: Study of physical variables led to the idea of differentiation,
integration and differential equation. Meaningful interpretation of Mathematics becomes
Physics.
Relation to Astronomy: Optical telescopes of reflecting and refracting type enabled man to
explore the space around. Discoveries like radio telescopes have revolutionized the study of
Astronomy.
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Important Questions
Multiple Choice questions-

1. Atomic and molecular phenomena are dealt with by
(a) Newtonian Mechanics
(b) fluid Mechanics
(c) applied Mechanics
(d) Quantum Mechanics
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2. Which of the following is a possible final step in applying the scientific method
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(a) Formulating a hypothesis
(b) Building a theory
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(c) Analysis of test results
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(d) Formulation of a question hs
3. Which of the following is a possible first step in applying the scientific method
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(a) Conducting tests
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(b) Formulating a hypothesis

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(c) Formulation of a question

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(d) Building a theory

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4. A scientific theory
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(a) cannot be changed but can be reformulated

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(b) is fixed once and for all because it is logical

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(c) is changed to suit new fashion among scientists

(d) can be revised if required to fit new phenomenon or data
5. The scientific method is
(a) a prescribed method for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge.
(b) A procedure for proposing new hypothesis
(c) a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge.
(d) A method for proposing new theories.
6. Newtonian mechanics could not explain
(a) fall of bodies on earth
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(b) Some of the most basic features of atomic phenomena.

(c) movement of planets
(d) flight of rockets
7. Heliocentric theory proposed by Nicolas Copernicus was
(a) replaced by circular orbits to fit the data better
(b) replaced by elliptical orbits to fit the data better
(c) replaced by elliptical orbits to fit the taste of new rulers of Italy
(d) replaced by parabolic orbits to fit the data better
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8. Physics is a
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(a) Applied Science
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(b) Mathematical Science
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(c) Engineering Science
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(d) Natural Science
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9. The word Science originates from the Latin verb Scientia meaning
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(a) to know
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(b) to see
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(c) to experience
(d) to observe
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10. Just as a new experiment may suggest an alternative theoretical model, a

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theoretical advance may suggest what to look for in some for in some experiments.
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Which of the following experiments can be considered to support this claim?

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(a) Davisson and Germier Experiment

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(b) experimental discovery of positron

(c) scattering of alpha particle or the gold foil experiment
(d) Michelson Morley experiment
Very Short:
1. Name that branch of science that deals with the study of Earth.
2. Name that branch of science that deals with the study of stars.
3. Name the scientist and the country of his origin whose field of work was
elasticity.
4. The word “Physics” comes from a Greek word. Name the word.
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5. The word science has come from a Latin verb. Name the verb.
6. What is the meaning of the verb ‘Scientia’?
7. Name the scientist and the country of his origin who received the Nobel Prize
for his work on molecular spectra.
8. What is the most incomprehensible thing about the world?
9. Name a great scientist who gave the following comment on science.
“Science is not just a collection of laws, a catalogue of unrelated facts. It is a
creation of the human mind, with its freely invented ideas and concepts.”
10.Which famous philosopher gave the following comments on science?
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“We know very little and yet it is astonishing that we know so much, and still
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more astonishing that so little knowledge of science can give so much power.”
Short Questions:
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1. Differentiate between Biological and Physical sciences?
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2. What is the relation between Physics and Technology?
3. What is the relation between Physics and society?
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4. Is Science on speaking terms with humanities?
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5. What is the relation between Physics and Technology?

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6. Is Physics more of a philosophy or more of a mathematical science?

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7. Define Biophysics.
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8. Define Technology?
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Long Questions:
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1. How Physics is related to other sciences?

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2. Write a short note on origin and Fundamental forces in nature.

3. Distinguish between the studies in the fields of science, engineering, and
technology. Give an outline of the two or three industrial revolutions brought
about by advancements in technology over the last twenty-five years or so.
Assertion Reason Questions:
1. Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the correct answer to these
questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) are as given below
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
(c) A is true but R is false.
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(d) A is false and R is also false.

Assertion: The concept of energy is central to Physics and its expression can be
written for every physical system.
Reason: Law of conservation of energy is not valid for all forces and for any kind of
transformation between different forms of energy.
2. Assertion (A) and the other labelled Reason (R). Select the correct answer to these
questions from the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) are as given below
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A.
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
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(c) A is true but R is false.
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(d) A is false and R is also false.
Assertion: Physics generates new technology.
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Reason: Technology give rise to new physics.
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✓ Answer Key:
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Multiple Choice Answers-
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Answer: (d) Quantum Mechanics
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2. Answer: (c) Analysis of test results

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3. Answer: (c) Formulation of a question

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4. Answer: (d) can be revised if required to fit new phenomenon or data

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5. Answer: (c) a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new

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knowledge.
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6. Answer: (b) Some of the most basic features of atomic phenomena.

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7. Answer: (b) replaced by elliptical orbits to fit the data better

8. Answer: (d) Natural Science
9. Answer: (a) to know
10.Answer: (b) experimental discovery of positron
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: Geology.
2. Answer: Astronomy.
3. Answer: Robert Hook, England.
4. Answer: The word is ‘fuses meaning ‘Nature’.
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5. Answer: The name of the Latin verb is ‘Scientia’.

6. Answer: To ‘know’
7. Answer: C.V. Raman, India.
8. Answer: It is comprehensible.
9. Answer: Albert Einstein.
10.Answer: Bertrand Russel.
Short Questions Answers:
1. Answer:
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S.No. Biological Science Physical Science
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(i) They deal with living They deal with non-
things. living things.
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(ii) The study of the The study of matter are
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biological specimens conducted at atomic of
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are conducted at ionic levels, i.e., at
molecular level. much smaller level.
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2. Answer: Broadly speaking, physics and technology both constitute science.

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Physics is the heart and technology is the body of science.

The application of the principles of physics for practical purposes becomes
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technology, e.g.
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• Airplanes fly on the basis of Bernoulli’s theorem.

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• Rockets propulsion is based on Newton’s second and third laws of motion.

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• The generation of power from the nuclear reactor is based on the

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phenomenon of controlled nuclear fission.

• Lasers are based on the population inversion of electrons and so on. Thus,
we can say that to some extent technology is applied to Physics.
3. Answer: Most of the development made in Physics has a direct impact on
society, e.g.
• Exploration of new sources of energy is of great importance to society.
• Rapid means of transport are no less important for society.
• society has-been enriched due to the advances in electronics, lasers, and
computers.
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• The development of T.V., radio, satellites, telephone, the telegraph has

revolutionized the means of communications which have a direct impact on
society and so on.
4. Answer: Yes, there is a deep relation between the development of humanity on
account of science. Many socio-economic, political, and ethical problems are
being tackled and solved by science. Science has greatly helped in developing
art and culture. Many musical instruments have been developed due to the
theories in Physics. The steam engine is inseparable from the industrial
revolution which had a great impact on human civilization.
5. Answer: The interplay between physics and technology is the basic to the
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progress of science which is ever dynamic. Laws in waves and oscillation opened
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several technological fields which include telescopy, ultrasounds, microscopy, X-
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rays, and laser. Powerhouses, big cranes, healing devices, etc. work on the
principle of electromagnetism. Atomic energy and nuclear weapons are on
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account of fission. Similarly, Radar, television, the internet, etc. are all based on
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simple laws of physics. So until there is no theory i.e. physics, there can be no
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experiment i.e. technology. Hence both are deeply related.
6. Answer: Physics is not a purely abstract science devoid of philosophy. Physicists
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are natural philosophers and Einstein is an example to quote. So Philosophy has
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provided the backbone to Physics.

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7. Answer: It is defined as the understanding of biological processes based upon

the principles of Physics. For example, spectroscopic techniques are used to
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study the constitution of biological molecules and disorders in them. Laws of

thermodynamics are used to explain various biological activities of predators
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and also the activities of molecules.

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Hence the application of Physics to bioscience is now well known to all of us.
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8. Answer: It is defined as the study of newer techniques of producing machines,

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gadgets, etc. by using scientific discoveries and advancements. It is largely

dependent on Physics.
Long Questions Answers:
1. Answer: Physics is so important to a branch of science that without the
knowledge of Physics, other branches of science cannot make any progress.
This can be seen from the following:
(a) Physics in relation to Mathematics: The theories and concepts of Physics lead
to the development of various mathematical tools like differential equations,
equations of motion, etc.
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(b) Physics in nation to Chemistry: The concept of interaction between various

particles leads to understanding the bonding and the chemical structure of a
substance. The concept of X-ray diffraction and radioactivity has helped to
distinguish between the various solids and to modify the periodic table.
(c) Physics in relation to Biology: The concept of pressure and its measurement
has helped us to know the blood pressure of a human being, which in turn is
helpful to know the working of the heart. The discovery of X-rays has made it
possible to diagnose the various diseases in the body and fracture in bones.
The optical and electron microscopes are helpful in the studies of various
organisms. Skin diseases and cancer can be cured with the help of high-energy
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radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays.
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(d) Physics in relation to Geology: The internal structure of various rocks can be
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known with the study of the crystal structure. The age of rocks and fossils can
be known easily with the help of radioactivity i.e., with the help of carbon
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dating.
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(e) Physics in relation to Astronomy: Optical telescope has made it possible to
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study the motion of various planets and satellites in our solar system.
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The radio telescope has helped to study the structure of our galaxy and to
discover pulsars and quasars (heavenly bodies having star-like structures).
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Pulsars are rapidly rotating neutron stars. Doppler’s effect predicted the
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expansion of the universe. Kepler’s laws are responsible to understand the

nature of the orbits of the planets around the sun.
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(f) Physics in the relation to Meteorology: The variation of pressure with

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temperature leads to the forecast of the weather.

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(g) Physics in relation to Seismology: The movement of the earth’s crust and the
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types of waves produced help us in studying the earthquake and its effect.
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2. Answer: These are the following four basic forces in nature:

(a) Gravitational forces
(b) Electromagnetic forces
(c) Weak forces
(d) Strong force or nuclear forces.
Some of the important features of these forces are discussed below:
(a) Gravitational forces: These are the forces of attraction between any two
bodies in the universe due to their masses separated by a definite distance.
These are governed by Newton’s law of gravitation given by
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where m1, m2 are the masses of two bodies

r = distance between them
G = universal gravitational constant
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= 6.67 × 10-11 Nm2kg-2
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Characteristics of gravitational forces:
• They are always attractive. They are never repulsive. They exist between
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macroscopic as well as microscopic bodies.
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• They are the weakest forces in nature.
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• They are central forces in nature i.e., they set along the line joining the
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centres of two bodies.
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• They are conservative forces.

• They obey inverse square law i.e., F ∝1r2 they vary inversely as the square
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of the distance between the two bodies.

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• They are long-range forces i.e., gravitational forces between any two
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bodies exist even when their distance of separation is quite large.

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• The field particles of gravitational forces are called gravitons. The concept
of the exchange of field particles between two bodies explains how the
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two bodies interact from a distance.

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(b) Electromagnetic forces: They include the electrostatic and magnetic forces.
The electrostatic forces are the forces between two static charges while
magnetic forces are the forces between two magnetic poles. The moving
charges give rise to the magnetic force. The combined action of these forces is
called electromagnetic forces.
Characteristics of electromagnetic forces:
• These forces are both attractive as well as repulsive.
• They are central forces in nature.
• They obey inverse square law.
• They are conservative forces in nature.
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• These forces are due to the exchange of particles known as photons

which carry no charge and have zero rest mass.
• They are 1036 times stronger as compared to gravitational forces and
1011 times stronger than weak forces.
(c) Strong forces: They are the forces of nuclear origin. The particles inside the
nucleus are charged particles (protons) and neutral particles (neutrons) which
are bonded to each other by a strong interaction called nuclear force or strong
force. Hence they may be defined as the forces binding the nucleons (protons
and neutrons) together in a nucleus. They are responsible for the stability of the
atomic nucleus.
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They are of three types:
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• n-n forces are the forces of attraction between two neutrons.
• p-p forces are the forces of attraction between two protons.
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• n-p forces are the forces of attraction between a proton and a neutron.
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Characteristics of Nuclear forces: hs
• They are basically attractive in nature and become repulsive when the
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distance between nucleons is less than O.S fermi.
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• They obey inverse square law.

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(a) and
(b) types are the forces that we encounter in the macroscopic world while
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(c) and
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(d) types are the forces that we encountered in the microscopic world.
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(c) Weak forces: They are defined as the interactions which take, place between
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elementary particles during radioactive decay of a radioactive substance. In P-

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decay, the nucleus changes into a proton, an electron, and a particle called anti-
neutrino (which is uncharged). The interaction between the electron and the
anti-neutrino is known as weak interaction or weak force.
Characteristics of Weak forces:
• They are 1025 times stronger than the gravitational forces.
• They exist between leptons and leptons, leptons, and mesons. etc.
3. Answer:
Science is concerned with the unfolding of the basic aspects of nature. It
formulates simple laws and finds the rhythm in nature, materials, and energy.
Using basic principles of science, the ways to use them for the production of
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different kinds of articles is called technology, i.e., it is the application of

science. The execution of the application of technology in engineering. The
production of articles using machines and implements in engineering. This
involves the design, development, and manufacturing of articles.
The most notable technology development in the last 25 years is in the field of
information technology, computers, and electronic media. The revolution in
information technology has opened up fields on the internet, satellite linking of
information systems and services other peripheral developments in the
industry.
Computers have changed the face of society and made life easy in several fields.
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It has improved work efficiency in many segments of the industry and public life.
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Computers have touched the lives of children playing video games and adults
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alike. It has helped big organizations like railways, banks, and financial
institutions like the insurance sector.
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India has become one of the biggest centres of software exports and a big
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foreign exchange earner. Advance scientific research and industrial designing
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are being done by computers. TV has entered most Indian houses and
community centres-courtesy revolution in electronic media.
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The younger generation is mad after the stereo music with CD facilities. The
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transistors and tape recorders are left far behind. Electronic media has changed
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the face of the entertainment industry as well as information dissemination.

Quick transmission of news, views, and comments are accepted as natural ones
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by listeners and viewers.

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Assertion Reason Answer:

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1. (c) A is true but R is false.

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Explanation:
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Law of conservation of energy is always valid for all forces and for any kind of
transformation between different forms of energy.
Therefore, A is true, but R is false.
2. (b) Both A and R are true, but R is not the correct explanation of A.
Explanation:
Sometimes physics generates new technology and at others technology gives
rise to
new physics. Both have desired impact on society. Therefore, both A and R are
true,
but R is not the correct explanation of A.p
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Chapter 2: Units and Measurements
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UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
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Units and Measurements
Units
A unit is an internationally accepted standard for measurements of quantities.
Measurement consists of a numeric quantity along with a relevant unit.
Units for Fundamental or base quantities (like length, time etc.) are called Fundamental
units.
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Units which are combination of fundamental units are called Derived units.
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Fundamental and Derived units together form a System of Units.
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Internationally accepted system of units is SystèmeInternationale d’ Unites (French for
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International system of Units) or SI. It was developed and recommended by General
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1971. hs
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SI lists 7 base units as in the table below. Along with it, there are two units - radian or
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rad (unit for plane angle) and steradian or sr (unit for solid angle). They both are
dimensionless.
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Base Quantity Name Symbol

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.d
Length metre m
w
w
Mass kilogram kg
(w
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Thermo dynamic
kelvin K
Temperature
Amount of Substance mole mol
(1)
02
Luminous intensity candela cd
Length metre m
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Mass kilogram kg
m
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Time second s
la
a
Thermo dynamic Temperature kelvin
hs K
at
lp

ita

ig
.d

w
Length metre m
w
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Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Thermo dynamic Temperature kelvin K
(2)
02
Measurement of Length
Length can be measured using metre scale (10-3m to 102m), verniercallipers (10-4m)
and screw gauge and spherometer (10-5m).
Range of Length
)
m
Size of object or distance Length (m)
.co
la
Size of proton 10-15
a
Size of atomic nucleus
hs
10-14
at
lp
Length of typical virus 10-8

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Wavelength of light 10-7

ig
.d
Thickness of paper 10-4

w
w
Height of Mount Everest above sea level 104

(w
Radius of earth 107
Distance of moon from earth 108
Distance of sun from earth 1011
Distance of pluto from sun 1013
(3)
02
Size of our galaxy 1021
Distance to Andromeda Galaxy 1022
Distance to observable universe

1026
boundaries
)
m
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a la
Measuring large Distances – Parallax Method
hs
at
Parallax is a displacement or difference in the apparent position of an object viewed
lp
along two different lines of sight, and is measured by the angle or semi-angle of
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inclination between those two lines. Distance between the two viewpoints is called
Basis.
ig
.d
w
w
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Measuring distance of a planet using parallax method:
(4)
02
Similarly, α = d/D
Where α = angular size of the planet (angle subtended by d at earth) and d is the diameter of the
planet.αis angle between the direction of the telescope when two diametrically opposite points of the
planet are viewed.
What is Speed?
Speed is defined as
The rate of change of position of an object in any direction.
Speed is measured as the ratio of distance to the time in which the distance was
)
covered. Speed is a scalar quantity as it has only direction and no magnitude.
m
Speed Formula
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The formula of speed is given in the table below:
𝒅
la
𝑺=
𝒕
a
Where, hs
• s is the speed in m.s-1
at
• d is the distance traveled in m
lp
• t is the time taken in s

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Speed Unit
ig
Following are the units of speed are:

.d
CGS system cm.s-1

w
w
SI system ms-1
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Finding the Dimensional Formula of Speed.

The mathematical representation of speed is:
Distance
Speed =
Time
Dimensional formula of Distance = M0L1T0
Dimensional formula of time = M0L0T1
Dividing the dimensional formula of distance by the dimensional formula of time, we get:
(5)
02
Types of Speed
There are four types of speed and they are:
• Uniform speed
• Variable speed
• Average speed
• Instantaneous speed
Uniform speed: A object is said to be in uniform speed when the object covers equal
distance in equal time intervals.
)
m
Variable speed: A object is said to be in variable speed when the object covers a
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different distance at equal intervals of times.
Average speed: Average speed is defined as the uniform speed which is given by the
la
ratio of total distance travelled by an object to the total time taken by the object.
a
Instantaneous speed: When an object is moving with variable speed, then the speed
hs
of that object at any instant of time is known as instantaneous speed.
at
Measurement of Speed
lp
For the measurement of speed in vehicles, speedometers are used. To measure the
ita
distance covered odometers are used. Speed can also be calculated with the help of a
graph. The Distance-time graph helps in understanding the speed of an object.
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Measurement Mass Weight

.d
Mass is a basic characteristic property of matter. It exists self-sufficiently and is

w
independent of all other parameters such as the temperature, pressure, and the location
w
of the object in space. Atomic mass is the mass of an atom expressed in atomic mass
units. The matter has mass and occupies space. These two things are taught to us as
(w
soon as we can grasp these concepts. A matter is anything you can touch physically, so
everything you see and interact with around you has a mass. Mass is often confused
with another parameter. This confusion occurs due to the fact that this parameter is
mistakenly used around the globe instead of mass due to its convenience and also due
to the fact that we weigh things to find out their mass. This parameter is called weight.
Let’s explore both of these essential parameters thoroughly.
What is Mass?
Mass by definition refers to the amount of matter in a particular object. This value of the
amount of matter i.e. mass of an object is an intrinsic value of that body and it can help
us find out various other parameters that are dependent on the mass. Mass determines
the strength of its mutual gravitational attraction to other bodies, its resistance to
acceleration due to a force, Inertia, and mass can also be used to derive the energy
(6)
02
content of a sample through the theory of Relativity using Albert Einstein’s E = mc2.
Atomic Mass Unit
For tiny and larger objects we use other units;
• Tonne(Metric Ton) is equal to 1000kg
• The Atomic Mass Unit is used while dealing with atoms and molecules whose
masses are so small that the kilogram becomes inconvenient. One atomic mass
unit is defined as 1/12th the mass of a Carbon-12 atom. The value of 1 atomic
mass unit is obtained as 1.66 x 10-27
)
Measurement of mass
m
Measurement of mass is most commonly done by a Balance. The unknown mass of a
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body is compared with a known value of mass. We obtain the value of an unknown
mass in terms of a known value of mass. A balance works in space and in places of no
la
gravity as well since changes in gravity affect both the masses on the balance equally.
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
What is Weight?
Mass is not the same as weight. While mass is the intrinsic property of the body, weight
is the measure of the force exerted on the mass of the body due to gravity. Mass refers
to a universal value of the object whereas weight is a localized interpretation of the
mass of the object. Weight is the effect of gravity and therefore we describe weight with
the formula;
(7)
02
W = mg
Where m is the mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity at that particular location.
The unit of measurement of weight is Force, the SI Unit of which is Newton. For
example, an object that has a mass of 50 kg experiences a gravitational force i.e.
weight which is equal to 50 x 9.8 = 490 Newton. So when you tell your friends you
weight 50kg you are telling them about your mass and not your weight. The same
object albeit with the same mass of 50 kg will weigh 1/6th on the moon what it did on
Earth. Weight and mass mean the same thing on Earth since the effects of gravity are
fairly constant throughout the Earth. It was upon our venture into space that it became
necessary to create a distinction between mass and weight.
)
m
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
Here is a problem based on the weighing machine, the problem deals with an advanced
question on how normal reaction and tension act in an accelerated pulley system when
.d
the support is provided by the man which is being measured.

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Length
w
Historically, the human body was used to provide the basis for units of length
(w
• Inch: Inch is the measure of the thumb, which was used to measure the length of
items small, for example, the seam of a cloth, length of paper, etc.
• Foot: Foot is the measure of length typically defined as 15.3 % of the height of a
human body with an average height of 160 cm. This unit differed from place to
place and trade to trade. This unit was preferred by Roman and Greeks and was
typically used to calculate the size of a piece of cloth, the height of human beings
and cattle, the size of a building, etc.
• Cubit: Cubit is the unit of measurement of length based on the length of the
forearm, typically the tip of the middle finger to the elbow bottom. This unit of
measurement was preferred by Egyptians and Mesopotamians. Cubit rods have
been discovered in the remains of the ancient Egyptian civilization. These rods are
(8)
02
usually 20 inches in length, and are divided into seven palms; each palm is further
divided into four fingers which are further subdivided.
• Yard: Yard is the unit of distance typically based on human paces. A yard is
typically equivalent to two cubits or three feet, which is approximately 36 inches.
)
m
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a la
hs
at
lp
• Miles: A mile is equivalent to a thousand paces, where the pace is equal to two
ita
steps, such that the walker is back to the same foot.

A foot comprises 12 inches and three feet comprise a yard. With measurements such
ig
as these, it was easy to explain how far the next village was and to find out whether
an object will get through a doorway.
.d
These measurements also helped the people exchange clothes and wood in a barter
w
system.
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Weight
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• The grains of wheat were used as a measure of weight due to their approximate
standard size. The number of grains of wheat was taken as a standard, which even
now is used by some jewellers. One grain is equal to 64.79891 milligrams.
(9)
02
• A measured length of metal used to be kept in the town centre or the temples and
)
copies of the same were distributed among the people of that community. This
m
metal lump was considered as a standard of weight.
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
Time
w
(w
• Sundial: The movement of the sun in the sky was one of the measures to estimate
time, which was done on the basis of length and position of the shadow cast by a
vertical stick. Later, the marks were made where the sun’s shadow fell, which gave
an approximate measure of time of the day consistently. The device came on to be
called as a sundial.
(10)
02
)
• Water Clock: The water clock was used to measure time on the basis of the
m
amount of water dripping from a tank. This method was not considered reliable
because the flow of water is difficult to be controlled. The device was termed as
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Clepsydra.
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
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• Hour Glass: The hourglass works on the same principle as a water clock, using
(w
sand instead of water. It is still found in some places, in a reduced form.
(11)
02
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a la
hs
at
lp
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ig
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w
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Dimensional formula:
Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base
quantities are raised to represent that quantity.
Dimensional formula: The expression which shows how and which of the base
quantities represent the dimensions of a physical quantity.
(12)
02
)
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la
a
hs
at
lp
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ig
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w
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(13)
02
• Applications of dimensional analysis:
i. To derive a physical equation.

ii. To verify if the given equation is dimensionally correct.
iii. To find the dimensions of an unknown parameter in the equation.
)
m
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a la
hs
at
lp
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ig
.d
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(14)
02
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m
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la
a
hs
at
lp
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ig
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(15)
02
Important Questions
1. Electron volt is a unit of
(a) charge
(b) potential difference
(c) energy
(d) magnetic force
2. Light year is a unit of
)
m
(a) time
.co
(b) distance
(c) sunlight intensity
la
(d) mass
a
hs
3. Which of the following pairs has the same dimensions?
(a) specific heat and latent heat
at
(b) impulse and momentum
lp
(c) surface tension and force

ita
(d) moment of inertia and torque

ig
4. Which of the following sets of quantities has the same dimensional formula?
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(a) Frequency, angular frequency and angular momentum

w
(b) Surface tension, stress and spring constant

w
(c) Acceleration, momentum and retardation

(w
(d) Work, energy and torque

5. If C and R denote capacitance and resistance respectively, what will be the
dimensions of C x R?
(a) [M0L0TA0]
(b) [ML0TA-2]
(c) [ML0TA2]
(d) [MLTA-2]
6. A particle starting from the origin (0, 0) moves in a straight line in the (x, y) plane.
Its coordinates at a later time are (The path of the particle makes with the x-axis an
angle of
(16)
02
(a) 300
(b) 450
(c) 600
(d) 0
7. Resolution is
(a) a measure of the bias in the instrument
(b) None of these
(c) the smallest amount of input signal change that the instrument can detect
)
reliably
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(d) a measure of the systematic errors
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8. Fundamental or base quantities are arbitrary. In SI system these are
la
(a) length, force, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of
substance, and luminous intensity
a
hs
(b) length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of
at
(c) as length, mass, time, electric charge, thermodynamic temperature, amount of
lp

ita
(d) length, mass, force, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount of

ig
9. Unit for a fundamental physical quantity is

.d
(a) defined as best of various reference standards

w
(b) the smallest measurable value of the physical quantity

w
(c) defined as average various reference standards

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(d) reference standard for the physical quantity

10. The volume of a cube in m³ is equal to the surface area of the cube in m². The
volume of the cube is
(a) 64 m³
(b) 216 m³
(c) 512 m³
(d) 196 m³
Very Short:
1. If the size of the atom were enlarged to the tip of the sharp pin, how large
would the height of Mount Everest be?
(17)
02
2. What does the LASER mean?

3. If the Universe were shrunk to the size of the Earth, how large would the Earth
be on this scale?
4. A research worker takes 100 careful readings in an experiment. If he repeats
the same experiment by taking 400 readings, then by what factor will the
probable error be reduced?
5. What is the number of significant figures in 0.06070?
6. The density of a cube is calculated by measuring the length of one side and its
mass. If the maximum errors in the measurement of mass and length are 3%
)
and 2% respectively, then what is the maximum possible error in the
m
measurement of density?
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7. The mass of a body as measured by two students is given as 1.2 kg and 1.23 kg.
Which of the two is more accurate and why?
la
8. Do the inertial and gravitational masses of ordinary objects differ in
a
magnitude?
9. Are S.I. units Coherent? Why?
hs
at
10.Do A.U. And Å represents the same magnitudes of distance?
lp
Short Questions:
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1. If the size of a nucleus is scaled up to the tip of a sharp pin, what roughly is the
size of an atom?
ig
2. (a) What do you mean by physical quantity?

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(b) What do you understand by:

w
(i) Fundamental physical quantities?

w
(ii) Derived physical quantities?

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3. (a) Define the unit of a physical quantity.

(b) Define
(i) Fundamental units.
(ii) Derived units.
4. Define one Candela.
5. What is the advantage of choosing wavelength of light radiation as standard of
length?
6. Which type of phenomenon can be used as a measure of time? Give two
examples of it.
(18)
02
7. Find the number of times the heart of a human being beats in 10 years.
Assume that the heartbeats once in 0.8s.
8. Why it is not possible to establish a physical relation involving more than three
variables using the method of dimensions?
Long Questions:
1. State the rules for writing the units of physical quantities in the S.I. system.
2. Explain the Triangular method.
3. What are the uses of dimensional analysis? Explain each of them.
)
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1. Directions: Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion and
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Reason. Each of these questions also has four alternative choices, only one of
which is the correct answer. You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and
la
(d) given below.
a
(a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for
hs
assertion.
at
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation
for assertion
lp
(c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect

ita
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct

Assertion: Dimensional constants are the quantities whose values are constant.
ig
Reason: Dimensional constants are dimensionless.

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(d) given below.

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assertion.
for assertion
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct
Assertion: Parallax method cannot be used for measuring distances of stars more
than 100 light years away.
Reason: Because parallax angle reduces so much that it cannot be measured
accurately.
Case Study Questions:
(19)
02
1. Measurement of Physical Quantity All engineering phenomena deal with definite

and measured quantities and so depend on the making of the measurement. We
must be clear and precise in making these measurements. To make a
measurement, magnitude of the physical quantity (unknown) is compared. The
record of a measurement consists of three parts, i.e., the dimension of the
quantity, the unit which represents a standard quantity and a number which is
the ratio of the measured quantity to the standard quantity.
1. A device which is used for measurement of length to an accuracy of about
10-5m, is
(a) Screw gauge
)
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(b) Spherometer
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(c) Vernier callipers
(d) Either (a) or (b)
la
2. Which of the technique is not used for measuring time intervals?
a
(a) Electrical oscillator hs
(b) Atomic clock
at
(c) Spring oscillator
lp
(d) Decay of elementary particles

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3. The mean length of an object is 5cm. Which of the following measurements

is most accurate?
ig
(a) 4.9cm
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(b) 4.805cm
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(c) 5.25cm
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(d) 5.4cm
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4. If the length of rectangle l = 105.cm, breadth b = 21.cm and minimum

possible measurement by scale = 01.cm, then the area is
(a) 22.0cm2
(b) 21.0cm2
(c) 22.5cm2
(d) 21.5cm2
5. Age of the universe is about 1010 yr., whereas the mankind has existed for
106 yr. For how many seconds would the man have existed if age of
universe were 1 day?
(a) 9.2 s
(20)
02
(b) 10.2 s
(c) 8.6 s
(d) 10.5 s
2. Normally, the reported result of measurement is a number that includes all digits
in the number that are known reliably plus first digit that is uncertain. The digits
that are known reliably plus the first uncertain digit are known as significant digits
or significant
figures.
e.g., When a measured distance is reported to be 374.5m, it has four significant
)
figures 3, 7,
m
4 and 5. The figures 3, 7, 4 are certain and reliable, while the digit 5 is uncertain.
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Clearly,
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the digits beyond the significant digits reported in any result are superfluous.
a
i. In 4700m, significant digits are
(a) 2
hs
at
(b) 3
lp
(c) 4
(d) 5
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ii. To determine the number of significant figures, scientific notation is

ig
(a) ab
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(b) ab × 10b
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(c) a × 102
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(d) a × 104
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iii. 5.74 g of a substance occupies 1.2cm3 Express its density by keeping the
significant figures in view.
(a) 4.9 g cm-3
(b) 5.2 g cm-3
(c) 4.8 g cm-3
(d) 4.4 g cm-3
iv. Choose the correct option.
(a) Change in unit does not change the significant figure.
(b) 4 700. m=4700 mm, here there is a change of significant number
from 4 to 2 due to change in unit.
(21)
02
(c) 4700 4 700 103 m = .́ m, here there is change in numbers of

significant numbers.
(d) Change in unit changes the number of significant figure.
v. Consider the following rules of significant figures.
I. All the non-zero digits are significant.
II. All the zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant.
III. The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are
significant.
Which of the above statement(s) is/are? correct?
)
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(a) I and II
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(b) II and III
(c) I and III
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(d) All of these
a
hs
✓ Answer Key:
at
lp
1. Answer: (c) energy

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2. Answer: (b) distance

3. Answer: (b) impulse and momentum
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4. Answer: (d) Work, energy, and torque

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5. Answer: (a) [M0L0TA0]

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6. Answer: (c) 600

w
7. Answer: (d) a measure of the systematic errors

(w
8. Answer: (b) length, mass, time, electric current, thermodynamic temperature, amount
of substance, and luminous intensity
9. Answer: (d) reference standard for the physical quantity
10.Answer: (b) 216 m³
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: 1010 m.
2. Answer: It stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
3. Answer: 10-11 m (size of an atom.).
4. Answer: By a factor of 4.
(22)
02
5. Answer: 4.
6. Answer: 3% + 3 × 2% = 9%.
7. Answer: The second measurement is more accurate as it has been made to the
second decimal point.
8. Answer: No.
9. Answer: Yes, because all the derived units in this system can be obtained by
multiplying or dividing a certain set of basic units.
10.Answer: No, 1 A.U. = 1.496 × 1011 m and 1 Å = 1010 m.
)
m
1. Answer: The size of a nucleus is in the range of 10-15 m to 10-14 m. The tip of a
.co
sharp pain may be taken to be in the range of 10-5 m to 10-4 m. Thus, we are
scaling up the size of the nucleus by a factor of 10-5/10-15 = 1010. An atom
la
roughly of size 10-10 m will be scaled up to a rough size of 10-10 × 1010 = 1 m.
a
Thus, nucleus in an atom is as small in size as the tip of a sharp pin placed at
hs
the center of a sphere of radius about a meter.
2. Answer: It is defined as a quantity that can be measured, e.g., mass, length,
at
time, etc.
lp
(b)
ita
(i) They are defined as those quantities which cannot be expressed in terms
of other quantities and are independent of each other, e.g., mass, length,
ig
time.
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(ii) They are defined as the quantities which can be expressed in terms of
w
fundamental quantities, e.g., velocity, acceleration, density, pressure, etc.

w
3. Answer: It is defined as the reference standard used to measure a physical

quantity.
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(b)
(i) They are defined as the units of fundamental quantities. They are
independent of each other and are expressed by writing the letter of the
fundamental quantity in a parenthesis. e.g., Fundamental units of mass,
length and time are [M], [L], [T] respectively.
(ii) They are defined as those units which can be derived from fundamental
units. They are expressed by writing the symbol of a derived quantity in a
parenthesis.
e.g., D.U. of velocity = [u]
acceleration = [a]
(23)
02
pressure = [P]
work = [W] and so on.
4. Answer: It is defined as the luminous intensity in a perpendicular direction of a
1
surface of square meter area of a black body at a temperature of
600,000
freezing platinum (1773°C) under a pressure of 101,325 N/m2.
5. Answer:
• It can be easily made available in any standard laboratory as Krypton is
available everywhere.
• It is well defined and does not change with temperature, time, place or
)
m
pressure, etc.
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• It is invariable.
• It increases the accuracy of the measurement of length (1 part in 109).
la
6. Answer: Any phenomenon that repeats itself regularly at equal intervals of
a
time can be used to measure time. hs
The examples are:
at
• Rotation of earth – the time interval for one complete rotation is called a
lp
day.
ita
• Oscillations of a pendulum.
7. Answer: In 0.8 s, the human heart makes one beat.
ig
.d
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∴ In 10 years, the human heart makes

w
10
= × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 beats.
8
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= 3.942 × 108 beats.

8. Answer: The dimensional analysis fails to derive a relation involving more than
three unknown variables. The reason is that there will be more than three
unknown factors in that case whose values cannot be determined from the
three relations which we get by comparing the powers of M, L, and T.
1. Answer: While writing the units of physical quantities following rules are
followed with S.L units:
(1) The S.l. units are written in the form of symbols after the number i.e.,
number of time, the unit is contained in the physical quantity so that physical
quantity = nu
(24)
02
With symbols, certain rules are laid down:

• Units in symbols are never written in plural i.e., meters is only m and not
ms, years is y.
• The units based on the name of the scientists are written beginning with
small letters and with capital letters in symbolic form viz, weber (Wb),
newton (N), etc.
• No full stop is used at the end of the symbol.
• Symbols of units not based on the name of scientists are written as small
letters viz. kilogram (kg), second (s), etc.
)
m
(2) Bigger and smaller number of units are represented with symbols
corresponding to the power of 10 viz. 106 is mega (M), 1012 is Tera (T), 10-3 is
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milli (m), 10-9 is nano (n), etc.
(3) All units are written in numerator viz. kg/m3 is kg m, Nm2c2.
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(4) The units are written within parenthesis in graphs below the corresponding
a
taxes viz. (ms-1) and (s) in the velocity-time graph.
hs
(5) Units of a similar physical quantity can be added or subtracted.
at
2. Answer: It is used to measure the distance of an accessible or inaccessible hill
lp
or a tower by measuring the angle which the object makes at point P (say)
ita
Let x = distance y of point P from the foot of tower = PA .

∴ h = x tan θ
ig
It is also used to measure the distance of an inaccessible object eg. a tree on the
.d
other bank of a river.

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w
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Let h = height of the inaccessible object.

Let θ1, θ2 = be the angle made at P and Q by the object.
Let PA = d, PQ = x.
∴ In ΔPAB and ΔQAB,
(25)
02
)
m
3. Answer:
.co
Dimensional analysis is used for:
la
(a) checking the dimensional correctness of the given physical equation or
relation.
a
hs
(b) converting one system of units to another system.
(c) deriving the relationship between various physical quantities.
at
(a) checking of the dimensional correctness of a physical relationship is done
lp
by using the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. If the dimensions of M, L,

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T of each term on R.H.S. are equal to the dimensions of M, L, T of each term on

L.H.S., then the given- physical relation is dimensionally correct, otherwise
ig
wrong.
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(b) conversion: It is based on the fact that the magnitude of a physical quantity
remains the same whatever may be the system of units, i.e., n1u1 = n2u2.
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w
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are the units of M, L, T in the first and second system of units of a physical
quantity having dimensions of M, L, T, and a, b, c respectively.
Thus, if fundamental units of both systems, dimensions of the quantity, and its
numerical value n1 in one system, are known then we can easily calculate n2 in
another system.
(26)
02
(c) Derivation of a relationship between various physical quantities is based on

the principle of homogeneity of dimensions.
Following are the steps used:
• We must Know the physical quantities (say p, q, r) upon which a physical
quantity say x depends.
• We must know the dimensions of p, q, r say a, b, c respectively.
•
• Now, write the dimensions of each physical quantity on both sides of the
equation
)
m
• and compare the powers of M, L, T to find a, b, c. Putting values of a, b, c
.co
in the equation
• we get the required relation.
la
a
hs
1. (c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
Explanation:
at
Dimensional constants are not dimensionless.
lp
2. (a) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is a correct explanation for

ita
assertion.
Explanation:
ig
As the distance of star increases, the parallax angle decreases, and great degree of
.d
accuracy is required for its measurement. Keeping in view the practical limitation
w
in measuring the parallax angle, the maximum distance of a star we can measure
w
is limited to 100 light years.

(w
Case Study Answer:

1. i (d) Either (a) or (b)
Explanation:
A screw gauge and a spherometer can be used to measure length accurately as
less as
10m- 5
ii (c) Spring oscillator
Explanation:
Spring oscillator cannot be used to measure time intervals.
iii (a) 4.9 cm
(27)
02
Explanation:
Given, length, l = 5cm Now, checking the errors with each options one-by-one, we
get
)
Hence, 4.9cm is most precise or accurate.
m
iv (a) 22.0cm2
.co
Explanation:
la
Area of rectangle, A = Length ́ Breadth
a
So, A lb = 10. × 5 = 22. 05cm2
Minimum possible measurement of
hs
at
scale = 01. cm.
lp
So, area measured by scale = 22 0. cm2

ita
v (c) 8.6 s
Explanation:
ig
Age of mankind
Magnification in time =
.d
Age of universe
w
w
(w
2. i (a) 2
Explanation:
As, we know that the terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a
decimal point are not significant. So, 4700m has two significant figures.
ii (b) ab × 10b
Explanation:
(28)
02
Every number is expressed as ab × 10b, where a is a number between 1 & 10

and b is any
positive or negative exponent (or power) of 10.
iii (c) 4.8 g cm-3
Explanation:
There are 3 significant figures in the measured mass whereas there are only 2
significant figures in the measured volume. Hence, the density should be
expressed to only 2 significant figures.
)
m
iv (a) Change in unit does not change the significant figure.
.co
Explanation:
la
There is no change in number of significant figures on changing the units. For
a
it, the convention is that we write,
4700 m = 4700 × 103m
hs
at
This convention ensures no change in number of significant numbers.
lp
v (a) I and II
Explanation:
ita
Following rules of significant figures are

ig
I. All the non-zero digits are significant.

.d
II. All the zeroes between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter
w
where the decimal point is, if at all.

w
III. The terminal or trailing zero(s) in a number without a decimal point are
(w
not significant. Thus, 123m =12300cm =123000 mm has three significant

figures, the trailing zero(s) being not significant.
(29)
PHYSICS
)
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.co
a la
Chapter 3: Motion in a Straight Line
hs
at
lp
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ig
.d
w
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(w
MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
03
Motion in a Straight Line

If an object changes its position with respect to its surroundings with time, then it is called in
motion. It is a change in the position of an object over time. Motion in a straight line is nothing
but linear motion. As the name suggests, it’s in a particular straight line, thus it can be said that
it uses only one dimension.
There are two branches in physics that examine the motion of an object.
• Kinematics: It describes the motion of objects, without looking at the cause of the motion.
• Dynamics: It relates the motion of objects to the forces which cause them.
)
Position, Distance, Displacement:
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
Position: Position of an object is always expressed with respect to some reference point which
w
we generally account to as origin. To express the change in position, we consider two physical
quantities.
w
Distance: It refers to the actual path traversed by the object during the course of motion.
(w
Displacement: It refers to the difference between the final and initial positions of the object
during the course of motion.
Distance Displacement
It refers to the actual path traversed by the It refers to the difference between the
object during the course of motion. initial and the final positions Δx=x2−x1,
where, x2 and x1 are final and initial
position respectively.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
The distance covered by an object during the The displacement of an object can be
course of motion can never be negative or zero. positive, negative or zero during the
(1)
03
It is always positive. course of motion.
The distance travelled is either equal to or The magnitude of displacement is less

greater than displacement and is never less than or equal to the distance travelled
than magnitude of displacement. during the course of motion.
The distance is dependent upon the path The magnitude of displacement is not
travelled by the object. dependent on the path taken by an
object during the course of motion.
)
Average Velocity and Average Speed
m
Average velocity is defined as the change in position or displacement (∆x) divided by the time
.co
intervals (∆t), in which the displacement occurs:
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 ∆𝒙
la
̅=
𝒗 =
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕
a
where x2 and x1 are the positions of the object at time t2 and t1, respectively. Here the bar over
hs
the symbol for velocity is a standard notation used to indicate an average quantity. The SI unit
for velocity is m/s or m s–1, although km h–1 is used in many everyday applications.
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
The average velocity is the slope of line P1 P2

The portion of the x-t graph between t = 0 s and t = 8 s is blown up and shown in Fig. As seen
from the plot, the average velocity of the car between time t = 5 s and t = 7 s i :
𝒙𝟐 −𝒙𝟏 ( 𝟐𝟕.𝟒−𝟏𝟎.𝟎)𝐦
̅=
𝒗 = = 𝟖. 𝟕𝒎 𝒔−𝟏
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 (𝟕−𝟓)𝒔
Average speed is defined as the total path length travelled divided by the total time interval
during which the motion has taken place:
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒉 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 =
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒍
(2)
03
Average speed has obviously the same unit (m s–1) as that of velocity. But it does not tell us in
what direction an object is moving. Thus, it is always positive (in contrast to the average velocity
which can be positive or negative). If the
motion of an object is along a straight line and in the same direction, the magnitude of
displacement is equal to the total path length.In that case, the magnitude of average velocity is
equal to the average speed.
However, this is not always the case. The average velocity gives an idea on how fast an object
has been moving over a given interval but does give an idea on how fast it moves at different
instants of time during that interval.
Difference Between Speed and Velocity:
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
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Speed Velocity
w
It refers to the total path length travelled It refers to the change in position or
(w
divided by the total time interval during displacement divided by the time intervals, in
which the motion has taken place. which this displacement occurs.
It is a scalar quantity. It is a vector quantity.
It is always positive during the course of the It may be positive, negative or zero during the
motion. course of the motion.
It is greater than or equal to the magnitude of It is less than or equal to the speed.
velocity.
Instantaneous Velocity and Instantaneous Speed:
The velocity at an instant is defined as the limit of the average velocity as the time interval ∆t
becomes infinitesimally small. In other words,
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
(3)
03
where the symbol 𝐥𝐢𝐦 stands for the operation of taking limit as ∆𝒕 → 𝟎 of the quantity on its
∆𝒕→𝟎
right. In the language of calculus, the quantity on the right hand side is the differential
𝒅𝒙
coefficient of x with respect to t and is denoted by . It is the rate of change of position with
𝒅𝒕
respect to time, at that instant.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
Determining velocity from position-time graph. Velocity at t = 4 s is the slope of the tangent to the graph at that
instant.
lp
Acceleration
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
̅ over a time interval is defined as the change of velocity divided by

The average acceleration 𝒂
the time interval:
𝒗 −𝒗 ∆𝒗
̅= 𝟐 𝟏=
𝒂
𝒕𝟐 −𝒕𝟏 ∆𝒕
where v2 and v1 are the instantaneous velocities or simply velocities at time t2 and t1. It is the
average change of velocity per unit time. The SI unit of acceleration is m s–2.
Instantaneous Acceleration: Mathematically, instantaneous acceleration can be expressed
(4)
03
in the same way as the instantaneous velocity as follows:

∆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒂 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The acceleration of an object at a particular time is the slope of the velocity-time graph at that
instant of time. For uniform motion, acceleration is zero and the x-t graph is a straight line
inclined to the time axis and the v-t graph is a straight line parallel to the time axis. For motion
with uniform acceleration, x-t graph is a parabola while the v-t graph is a straight line inclined to
the time axis.
Different Graphs of Motion
)
Displacement - Time Graph
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
Velocity - Time Graph

ita
ig
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w
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Acceleration - Time Graph
(5)
03
Position-time graph for motion with (a) positive acceleration; (b) negative acceleration, and (c) zero acceleration
Uniform motion:
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
If a body is said to be in uniform motion, the body completes equal distances in equal intervals
ig
of time.
.d
Here, velocity is constant during the course of motion. Also, acceleration is zero during the
w
course of motion.
w
Non-Uniform motion:
(w
(6)
03
)
m
.co
If a body undergoes non-uniform motion, the body is said to be in uniformly accelerated motion.
la
Here, the magnitude of velocity increases or decreases with the passage of time. Also,
a
acceleration would not be zero as it undergoes accelerated motion.
Top Formulae
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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(7)
03
)
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.co
laa
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
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(w
(8)
03
Important Questions

1. A boy starts from a point A, travels to a point B at a distance of 3 km from A and
returns to A. If he takes two hours to do so, his speed is
(a) 3 km/h
(b) zero
)
(c) 2 km/h
m
(d) 1.5 km/h
.co
2. A body starts from rest and travels with uniform acceleration a to make a
displacement of 6 m. If its velocity after making the displacement is 6 m/s, then its
la
uniform acceleration a is
a
(a) 6 m/s² hs
(b) 2 m/s²
at
(c) 3 m/s²
lp
(d) 4 m/s²
ita
3. Which one of the following is the unit of acceleration?

(a) m/s
ig
(b) m/s²
.d
(c) km/hr
w
(d) cm/s
w
4. The dimensional formula for speed is

(w
(a) T-1
(b) LT-1
(c) L-1T-1
(d) L-1T
5. A body starts from rest and travels for t second with uniform acceleration of 2
m/s². If the displacement made by it is 16 m, the time of travel t is
(a) 4 s
(b) 3 s
(c) 6 s
(9)
03
(d) 8 s
6. The dimensional formula for acceleration is
(a) [LT2]
(b) [LT-2]
(c) [L2T]
(d) [L2T2]
7. A body starts from rest and travels for five seconds to make a displacement of 25
m. if it has travelled the distance with uniform acceleration a then a is
)
(a) 3 m/s²
m
(b) 4 m/s²
.co
(c) 2 m/s²
la
(d) 1 m/s²
a
8. A 180 meter long train is moving due north at a speed of 25 m/s. A small bird is
hs
flying due south, a little above the train, with a speed of 5 m/s. The time taken by
the bird to cross the train is
at
(a) 10 s
lp
(b) 12 s
ita
(c) 9 s
ig
(d) 6 s
.d
9. The dimensional formula for velocity is

w
(a) [LT]
(b) [LT-1]
w
(c) [L2T]
(w
(d) [L-1T]
10. A body starts from rest and travels with an acceleration of 2 m/s². After t
seconds its velocity is 10 m/s. Then t is
(a) 10 s
(b) 5 s
(c) 20 s
(d) 6 s
Very Short:
(10)
03
1. Can a moving body have relative velocity zero with respect to another body?
Give an example.
2. Can there be motion in two dimensions with acceleration in only one
dimension?
3. Is it true that a body is always at rest in a frame that is fixed to the body itself?
4. Tell under what condition a body moving with uniform velocity can be in
equilibrium?
5. What does the speedometer records: the average speed or the instantaneous
speed?
)
6. Can an object be accelerated without speeding up or slowing down? Give
m
examples,
.co
7. Is it possible to have the rate of change of velocity constant while the velocity
itself changes both in magnitude and direction? Give an example.
la
8. Which motion is exactly represented by Δs = vΔt?
a
hs
9. In which frame of reference is the body always at rest?
10.What is common between the two graphs shown in figs, (a) and (b)?
at
Short Questions:
lp
1. Prove that the average velocity of a particle over an interval of time is either
ita
smaller than or equal to the average speed of the particle over the same
interval.
ig
2. Two trains each of the length 109 m and 91 m are moving in opposite
.d
directions with velocities 34 km h-1 and 38 km h-1 respectively. At what time

w
the two trains will completely cross each other?

w
3. Ambala is at a distance of 200 km from Delhi. Ram sets out from Ambala at a
(w
speed of 60 km h-1 and Sham set out at the same time from Delhi at a speed of
40 km h-1. When will they meet?
4. A car travelling at a speed of 60 km h-1 on a straight road is ahead of a scooter
travelling at a speed of 40 km h-1. How would the relative velocity be altered if
the scooter is ahead of the car?
5. Draw the position-time graphs for two objects initially occupying different
positions but having zero relative velocity.
6. A ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 20 ms-1. It takes 4 seconds
to return to its original position. Draw a velocity-time graph for the motion of
the ball and answer the following questions:
At which point P, Q, R, the stone has:
(11)
03
(a) reached its maximum height.

(b) stopped moving?
7. “It is the velocity and not the acceleration which decides the direction of
motion of a body.” Justify this statement with the help of a suitable example.
8. Two buses A and B starting from the same point move in a mutually
perpendicular direction with speeds uA km h-1 and uB km h-1 respectively.
Calculate the relative velocity of A w.r.t B.
Long Questions:
1. Define the following terms:
)
m
(a) speed
.co
(b) uniform speed
(c) variable speed
la
(d) average speed
a
(e) instantaneous speed hs
(f) velocity
at
(g) uniform velocity
lp
(h) variable velocity

ita
(i) uniform motion

ig
(j) average velocity in uniform

.d
(k) relative velocity motion

w
(l) instantaneous velocity

w
(m) acceleration
(w
(n) retardation
(o) variable acceleration
(p) average acceleration
(q) uniform acceleration
(r) instantaneous acceleration.
2. Explain the importance of the position-time graph.
3. Derive relations:
(i) v = u + at
(ii) v2 – u2 = 2as
(12)
03
1
(iii) s = ut + at2.
2

(d) given below.
assertion.
)
for assertion
m
.co
(d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.
Assertion: A body may be accelerated even when it is moving uniformly.
la
Reason: When direction of motion of the body is changing, the body must have
a
acceleration.
hs
at
lp
(d) given below.

ita

assertion.
ig

.d
for assertion
w

w
Assertion: Displacement of a body may be zero when distance travelled by it is

(w
not zero.
Reason: The displacement is the longest distance between initial and final
position.
1. If the position of an object is continuously changing w.r.t. its surrounding, then it
is said to be in the state of motion. Thus, motion can be defined as a change in
position of an object with time. It is common to everything in the universe. In the
given figure, let P, Q and R represent the position of a car at different instants of
time.
(13)
03
i. With reference to the given figure, the position coordinates of points P

and R
are
(a) P = (+ 360, 0, 0); R = (- 120, 0, 0)
(b) P = (- 360, 0, 0); R = (+ 120, 0, 0)
(c) P = (0, + 360, 0); R = (- 120, 0, 0)
)
m
(d) P = (0, 0 + 360) R = (0, 0, - 120)
.co
ii. Displacement of an object can be
(a) Positive
la
(b) Negative
a
(c) Zero hs
(d) All of the above
at
iii. The displacement of a car in moving from O to P and its displacement in
lp
moving from P to Q are

ita
(a) + 360m and -120m

ig
(b) -120m and + 360m

.d
(c) + 360m and + 120m

w
(d) + 360m and - 600m

w
iv. If the car goes from O to P and returns back to O, the displacement of the
journey is
(w
(a) Zero
(b) 720m
(c) 420m
(d) 340m
v. The path length of journey from O to P and back to O is
(a) 0 m
(b) 720m
(c) 360m
(d) 480m
(14)
03
2. When an object is in motion, its position changes with time. So, the quantity that
describes how fast is the position changing w.r.t. time and in what direction is
given by average velocity. It is defined as the change in position or displacement
(Dx) divided by the time interval (Dt) in which that displacement occurs.
However, the quantity used to describe the rate of motion over the actual path, is
average speed. It defined as the total distance travelled by the object divided by
the total time taken.
i. A 250m long train is moving with a uniform velocity of 4.5 kmh-1The time
taken by the train to cross a bridge of length 750m is
(a) 56 s
)
m
(b) 68 s
.co
(c) 80 s
(d) 92 s
la
ii. A truck requires 3 hr to complete a journey of 150 km. What is average
a
speed?
(a) 50 km/h
hs
at
(b) 25 km/h
lp
(c) 15 km/h
ita
(d) 10 km/h
iii. Average speed of a car between points A and B is 20 m/s, between B and C
ig
is 15 m/s and between C and D is 10 m/s. What is the average speed

.d
between A and D, if the time taken in the? mentioned sections is 20s, 10s
and 5s, respectively?
w
(a) 17.14 m/s

w
(b) 15 m/s
(w
(c) 10 m/s
(d) 45 m/s
iv. A cyclist is moving on a circular track of radius 40 m completes half a
revolution in 40 s. Its average velocity is
(a) zero
(b) 2 ms -1
(c) 4𝜋 ms −1
(d) 8𝜋 ms −1
v. In the following graph, average velocity is geometrically represented by
(15)
03
)
m
(a) Length of the line P1 P2
(b) Slope of the straight-line P1 P2
.co
(c) Slope of the tangent to the curve at P1
la
(d) Slope of the tangent to the curve at P2
a
✓ Answer Key:
hs
at
Answer: (a) 3 km/h
lp
1.
2. Answer: (c) 3 m/s²

ita
3. Answer: (b) m/s²

ig
4. Answer: (b) LT-1

.d
5. Answer: (b) 3 s
w
6. Answer: (b) [LT-2]

w
7. Answer: (c) 2 m/s²

(w
8. Answer: (d) 6 s
9. Answer: (b) [LT-1]
10.Answer: (b) 5 s
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: Yes, two trains running on two parallel tracks with the same velocity in
the same direction.
2. Answer: Yes, projectile motion.
3. Answer: Yes.
4. Answer: When the net force on the body is zero.
(16)
03
5. Answer: It records (or measures) the instantaneous speed.

6. Answer: Yes, circular motion.
7. Answer: Yes, in projectile motion.
8. Answer: It Represents motion with uniform velocity.
9. Answer: The body is always at rest in the frame attached to it i. e. inertial
frame of reference.
10.Answer:
)
m
.co
a la
Both these graphs represent that the velocity is negative.
hs
at
1. Answer: Average velocity is defined as the ratio of the total displacement to
the total time. Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance to the
lp
total time. Since displacement is less than or equal to the distance, therefore
ita
the average velocity is less than or equal to the average speed.

2. Answer:
ig
Let l1, l2 be the lengths of the two trains.

.d
v1, v2 be their velocities respectively.

w
∴ l1 = 109m, l2 = 91 m, v1 = 34kmh-1, v2 = 38kmh-1.

w
As the trains are moving in opposite directions so relative velocity of the trains
(w
is given by
v1 - (- v2) = v1 + v2
= 34 + 38 = 72 kmh-1
5
= 72 × = 20 ms-1
18
Total distance to be covered by the two trains in crossing each other
= l1 + l2 = 109 + 91 = 200 m
If t be the time taken in crossing, then t can be calculated using the relation
x = vt
or
(17)
03
200
t= = 10s
20
3. Answer:
S = 200 km. Let VR and vs be the speeds of Ram and Sham respectively moving
in opposite directions.
∴ vR = 60 kmh-1, vS = 40 kmh-1.
∴ Relative velocity of Ram w.r.t. Sham is
VRS = VR - (- VS)
= VR + VS
)
= 60 + 40 = 100 kmh-1
m
If t = time after which they will meet, then
.co
t = time taken in covering 200 km distance with VRS
a la
∴ Time after which they meet = 2h. hs
4. Answer:
at
vc = speed of car = 60 kmh-1
lp
vs = speed of scooter = 40 kmh-1

ita
vcs = relative velocity of car w.r.t. scooter

ig
= vc - vs
.d
= 60 - 40
w
= 20 kmh-1
w
Similarly, vsc = relative velocity of scooter w.r.t. car

(w
= vs – v c
= 40 – 60
= – 20 kmh-1
Thus, we conclude that the magnitude of the relative velocity is the same in
both cases but the direction of relative velocity is reversed if the scooter is
ahead of the car.
5. Answer:
The positive T time graphs for two objects initially occupying different positions
but having zero relative velocity are parallel to each other as shown in Fig.
(18)
03
6. Answer:
• Let P represent the initial position at the time when the ball is thrown
)
vertically upward.
m
• Q represents the highest point reached by the ball.
.co
• R represents the original position of the ball after 4 seconds.
la
Thus, the velocity-time graph for the motion of the ball is as shown in Fig.
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
(a) We know that at the highest point, the velocity of the object is zero. So,
stone will reach its maximum height corresponding to point Q.
.d
(b) The stone has stopped moving at point Q because at Q, v = 0.

w
7. Answer:
w
The direction of velocity is always in the direction of motion of the body

(w
whereas the direction of acceleration may or may not be in the direction of

motion of the body. Thus we conclude that it is the velocity that decides the
direction of motion of the body.
Example: When a ball is thrown vertically upwards, the direction of motion of
the ball and velocity is the same i.e. vertically upwards. On the other hand, the
acceleration due to gravity on the ball acts vertically downwards i.e. opposite
to the direction of motion of the ball.
8. Answer:
Since uA and uB are in mutually perpendicular directions, they will cover uA
and uB km in one hour respectively. Thus if v km be the separation between
them in one hour,
(19)
03
Thus, if vAB be the relative speed of A w.r.t. B, then
)
m
If θ be the direction of vAB w.r.t. uA, Then
.co
la
Thus, equations (1) and (2) give the magnitude and direction of relative
a
velocity of A w.r.t. B.
hs
at
1. Answer:
lp
(a) Speed: It is defined as the time rate of change of position i. e. distance of an

object.
ita
ig
(b) Uniform Speed: An object is said to be moving with uniform speed if it

.d
covers equal distances in equal small intervals of time.

w
(c) Variable Speed: An object is said to be moving with variable speed if it

w
covers equal distances in unequal small intervals of time.

(w
(d) Average Speed: It is used to measure the variable speed of an object.

It is defined as the ratio of the total distance travelled by the object to the total
time taken.
(e) Instantaneous Speed: It is defined as the speed of an object at a given

instant of time. It is denoted by vins.
∴ If Δs be the distance covered by an object in a small-time interval Δt s.t. Δt →
0,
Then
(20)
03
Thus in the case of the uniform motion of an object, the instantaneous speed is
equal to its uniform speed.
(f) Velocity: It is defined as the time rate of change of displacement of an
object.
(g) Uniform Velocity: An object is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it
undergoes equal displacements in equal intervals of time however small these
intervals may be.
)
m
(h) Variable Velocity: An object is said to be moving with variable velocity if
either its magnitude (i.e. speed) or its direction or both change with time.
.co
(i) Uniform Motion: An object is said to be in uniform motion if it undergoes
equal displacements in equal intervals of time which may be very small.
la
(j) Average Velocity in Uniform Motion: The velocity of an object in uniform
a
motion may be defined as the ratio of the. displacement of the object to the
hs
total time interval for which the motion takes place.
at
lp
(k) Relative Velocity: The relative velocity of a moving object with respect to
ita
another object is defined as the rate of change of relative position of one

object w.r.i. another object.
ig
Or
.d
It is the velocity with which one object moves with respect to another object.
w
(l) The instantaneous velocity of an object: It is defined as the velocity of an

w
object at any instant of time or any point on its path.

(w
Or
It is defined as the limiting value of the average velocity of the object as Δt →
0.
(m) Acceleration: It is defined as the time rate of change of velocity of an

object. It is a vector quantity.
(n) Retardation: It is defined as the negative acceleration produced in the
object.
(21)
03
(o) Variable Acceleration: An object is said to be moving with variable

acceleration if its velocity changes by unequal magnitudes in equal intervals of
time.
(p) Average Acceleration: It is defined as the ratio of change in velocity in a
given time interval to the total time taken.
(q) Uniform Acceleration: An object is said to be moving with uniform
acceleration if it undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal intervals of time.
(r) Instantaneous Acceleration: It is defined as the acceleration of an object at a
particular instant of time or at a particular point on its path.
)
Or
m
It may be defined as the limiting value of the average acceleration in a small
.co
time interval around that instant when the time-interval tends to zero.
a la
hs
at
2. Answer:
lp
1. The importance of a position-time graph is that its slope gives the velocity of
ita
the object in uniform motion.

ig
.d
w
w
(w
Let us consider the position-time graph of an object moving with uniform

velocity represented by the line DB making angle 0 with the time axis. Let the
coordinates of D and B be (x, t) and (x’, t’) respectively. Let BA and DC’ be
perpendiculars drawn from B and D respectively on the time axis and BE and
DC be perpendiculars on the y-axis from B and D.
Now BE’ = CE = x’ – x
and C’A = t’ – t = DE’
(22)
03
So, velocity v = slope of position-time graph.
)
2. The position-time graph for a stationary object is a straight line parallel to
m
the time axis. Here the slope of the curve is zero, which means the object is
stationary as v = 0.
.co
3. In the case of variable velocity the position time curve is not a straight line.
la
In this case, the slope of the curve gives the average velocity
a
hs
at
= slope or chord AB when Δt → 0,
lp
then the slope of curve gives the instantaneous velocity.

ita
Instantaneous velocity =
ig
.d
Thus, the position-time graph gives information about velocity.

w
3. Answer:
w
v = u + at:
(w
Derivation: By def. of acceleration, we know that
where v1 and v2 are the velocities of an object at times t1 and t2 respectively.

If v1 = u (initial velocity of the object) at t1 = 0
v2 = v (final velocity of the object) at t2 = t
Then (1) reduces to v = u + at
Hence derived.
(23)
03
ii) v2 – u2 = 2as
𝑣2 −𝑣1
Derivation: We know that acceleration is given by a = , where v1 and v2,
𝑡2 −𝑡1
t1 and t2 are as in (1).
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
1
(iii) s = ut + at2.
2
Derivation:
Let x1, V1 = position and velocity of the object at time t1.
x2, v2 = position and velocity of the object at time t2.
a = uniform acceleration of the object.
Also Let vav = average velocity in t2 – t1 interval
∴ By definition
(24)
03
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w

assertion.
Explanation:
In uniform circular motion, there is acceleration of constant magnitude.
2. (c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect
Explanation:
(25)
03
The displacement is the shortest distance between initial and final position.
When final position of a body coincides with its initial position, displacement is
zero, but the distance travelled is not zero.
Case Study Answer:
1. i (a) P = (+ 360, 0, 0); R = (- 120, 0, 0)
Explanation:
The position coordinates of point P = (+ 360, 0, 0) and point R = (- 120, 0, 0 )
ii (d) All of the above
)
Explanation:
m
Displacement is a vector quantity, it can be positive, negative and zero.
.co
iii (a) + 360 m and -120 m
la
Explanation:
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
iv (a) zero
Explanation:
v (b) 720m
Explanation:
Path length of the journey
= OP + PO = + 360m + (+360) m = 720m
2. i (c) 80 s
Explanation:
(26)
03
The distance
Total time taken =
Speed
ii (a) 50 km/h
Explanation:
Total distance
Average speed =
Total time
150
= = 50 km/h
)
3
m
iii (a) 17.14 m/s
.co
Explanation:
a la
hs
at
lp
iv (b) 2 ms -1
ita
Explanation:
ig
.d
w
w
(w
v (b) Slope of the straight line P1 P2

Explanation:
From the position-time graph, average velocity is geometrically represented by
the
slope of curve, i.e., slope of straight line P1 P2
(27)
PHYSICS
)
m
.co
a la
Chapter 4: Motion in a Plane
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Motion in a Plane
Scalars Vs. Vectors
Criteria Scalar Vector
A scalar is a quantity A vector is a quantity with

Definition
with magnitude only. magnitude and direction.
Direction No Yes
)
A number (magnitude) A number (magnitude), direction
m
Specified by
and a unit and a unit
.co
quantity’s symbol in bold or an
Represented by quantity’s symbol
arrow sign above
a la
Example mass, temperature
hs velocity, acceleration
at
Position and Displacement Vectors
lp
Position Vector: Position vector of an object at time t is the position of the object relative to the
ita
origin. It is represented by a straight line between the origin and the position at time t.
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Displacement Vector: Displacement vector of an object between two points is the straight line
between the two points irrespective of the path followed. The path length is always equal or
greater than the displacement.
(1)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
Free and Localized Vectors

(w
A free vector(or non-localized vector) is a vector of which only the magnitude and direction are
specified, not the position or line of action. Displacing it parallel to itself leaves it unchanged.
A localized vector is a vector where line of action and position are as important as magnitude
and direction. These vectors change with change in position and direction.
(2)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Equality of Vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal only when they have same direction and magnitude. For
example, two cars travelling with same speed in same direction. If they are travelling in opposite
directions with same speed, then the vectors are unequal.
)
m
Multiplication of Vectors with real numbers
.co
Multiplication Magnitude of vector Direction of vector
la
Original vector
Factor after multiplication after multiplication
a
λ (>0) A
hs
λA Same as that of A
at
Opposite to that of
-λ (<0) A λA
lp
A
ita
None. The initial and

λ (=0) A 0 (null vector) final positions
ig
coincide.
.d
w
w
(w
Addition and Subtraction of Vectors – Triangle Method

The method of adding vectors graphically is by arranging them so that head of first is touching
the tail of second vector and making a triangle by joining the open sides. This method is
called head-to-tail method or triangle method of vector addition
(3)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
• Vector addition is:

o Commutative: A + B = B + A
)
o Associative: (A + B) + C = A + (B+ C)
m
• Adding two vectors with equal magnitudes and opposite directions results in null vector.
.co
o Null Vector: A + (-A) = 0
• Subtraction is adding a negative vector (opposite direction) to a positive vector.
la
o A – B = A + (-B)
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
Addition of Vectors – Parallelogram Method

w
w
The method of adding vectors by parallelogram method is by:

(w
• Touching the tail of the two vectors

• Complete a parallelogram by drawing lines from the heads of the two vectors.
• Vector resulting from the origin to the point of intersection of above lines gives the
addition.
(4)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Resolution of Vectors
)
m
A vector can be expressed in terms of other vectors in the same plane. If there are 3
.co
vectors A, a and b, then A can be expressed as sum of a and b after multiplying them with some
real numbers.
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
A can be resolved into two component vectors λa and μb. Hence, A = λa + μb. Here λ and μ are
ig
real numbers.
.d
Unit Vectors
w
w
A unit vector is a vector of unit magnitude and a particular direction.

(w
• They specify only direction. They do not have any dimension and unit.
• In a rectangular coordinate system, the x, y and z axes are represented by unit vectors, î,ĵ
and k̂
• These unit vectors are perpendicular to each other.
• |î| = |ĵ | = |k̂| = 1
(5)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
)
m
In a 2-dimensional plane, a vector thus can be expressed as:
.co
1. A = Ax î +Ay ĵ where, Ax = A cosθ and Ay = A sinθ
la
2. A =
a
Analytical Method of Vector Addition
hs
at
Vectors Sum of the vectors Subtraction of the vectors
lp
ita
A = Ax î +Ay ĵ R=A+B R=A-B

and R = Rx î +Ry ĵwhere R = Rx î +Ry ĵ where
ig
B = Bx î +By ĵ Rx = Ax + Bx and Ry = Ay + By Rx = Ax – Bx and Ry = Ay - By

.d
A=
R=A+B R=A-B
w
Ax î +Ay ĵ+Azk̂
R = Rx î +Ry ĵ+Rzk̂ where R = Rx î +Ry ĵ+Rzk̂ where
w
B=
Rx = Ax + Bx and Rx = Ax – Bx and Ry = Ay - By and
Bx î +By ĵ+Bzk̂
(w
Ry = Ay + By andRz = Az + Bz Rz = Az - Bz
(6)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
)
Quantities related to motion of an object in a plane
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
Quantity Value Value in component form

ig
.d
Displacement Δr
r’ - r îΔx + ĵΔy
w
(Change in position)
w
Average Velocity v̅
(w
(ratio of displacement and vxî + vy ĵ

Δr/Δt
corresponding time vx= Δx/Δt, vy= Δy/Δt
interval)
Instantaneous velocity v
(limiting value of average vxî + vy ĵ
dr/dt
velocity as the time interval vx= dx/dt, vy= dy/dt
approached zero)
Magnitude of v
(7)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Direction of v, θ
(direction of velocity at any
point on the path is
tan-1(vy/vx)
tangential to the path at
that point and is in the
direction of motion)
Average Acceleration a̅
ax î + ay ĵ
(change in velocity divided Δv/Δt
ax= Δvx/Δt, ay= Δvy/Δt
by the time interval)
)
m
Instantaneous acceleration
.co
a (limiting value of the ax î + ay ĵ
average acceleration as the dv/dt ax= dvx/dt, ay= dvy/dt
time interval approaches ax= d2x/dt2, ay= d2y/dt2
la
zero)
a
Motion in a plane with constant acceleration hs
at
Motion in a plane (two dimensions) can be treated as two separate simultaneous one-
lp
dimensional motions with constant acceleration along two perpendicular directions. X and Y
directions are hence independent of each other.
ita
If v0 being the velocity at time 0, the displacement can be written as:

ig
x = x0 + v0xt+ ½ axt2 and y = y0 + v0yt+ ½ ayt2

.d
w
Motion of an object in a plane with constant acceleration

w
Velocity in terms of
(w
Velocity Displacement
components
vx = v0x + axt r = r0+ v0t+ ½ at2

v = v0+ at
vy = v0y + ayt
Relative velocity in two dimensions
The concept of relative velocity in a plane is similar to the concept of relative velocity in a
straight line.
(8)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
Projectile Motion
lp
An object that becomes airborne after it is thrown or projected is called projectile. Example,
ita
football, javelin throw, etc.

ig
.d
w
w
(w
• Projectile motion comprises of two parts – horizontal motion of no acceleration and

vertical motion of constant acceleration due to gravity.
• Projectile motion is in the form of a parabola, y = ax + bx2.
• Projectile motion is usually calculated by neglecting air resistance to simplify calculations.
(9)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Quantity Value
)
m
vx = v0 cosθ0
Components of velocity at time t
vy = v0 sinθ0–gt
.co
x = (v0 cosθ0)t
la
Position at time t
y = (v0 sinθ0)t – ½ gt2
a
Equation of path of projectile motion hs
y = (tan θ0)x – gx2/2(v0 cosθ0)2
at
Time of maximum height tm = v0 sinθ0 /g
lp
Time of flight 2 tm = 2 (v0 sinθ0 /g)

ita
Maximum height of projectile hm = (v0 sinθ0)2/2g

ig
Horizontal range of projectile R = v02 sin 2θ0/g

.d
w
Maximum horizontal range (θ0=45°) Rm = v02/g

w
(w
(10)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Uniform circular motion

When an object follows a circular path at a constant speed, the motion is called uniform circular
motion.
• Velocity at any point is along the tangent at that point in the direction of motion.
• Average velocity between two points is always perpendicular to Average displacement.
Also, average acceleration is perpendicular to average displacement.
• For an infinitely small time interval, Δ tà 0, the average acceleration becomes
instantaneous acceleration which means that in uniform circular motion the acceleration
of an object is always directed towards the center. This is called centripetal acceleration.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
Quantity Values
(w
ac = v2/R, R – radius of the circle

Centripetal Acceleration ac = ω2R, ω – angular speed
ac = 4π2ν2R, ν – frequency
Angular Distance Δθ = ω Δt
Speed v = Rω
(11)
04
(w
MOTION IN A PLANE
w
w
.d
ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
.co
m
)
(12)
04
(w
MOTION IN A PLANE
w
w
.d
ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
.co
m
)
(13)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Important Questions
1. A body of mass 500 gram is rotating in a vertical circle of radius 1 m. What is the
difference in its kinetic energies at the top and the bottom of the circle?
(a) 4.9 J
(b) 19.8 J
(c) 2.8 J
(d) 9.8 J
)
m
2. A particle has a displacement of 2 units along the x -axis, 1 unit along the y – axis
and 2 units along the z – axis. Then the resultant displacement of the particle is
.co
(a) 3 units
la
(b) 5 units
a
(c) 4 units
(d) 1 units
hs
at
3. A car is moving on a circular path and takes a turn. If R1 and R² are the reactions
lp
on the inner and outer wheels respectively, then

(a) R1 = >R²
ita
(b) R1 = R²
ig
(c) R1 < R²
.d
(d) R1 > R²
w
4. The angle between centripetal acceleration and tangential acceleration is?

w
(a) 180°
(w
(b) 0°
(c) 90°
(d) 45°
5. Large angle produces?
(a) high trajectory
(b) curve trajectory
(c) flat trajectory
(d) straight trajectory
6. He dimensional formula for normal acceleration is
(14)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
(a) LT-1
(b) L2T2
(c) L3T-2
(d) LT-2
7. A book is pushed with an initial horizontal velocity of 5.0 meters per second off
the top of a desk. What is the initial vertical velocity of the book?
(a) 10. m/s
(b) 0 m/s
)
(c) 50 m/s
m
(d) 2.5 m/s
.co
8. One radian is defined to be the angle subtended where the arc length S is exactly
equal to the?
la
(a) radius of the circle.
a
(b) diameter of the circle. hs
(c) circumference of the circle.
at
(d) half of radius of the circle.
lp
9. A body travels along the circumference of a circle of radius 2 m with a linear

ita
velocity of 6 m/s. Then its angular velocity is

ig
(a) 6 rad /s
.d
(b) 3 rad /s
w
(c) 2 rad / s
w
(d) 4 rad / s
(w
10. One° (1°) is equal to?

(a) 0.1745 rad
(b) 0.01745 rad
(c) 0.001745 rad
(d) 7.1745 rad
Very Short:
1. Under what condition |a + b| = |a| + |b| holds good?
2. Under what condition |a – b| = |a| – |b| holds good?
3. The sum and difference of the two vectors are equal in magnitude
i. e. |a + b|=|a – b|. What conclusion do you draw from this?
(15)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
4. What is the angle between 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵 ⃗⃗ × 𝐴⃗?

⃗⃗ and 𝐵
5. What is the minimum number of coplanar vectors of different magnitudes
which can give zero resultant?
6. When a – b = a + b condition holds good than what can you say about b?
7. What is the magnitude of the component of the 9î – 9ĵ + 19k̂ vector along the
x-axis?
8. Can displacement vector be added to force vector?
9. What is the effect on the dimensions of a vector if it is multiplied by a non-
dimensional scalar?
)
m
10.(a) What is the angle between î + ĵ and î vectors?
.co
(b) What is the angle between î – ĵ and the x-axis?
(c) What is the angle between î + ĵ and î – ĵ?ss
la
Short Questions:
a
hs
1. Name two quantities that are the largest when the maximum height attained
by the projectile is largest.
at
2. A stone dropped from the window of a stationary railway carriage takes 2
lp
seconds to reach the ground. At what time the stone will reach the ground
ita
when the carriage is moving with

(a) the constant velocity of 80kmh-1
ig
(b) constant acceleration of 2ms-2?

.d
3. Can a particle accelerate when its speed is constant? Explain.

w
4. (a) Is circular motion possible at a constant speed or at constant velocity?

w
Explain.
(w
(b) Define frequency and time period.

5. When the component of a vector A along the direction of vector B is zero, what
can you conclude about the two vectors?
6. Comment on the statement whether it is true or false “Displacement vector is
fundamentally a position vector.’’ Why?
7. Does the nature of a vector changes when it is multiplied by a scalar?
8. Can the walk of a man be an example of the resolution of vectors? Explain.
Long Questions:
1. Discuss the problem of a swimmer who wants to cross the river in the shortest
time.
(16)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
2. State and prove parallelogram law of vector addition. Discuss some special
cases.
3. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity. Also, deduce
its direction.
(d) given below.
)
m
assertion.
.co
for assertion
la
a
hs
Assertion: In projectile motion, the angle between the instantaneous velocity and
acceleration at the highest point is 180°.
at
Reason: At the highest point, velocity of projectile will be in horizontal direction
lp
only.
ita

ig
(d) given below.
.d

w
assertion.
w

(w
for assertion
Assertion: Two particles of different mass, projected with same velocity at same
angles. The maximum height attained by both the particle will be same.
Reason: The maximum height of projectile is independent of particle mass.
1. Vectors are the physical quantities which have both magnitudes and directions
and obey the triangle/parallelogram laws of addition and subtraction. It is
specified by giving its magnitude by a number and its direction. e.g.,
Displacement, acceleration, velocity, momentum, force, etc. A vector is
represented by a bold face type and also by an arrow placed over a letter, i.e.
(17)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
The length of the line gives the magnitude, and the arrowhead gives the
direction. The point P is called head or terminal point and point O is called tail or
initial point of the vector OP.
)
m
i. Amongst the following quantities, which is not a vector quantity?
.co
(a) Force
(b) Acceleration
la
(c) Temperature
a
(d) Velocity hs
ii. Set of vectors A and B, P and Q are as shown below
at
lp
ita
ig
.
.d
Length of A and B is equal, similarly length of P and Q is equal. Then, the

w
vectors which are equal, are

w
(a) A and P
(w
(b) P and Q
(c) A and B
(d) B and Q
iii. |𝜆 A | = 𝜆 |A|, if
(a) 𝜆 > 0
(b) 𝜆 < 0
(c) 𝜆 = 0
(d) 𝜆 ≠ 0
iv. Among the following properties regarding null vector which is incorrect?
(18)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
(a) A + 0 = A
(b) 𝜆0 = 𝜆
(c) 0A = 0
(d) A – A = 0
v. The x and y components of a position vector P have numerical values 5 and
6, respectively. Direction and magnitude of vector P are
6
(a) tan-1( ) and √61
5
5
(b) tan-1( ) and √61
)
6
m
(c) 60° and 8
.co
(d) 30° and 9
2. Projectile motion is a form of motion in which an object or particle is thrown with
la
some initial velocity near the earth’s surface, and it moves along a curved path
a
under the action of gravity alone. The path followed by a projectile is called its
hs
trajectory, which is shown below. When a projectile is projected obliquely, then
its trajectory is as shown in the figure below
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Here velocity u is resolved into two components, we get (a) u cos 𝜃 along OX and (b) u sin
𝜃 along OY
i. The example of such type of motion is
(a) Motion of car on a banked road
(b) Motion of boat in sea
(c) A javelin thrown by an athlete
(d) Motion of ball thrown vertically upward
ii. The acceleration of the object in horizontal direction is
(a) Constant
(19)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
(b) Decreasing
(c) Increasing
(d) Zero
iii. The vertical component of velocity at point H is
(a) Maximum
(b) Zero
(c) Double to that at O
(d) Equal to horizontal component
)
iv. A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28 m/s in a direction 30° with the
m
horizontal. The time taken by the ball to return to the same level will be
.co
(a) 2.0 s
la
(b) 3.0 s
a
(c) 4.0 s
(d) 2.9 s
hs
at
v. In above case, the distance from the thrower to the point where the ball
returns to the same level will be
lp
(a) 39 m
ita
(b) 69 m
ig
(c) 68 m
.d
(d) 72 m
w
✓ Answer Key:
w

(w
1. Answer: (d) 9.8 J

2. Answer: (a) 3 units
3. Answer: (c) R1 < R²
4. Answer: (c) 90°
5. Answer: (a) high trajectory
6. Answer: (d) LT-2
7. Answer: (b) 0 m/s
8. Answer: (a) radius of the circle.
9. Answer: (b) 3 rad /s
(20)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
10.Answer: (b) 0.01745 rad

Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: When a and b act in the same direction i. e. when 0 = 0 between •
them, then |a + b|=|a| + |b|.
2. Answer: The condition |a – b|=|a| – |b| holds goods when a and b act in the
opposite direction.
3. Answer: The two vectors are equal in magnitude and are perpendicular to each
other.
4. Answer: The given vectors act along two parallel lines in opposite directions i.e.
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they are anti-parallel, so the angle between them is 180°.
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5. Answer: 3, If three vectors can be represented completely by the three sides of
a triangle taken in the same order, then their resultant is zero.
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6. Answer: For a – b = a + b condition to hold good, b must be a null vector.
a
7. Answer: 9.
8. Answer: No.
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9. Answer: There is no effect on the dimensions of a vector if it is multiplied by a
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non-dimensional scalar.
10.Answer:
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(a) 45°
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(b) 45°
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(c) 90°
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1. Answer: Time of flight and the vertical component of velocity are the two
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quantities that are the largest when the maximum height attained by the
projectile is the largest.
2. Answer: The time taken by the freely falling stone to reach the ground is given
by
In both cases, the stone will fall through the same height as it is falling when
the railway carriage is stationary. Hence the stone will reach the ground after 2
seconds.
3. Answer: Yes. A particle can be accelerated if its velocity changes. A particle
having uniform circular motion has constant speed but its direction of motion
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
changes continuously. Due to this, there is a change in velocity and hence the
particle is moving with variable velocity. Thus, particle is accelerating.
4. Answer:
(a) Circular motion is possible at a constant speed because, in a circular
motion, the magnitude of the velocity i.e. speed remains constant while the
direction of motion changes continuously.
(b) Frequency is defined as the number of rotations completed by a body in
one second and the time period is defined as the time taken by an object to
complete one rotation.
)
5. Answer:
m
The two vectors A and B are perpendicular to each other.
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Explanation: Let θ = angle between the two vectors A and B component of
vector A along the direction of B is obtained by resolving A i.e. A cos θ.
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Now according to the statement
a
A cos θ = 0 hs
or
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cos θ = 0 = cos 90°
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θ = 90°
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i.e. A ⊥ B
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Hence proved.
6. Answer: The given statement is true. The displacement vector gives the
position of a point just like the position vector. The only difference between
the displacement and the position vector is that the displacement vector gives
the position of a point with reference to a point other than the origin, while
the position vector gives the position of a point with reference to the origin.
Since the choice of origin is quite arbitrary, so the given statement.
7. Answer: The nature of a vector may or may not be changed when it is
multiplied.
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
For example, when a vector is multiplied by a pure number like 1, 2, 3, …. etc.,

then the nature of the vector does not change. On the other hand, when a
vector is multiplied by a scalar physical quantity, then the nature of the vector
changes.
For example, when acceleration (vector) is multiplied by a mass (scalar) of a
body, then it gives force (a vector quantity) whose nature is different than
acceleration.
8. Answer: Yes, when a man walks, he pushes the ground with his foot. In return,
an equal and opposite reaction acts on his foot. The reaction is resolved into
two components: horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal
)
component of the reaction helps the man to move forward while the vertical
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component balances the weight of the man.
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1. Answer:
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Let vs and vr be the velocities of swimmer and river respectively.

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Let v = resultant velocity of vs and vr

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1. Let the swimmer begins to swim at an angle θ with the line OA where OA is
⊥ to the flow of the river.
If t = time taken to cross the river, then
where l = breadth of the river

For t to be minimum, cos 0 should be maximum.
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
i.e., cos θ = 1
This is possible if θ = 0
Thus, we conclude that the swimmer should swim in a direction perpendicular
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to the direction of the flow of the river.
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or hs
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2. Answer:
It states that if two vectors can be represented completely (i.e. both in
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magnitude and direction) by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram drawn

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from a point then their resultant is represented completely by its diagonal

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drawn from the same point.

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Proof: Let P and Q be the two vectors represented completely by the adjacent
sides OA and OB of the parallelogram OACB s.t.
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or
θ = angle between them = ∠AOB

(24)
MOTION IN A PLANE
04
If R be their resultant, then it will be represented completely by the diagonal

OC through point O s.t. OC = R
The magnitude of R: Draw CD ⊥ to OA produced,
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eqn. (vii) gives the magnitude of R.

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The direction of R: Let β be the angle made by R with P

∴ in rt. ∠d ΔODC,
Special cases: (a) When two vectors are acting in the same direction:
Then θ = 0°
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
Thus, the magnitude of the resultant vector is equal to the sum of the
magnitudes of the two vectors acting in the same direction, and their resultant
acts in the direction of P and Q.
(b) When two vectors act in the opposite directions:
Then θ = 180°
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Thus, the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors acting in the opposite
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direction is equal to the difference of the magnitude of two vectors and it acts
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in the direction of the bigger vector.

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(c) If θ = 90° i.e. if P ⊥ Q,

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then cos 90° = 0

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and
sin 90° = 1
and
3. Answer:
Let R be the radius of the circular path of centre O on which an object is
moving with uniform angular velocity co. Let v = its linear velocity. Let the
object move from point P at time t to point Q at time t + Δt. If r and r + Δr be its
position vectors at point P and Q respectively, then
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
)
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∴ Linear displacement of the particle from P to Q in small time interval Δt = Δr.
Let Δθ = its angular displacement
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𝛥𝜃
a
∴ω=
𝛥𝑡
or
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Δθ = ωΔt ….(1)
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̂
𝑃𝑄
Also we know that Δθ = …(2)
𝑅
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∴ from (1) and (2), we get

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Now when Δt → 0, then from eqn. (1) Δθ → 0

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̂ = chord PQ
so arc PQ = 𝑃𝑄
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Thus eqn. (3) reduces to
𝑃𝑄
where v = is the linear velocity of the object.
𝛥𝑡
Direction of velocity vector: In isosceles ΔOPQ,
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
𝜋
when Δt → 0, ∠QPO →
2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ tends to become ⊥ to 𝑂𝑃
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
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i.e. 𝑂𝑃
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or
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⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ tends to lie along the tangent at P. Hence velocity vector at P is directed
𝑂𝑃
along the tangent to the circle in the direction of motion
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a
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1. (d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.
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assertion.
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Case Study Answer:

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1. i (c) Temperature
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Explanation:
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Temperature is not a vector quantity because it has magnitude only. However,

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force, acceleration and velocity have both a magnitude and a direction. So, these
are vectors in nature.
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ii (c) A and B
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Explanation:
Two vectors are said to be equal, if and only if they have the same magnitude and
direction. Among the given vectors A and B are equal vectors as they have same
magnitude (length) and direction. However, P and Q are not equal even though
they are of same magnitude because their directions are different.
iii (a) 𝜆 > 0
Explanation:
|𝜆 A | = 𝜆 |A|, if 𝜆 > 0 as multiplication of vector A with a positive number 𝜆 gives a
vector whose magnitude is changed by the factor 𝜆 but the direction is same as that
of A.
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
iv (b) 𝜆0 = 𝜆
Explanation:
Null vector 0 is a vector, whose magnitude is zero and its direction cannot be
specified. So, it means, |0|= 0. Thus, 𝜆 0 = 0. Hence, property given in option (b) is
incorrect.
6
v (a) tan-1( ) and √61
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Explanation:
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2. i (c) a javelin thrown by an athlete

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Explanation:
A javelin thrown by an athlete is an example of projectile motion.
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ii (d) zero
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Explanation:
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The horizontal component of velocity (u cos 𝜃) is constant throughout the motion,

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so there will be no acceleration in horizontal direction.

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iii (b) zero

Explanation:
As the vertical components of velocity (u sin 𝜃) decreases continuously with
height, from O to H, due to downward force of gravity and becomes zero at H
iv (d) 2.9 s
Explanation:
The time taken by the ball to return to the same level,
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MOTION IN A PLANE
04
v (b) 69 m
Explanation:
The distance from the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same
level is
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(30)
PHYSICS
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Chapter 5: Laws of Motion
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LAWS OF MOTION
05
Laws of Motion
Introduction
External force is needed to make a stationary body move as well as to stop a moving body.
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• To understand this chapter i.e. Laws of Motion, lets have a quick recap on what we
already know about Motion.
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• Motion in simple is tendency to move. An object is said to be in motion when it changes
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its position with time

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• A body is said to be at Rest if it is not moving

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• An external force is always involved in motion. This force helps body to perform required
actions and these actions are according to rules or laws i.e. Laws of Motion.
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Inertia
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The property of an object by virtue of which it cannot change its state of uniform motion
along a straight line or rest on its own is called as inertia. It is the measure of the mass of a
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body. There are 3 types of inertia.

• Inertia of rest
• Inertia of motion
• Inertia of direction
Difference between Momentum and Inertia
Momentum Inertia
Momentum is a vector quantity as it is Inertia is a scalar quantity as it is the

the tendency of a body to remain in resistance offered by the body to any
(1)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
motion. change in its velocity.
Momentum is denoted as ‘p’. Inertia is denoted as ‘I’.
The momentum of a body of mass ‘m’ The inertia cannot be calculated using a
moving with a velocity of ‘v’ is calculated formula.
as p=m × v
Linear momentum and angular The inertia of rest, inertia of motion, and
momentum are the two types of inertia of direction are the three types of
momentum. inertia.
)
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Momentum depends on mass and Inertia depends only on mass.
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velocity.
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The total momentum is conserved. Inertia has nothing to do with the
conservation of energy.
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Force
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Balanced & Unbalanced forces
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Balanced Forces:
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• Equal & Opposite forces

• Do not cause any change in motion
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Unbalanced Forces:
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• Unequal forces
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• Can be in the same or opposite direction

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• Causes a change in motion

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For example, in Tug of war, If teams 1 & 2 apply equal forces in opposite directions, there would
be no net force. This is Balanced force.
However, if Team 1 exerts more force than Team 2, then there would be a net movement
(2)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
towards Team 1 and Team 1 would win. This is unbalanced force.

A force is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object’s interaction with another
object. Force can be categorized into two types
Constant Force
Action at a distance force
What Is Force? Types Of Forces and Their Nature
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a la
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lp
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Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle believed that the motion of a body is caused by
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something external and even to stop that motion, something external is required.
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We have given this something special a name: Force. We all have heard this word somewhere. In
fact, it is so commonly used that we use in conversing in everyday life. In physics, we say that
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pushing or pulling requires force. When we are pushing a body we are applying force away from
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ourselves, and when we are pulling a body we are applying force towards ourselves. Not only us,
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but even non-living things also exert forces. Earth, for instance, exerts a gravitational force on all
the objects present on Earth.
Roughly we can say that force is an interaction between two objects. Note that this is not the
exact definition of force. The SI unit of force is Newton, and force is a vector quantity, i.e. it has
both magnitude and direction.
Types of forces:
In our day-to-day life, we observe various types of forces around us. Some of these common
types of forces are:
Gravitational force: In general, this is a force which exists because of the attraction between
two bodies by the virtue of their masses. It is given by:
(3)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
where,
G = Universal constant having value of 6.674 × 10−11 Nm2/kg2
m1, m2 are the masses of the bodies
r is the distance between them
Electromagnetic force: It is a force exerted by two charged particles on each other. Friction and
Tension are the common examples of electromagnetic force.
Nuclear force: This is also known as strong force or nuclear interactions. Every atom has protons
)
and neutrons. Nuclear force is responsible for binding neutrons and protons in an atom
m
together. This force is many magnitudes larger than any force discussed here but it has a very
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short range of influence after which other forces mentioned here become dominating.
Weak force: Sometimes a neutron changes itself to a proton, and emits an electron, and a
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particle called antineutrino. This process is called beta decay. Weak forces are responsible for
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such kind of decays and interactions. The weak force is actually a force of attraction that work at
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an even shorter range of 0.1 percent of the diameter of a proton. The forces which are
responsible for such a process differ from gravitational, electromagnetic, or nuclear forces. Such
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forces are called weak forces.
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Newton’s Laws of Motion

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First Law: “A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is
compelled by some external force to change that state.”
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A body at rest tends to remain at rest and a body in uniform motion tends to remain in the state
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of uniform motion until & unless an external force is applied on it.

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For example, a ball lying on the table at rest will remain at rest until an external force is applied
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on it.
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LAWS OF MOTION
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Second Law: “The net force produced by an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of
the net force and takes place in the direction of the force.”
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied force and
takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
Alternatively, the relationship between an object's mass m, its acceleration a, and the applied
force F is F = ma; the direction of the force vector is the same as the direction of acceleration
vector.
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[Greater the change in momentum, greater is force]
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Let, m: mass of the body be constant
lp
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F = ma
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Newton’s Second law is consistent with the First law

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F = ma
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If F = 0, then a = 0
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According to First law, if a = 0, Then F = 0

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Thus, both the laws are in sync.

Third Law: “ To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. ”Important Questions
Aristotle observed that the force is mandatory to keep an object in uniform motion is wrong. He
found that force is required only to keep the opposing force of friction.
Galileo came to a conclusion about law of inertia with the help of simple observations on the
motion of objects on the inclined planes. The statement of Newton’s first law is re-framed as
“Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion until and unless an external
force acts on it.”
To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
For example, when you hold the ball, a force acts on the ball (Action), and an equal and opposite
force acts on your hand (Reaction).
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LAWS OF MOTION
05
• Action & Reaction forces always act on different bodies

FAB = FBA
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FAB: Force acting on A by B
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FBA: Force acting on B by A
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• Action & Reaction forces occur at the same instant
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Momentum (p) of a body is the product of its mass (m) and velocity (v): p = mv
a
Momentum hs
Newton’s first law was for scenarios where net force = 0. The second law is for scenarios with
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net force not equal to 0. Momentum plays a crucial role in Second law.
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• Momentum is the product of mass of a body & its velocity

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• It is a Vector quantity
• It is denoted by p = mv
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For example, A ball of 1 kg moving with 10m/sec has a momentum 10kg m/sec.
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Momentum of a system remains conserved. Therefore,

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• Greater force is required to set heavier bodies in motion

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• Greater force is required to stop bodies moving with higher velocities
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LAWS OF MOTION
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Greater the change in momentum in a given time, greater is the force that needs to be applied.
In other words, greater the change in momentum vector, greater is the force applied.
)
Conservation of Momentum
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In an isolated system, the total momentum is conserved.
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Example 1. In a Spinning top, total momentum = 0. For every point, there is another point on
the opposite side that cancels its momentum.
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hs
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Example 2. Bullet fired from a Rifle

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Initially, momentum = 0
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Later, the trigger is pulled, bullet gains momentum in direction, but this is cancelled by rifle’s ß
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momentum. Therefore, total momentum = 0

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During the process, the chemical energy in gunpowder gets converted into heat, sound and
chemical energy.
Example3. Rocket propulsion
Initially, mass of rocket: M. It just started moving with velocity v
Initial momentum = Mv
(7)
LAWS OF MOTION
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Later, gases are ejected continuously in opposite direction with a velocity relative to rocket in
downward direction giving a forward push to the rocket.
Mass of the rocket becomes (M-m)
Velocity of the rocket becomes (v + v’)
Final momentum = (M –m) (v + v’)
Thus, Mass * velocity = constant
Impulse
• Impulse is defined as a force multiplied by time it acts over.
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• For example: Tennis racket strikes a ball, an impulse is applied to the ball. The racket puts a
m
force on the ball for a short time period.
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△t
𝐹
△p
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△p
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𝐹= = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

△t
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Collision of Bodies
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Let the two bodies 1 & 2 have momentum p1 & p2 before they collided with each other. After
collision their momentum are p1’ and p2’ respectively.
By Newton’s Second law,
dp
F=
dt
(p1 −p1 )
For 1: F12 =
∆𝐭
(p2 −p2 )
For 2: F21 =
∆𝐭
(8)
LAWS OF MOTION
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By Newton’s Third law,

F 12 = - F21
(p1 −p1 ) (p2 −p2 )
=
∆𝐭 ∆𝐭
(p1 – p1) = (p2 – p2)
p1 + p 2 = p1 + p2
Final momentum of the system = Initial momentum of the system
Aristotle’s fallacy
Aristotle, the Greek Scientist held the view that an external force is required to keep a body in
)
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uniform motion.
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His concept is obsolete now, because he considered only one side of motion and fails to explain
the other i.e. if body is in motion then how does it come to rest? There came the concept of the
opposing external force of Friction.
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For example, a ball rolled on the floor comes to rest after some time due to opposing force of
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friction. hs
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lp
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An external force is required to keep a body in motion, only if resistive forces (like frictional &
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viscous forces) are present.

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Top Formulae
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(9)
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LAWS OF MOTION
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(10)
05
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LAWS OF MOTION
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LAWS OF MOTION
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Important Questions

1. A spring balance is attached to the ceiling of a lift. A man hangs his bag on the
spring and the spring reads 49 N, when the lift is stationary. If the lift moves
downwards with an acceleration of 5 m/s, the reading of the spring balance will be
(a) 15 N
(b) 24 N
)
(c) 49 N
m
(d) 74 N
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2. Two forces 6 N and 8 N act at a point O. If the angle between the lines of action
of the force is 90°, then their resultant is
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(a) 14 N
a
(b) 12 N hs
(c) 10 N
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(d) 48 N
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3. A body of mass 15 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m/s has its velocity reduced to
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6 m/s in two seconds. The force that produced this change in velocity is
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(a) 60 N
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(b) 30 N
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(c) 45 N
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(d) 20 N
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4. The frame of reference attached to a satellite of the earth is

(a) an inertial frame
(b) an absolute frame at rest with respect to the stars
(c) a non – inertial frame
(d) a gravitational frame
5. A machine gun fires a bullet of mass 40 g with a velocity of 1200 ms-1. The man
holding it can exert a maximum force on 144 N on the gum. How many bullets can
he fire per second at the most?
(a) one
(b) four
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LAWS OF MOTION
05
(c) two
(d) three
6. A block of mass M is placed on a flat surface. A force is applied to move it parallel
to the surface. The frictional force f developed is proportional to the
(a) square of the mass of the body
(b) mass of the body
(c) reciprocal of the mass of the body
(d) reciprocal of the square of the body
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7. A passenger in a moving bus is thrown forward when the bus is suddenly
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stopped. This is explained
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(a) by Newtons first law
(b) by Newtons second law
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(c) by Newtons third law
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(d) by the principle of conservation of momentum
8. A rocket with a lift-off mass of 3.5 × 10 kg is blasted upwards with an acceleration
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of 10 m/s². The initial thrust of the blast is (take g = 10 m/s²)
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(a) 1.75 × 105N

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(b) 3.5 × 105N

(c) 7.0 × 105N
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(d) 14 .0 × 105N
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9. A gun of mass 1000 kg fires a projectile of mass 1 kg with a horizontal velocity of

100 m/s. The velocity of recoil of the gun in the horizontal direction is
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(a) 5 m/s
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(b) 0.1 m/s

(c) 15 m/s
(d) 20 m/s
10. A body is sliding down a rough inclined plane which makes an angle of 30
degree with the horizontal. If the co-efficient of friction is 0.26, the acceleration in
m/s² is
(a) 1.95
(b) 2.78
(c) 3.47
(d) 4.6
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LAWS OF MOTION
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Very Short:
1. (a) Why do we beat dusty blankets with a stick to remove dust particles?
(b) A stone when thrown on a glass window smashes the window pane to
pieces. But a bullet fired from a gun passes through it making a hole. Why?
2. (a) If you jerk a piece of paper from under a book quick enough, the book will
not move, why?
(b) Passengers sitting or standing in a moving bus fall in forward direction when
the bus suddenly stops. Why?
3. (a) Why are passengers thrown outward when a bus in which they are
)
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travelling suddenly takes a turn around a circular road?
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(b) Is any force required to move a body with constant velocity?
4. (a) Why a one-rupee coin placed on a revolving table flies off tangentially?
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(b) Why mud flies off tangentially to the wheel of a cycle?
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5. (a) When the electric current is switched off, why the blades of a fan keep on
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moving for some time?
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(b) Why the passengers fall backward when a bus starts moving suddenly?
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6. (a) A body of mass m is moving on a horizontal table with constant velocity.

What is the force on the table?
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(b) Name a factor on which the inertia of a body depends.

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7. (a) Rocket works on which principle of conservation?

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(b) Is the relation F→=ma→ applicable to the motion of a rocket?

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8. (a) Will a person while firing a bullet from a gun experience a backward jerk?
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Why?
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(b) A bomb explodes in mid-air into two equal fragments. What is the relation
between the directions of their motion? Answer:
9. (a) What happens to the acceleration of an object if the net force on it is
doubled?
(b) An electron moving with a certain velocity collides against a stationary
proton and sticks to it. Is the law of conservation of linear momentum true in
this case?
10.(a) According to Newton’s third law of motion, every force is accompanied by
an equal (in magnitude) and opposite (in direction) force called reaction, then
how can a movement take place?
(14)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
(b) You can move a brick easily by pushing it with your foot on a smooth floor,
but, if you kick it, then your foot is hurt. Why?
Short Questions:
1. (a) A learner shooter fired a shot from his rifle and his shoulder got injured ¡n
the process. What mistake did he commit?
(b) When the horse suddenly stops, the rider falls in the forward direction.
Why? Explain it.
2. (a) Newton’s first law of motion is the law of Inertia. Explain.
(b) What happens to a stone tied to the end of a string and whirled in a circle if
)
m
the string suddenly breaks? Explain why?
.co
3. (a) An astronaut accidentally gets separated out of his small spaceship
accelerating in inter-steller space at a constant rate of 100 ms-2. What is the
acceleration of the astronaut at the instant after he is outside the spaceship?
a la
(b) How is it that a stone dropped from a certain height falls much more rapidly
hs
as compared to a parachute under similar conditions?
4. (a) When a man jumps out of a boat, then it is pushed away. Why?
at
(b) Explain how lubricants reduce friction?
lp
5. Two hoys on ice-skates hold a rope between them. One boy is much heavier
ita
than the other. The lightweight boy pulls on the rope. How will they move?
6. Explain why ball bearings are used in machinery?
ig
7. Why a horse has to apply more force to start a cart than to keep it moving?
.d
Explain.
w
8. Sand is thrown on tracks or roads covered with snow. Explain why?

w
Long Questions:
(w
1. (a) State and prove impulse-momentum Theorem.

(b) Prove that Newton’s Second law is the real law of motion.
2. Derive the general expression for the velocity of a rocket in flight and obtain
the expression for the thrust acting on it.
3. (a) Define inertia. What are its different types? Give examples.
(b) Explain Newton’s First law of motion. Why do we call it the law of inertia?
(c) State Newton’s Second law of motion. How does it help to measure force?
Also, state the units of force.
4. (a) State Newton’s Third law of motion. Discuss its consequences.
(15)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
(b) State the law of conservation of linear momentum and illustrate it with
examples.
(c) Define the terms – momentum and impulse. What are their units in the S.I.
system?
(d) given below.
)
m
assertion.
.co
for assertion
la
a
hs
Assertion: On a rainy day, it is difficult to drive a car or bus at high speed.
Reason: The value of coefficient of friction is lowered due to wetting of the surface.
at
lp
ita
(d) given below.
ig

.d
assertion.
w
for assertion
w

(w

Assertion: For the motion of electron around nucleus, Newton’s second law is used.
Reason: Newton’s second law can be used for motion of any object.
1. This principle is a consequence of Newton’s second and third laws of motion. In
an isolated system (i.e., a system having no external force), mutual forces (called
internal forces) between pairs of particles in the system causes momentum
change in individual particles. Let a bomb be at rest, then its momentum will be
zero. If the bomb explodes into two equals parts, then the parts fly off in exactly
opposite directions with same speed, so that the total momentum is still zero.
Here, no external force is applied on the system of particles (bomb).
(16)
LAWS OF MOTION
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i. A bullet of mass 10 g is fired from a gun of mass 1kg with recoil velocity of
gun 5 m/s. The muzzle velocity will be
(a) 30 km/min
(b) 60 km/min
(c) 30 m/s
(d) 500 m/s
ii. A shell of mass 10kg is moving with a velocity of 10ms - 1 when it blasts and
forms two parts of mass 9kg and 1kg respectively. If the first mass is
stationary, the velocity of the second is
)
m
(a) 1m s-1
.co
(b) 10m s-1
(c) 100m s-1
la
(d) 1000m s-1
a
iii. A bullet of mass 0.1kg is fired with a speed of 100 ms -1 The mass of gun
hs
being 50kg, then the velocity of recoil becomes
at
(a) 0.05 m s-1
lp
(b) 0.5 m s-1

ita
(c) 0.1 m s-1

(d) 0.2 m s-1
ig
iv. A unidirectional force F varying with time T as shown in the figure acts on a
.d
body initially at rest for a short duration 2T. Then, the velocity acquired by
w
the body is
w
(w
π F0 T
(a)
4m
π F0 T
(b)
2m
(17)
LAWS OF MOTION
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F0 T
(c)
4m
(d) Zero
v. Two masses of M and 4M are moving with equal kinetic energy. The ratio
of their linear momenta is
(a)1 : 8
(b)1 : 4
(c)1 : 2
(d)4 : 1
)
m
2. When bodies are in contact, there are mutual contact forces satisfying the third
law of motion. The component of contact force normal to the surfaces in contact
.co
is called normal reaction. The component parallel to the surfaces in contact is
called friction.
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
In the above figure, 8kg and 6kg are hanging stationary from a rough pulley and
.d
are about to move. They are stationary due to roughness of the pulley.
w
i. Which force is acting between pulley? and rope?

w
(a) Gravitational force

(w
(b) Tension force

(c) Frictional force
(d) Buoyant force
ii. The normal reaction acting on the system is
(a) 8 g
(b) 6 g
(c) 2 g
(d) 14 g
iii. The tension is more on side having mass of
(a) 8kg
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LAWS OF MOTION
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(b) 6kg
(c) Same on both
(d) Nothing can be said
iv. The force of friction acting on the rope is
(a) 20 N
(b) 30 N
(c) 40 N
(d) 50 N
)
v. Coefficient of friction of the pulley is
m
1
.co
(a)
6
1
(b)
la
7
1
a
(c)
5
(d)
1
hs
4
at
✓ Answer Key:
lp

ita
1. Answer: (b) 24 N
ig
2. Answer: (c) 10 N
.d
3. Answer: (b) 30 N
w
4. Answer: (c) a non – inertial frame

w
5. Answer: (d) three

(w
6. Answer: (b) mass of the body

7. Answer: (a) by Newtons first law
8. Answer: (c) 7.0 × 105N
9. Answer: (b) 0.1 m/s
10.Answer: (b) 2.78
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer:
(a) It is done due to inertia of rest.
(b) This is due to the inertia of rest.
(19)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
2. Answer:
(a) It is due to the inertia of rest.
(b) This is due to the inertia of motion.
3. Answer:
(a) This is due to the inertia of direction.
(b) No.
4. Answer:
(a) This is due to the inertia of direction.
)
(b) This is due to the inertia of direction.
m
5. Answer:
.co
(a) This is due to the inertia of motion.
la
(b) This is due to the inertia of rest.
a
6. Answer:
hs
(a) mg i.e., equal to the weight of the body.
at
(b) Mass.
lp
7. Answer:
ita
(a) Law of conservation of linear momentum.

(b) No.
ig
8. Answer:
.d
(a) Yes, it is due to the law of conservation of linear momentum.

w
(b) The two fragments will fly off in two opposite directions.
w
9. Answer:
(w
𝐹
(a) As a = i.e., a ∝ F, so acceleration will be doubled when m the force is
𝑚
doubled.
(b) Yes, it is true.
10.Answer:
(a) As the action and reaction never act on the same body, so the motion is
possible.
(b) As Ft remains constant, so if t is reduced, then F will be increased and hence
hurt our foot.
(20)
LAWS OF MOTION
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1. Answer:
(a) We know that a gun recoils i.e. moves back after firing. To avoid injury to
the shoulder, the gun must he held tightly against the shoulder. The learner
shooter might have not held it tightly against his shoulder and hence the gun
must have injured his shoulder after firing.
(b) When the horse suddenly stops, the rider falls in forwarding direction due
to the inertia of motion.
Explanation: The lower portion of the rider comes to rest along with the horse
while the upper portion of the rider continues to move forward. Hence, he falls
forward.
)
m
2. Answer:
.co
(a) According to Newton’s first law of motion, a body can’t change its state of
rest or of uniform motion along a straight line unless an external force acts on
la
it. It means that the natural tendency of the material body is to continue in the
a
state of rest or that of uniform motion which is termed as inertia. Thus,
hs
Newton’s first law is the law of inertia.
(b) The stoneflies off tangentially to the circle along a straight line at the point
at
where the string breaks. It is due to the inertia of direction. When the string
lp
breaks, the force acting on the stone ceases. In the absence of force, the
stoneflies away in the direction of instantaneous velocity which is along the
ita
tangent to the circular path.

ig
3. Answer:
.d
(a) According to Newton’s first law of motion, the moment he is out of the
spaceship, there is no external force on the astronaut, thus his acceleration is
w
zero. Here we are assuming that he is out of the gravitational field of heavenly
w
bodies i.e. there are no nearby stars to exert a gravitational force on him and
(w
the small spaceship exerts a negligible gravitational attraction on him.

(b) As the surface area of a parachute is much larger as compared to the
surface area of a stone, so the air resistance, i. e. fluid friction in the case of the
parachute is much larger than in the case of stone. Hence the parachute falls
slowly.
4. Answer:
(a) This is due to Newton’s third law of motion. When the man jumps out of
the boat, he applies a force on it in the backward direction, and in turn, the
reaction of the boat on the man pushes him out of the boat.
(b) The lubricants spread as a thin layer between the two surfaces. The motion
now is between the surface and the lubricant layer which changes the dry
(21)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
friction into wet friction. As wet friction is less than dry friction, hence
lubricants reduce friction.
5. Answer: The light-weight boy is doing the action on the heavy boy by pulling
the rope. According to Newton’s third law, equal and opposite force (reaction)
also acts on the light boy. As the mass of the boy pulling the rope is lesser, so
the acceleration produced in him will be more. Thus, both the boys move tow;
rds each other and the lighter boy will move faster.
6. Answer: We know that rolling friction is much lesser than sliding friction, so we
convert the sliding friction into rolling friction which is done using ball bearings
that are placed in between the axle and the hub of the wheel. The ball bearings
)
tend to roll around the axle as the wheel turns and as such the frictional force
m
is reduced.
.co
7. Answer: Static friction comes into play when the horse applies force to start
the motion in the cart. On the other hand, kinetic friction comes into play
la
when the cart is moving.
a
Also, we know that the static friction is greater than the kinetic friction, so the
hs
horse has to apply more force to start a cart than to keep it moving.
at
8. Answer: When the roads (or tracks) are covered with snow, then there is a
considerable reduction of frictional force between the tires of the vehicles and
lp
the road (or between the track and the wheels of the vehicle or train) which
ita
leads to the skidding of the ehicles (or trains). Thus, driving is not safe. When
sand is thrown on the snow-covered roads (or tracks), then the force of friction
ig
increases, so safe driving is possible.

.d

w
1. Answer:
w
1. It states that the impulse of force on a body is equal to the change in

(w
momentum of the body.

i.e. J = Ft = P2 – P1
Proof: From Newton’s Second law of motion, we know that
Let P1 and P2 be the linear momenta of the body at time t = 0 and t

respectively.
∴ integrating equation (i) within these limits, we get
(22)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
)
m
Hence proved.
2. Proof: If we can show that Newton’s first and third laws are contained in the
.co
second law, then we can say that it is the real law of motion.
la
1. First law is contained in second law: According to Newton’s second law of
motion,
a
F = ma …(i) hs
where m = mass of the body on which an external force F is applied and a =
at
acceleration produced in it.
lp
If F = 0, then from equation (1), we get

ita
ma = 0, but as m ≠ 0
ig
∴a=0
.d
which means that there will be no acceleration in the body if no external force
is applied. This shows that a body at rest will remain at rest and a body in
w
uniform motion will continue to move along the same straight line in the
w
absence of an external force. This is the statement of Newton’s first law of

(w
motion. Hence, the First law of motion is contained in the Second law of
motion.
2. Third law is contained in second law: Consider an isolated system of two
bodies A and B. Let them act and react internally.
Let FAB = force applied on body A by body B
and FBA = force applied on body B by body A
𝑑𝑝𝐴
It = rate of change of momentum of body A
𝑑𝑡
and
𝑑𝑝𝐵
= rate of change of momentum of body B
𝑑𝑡
Then according to Newton’s second law of motion,
(23)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
)
(2) and (3) gives
m
.co
a la
hs
As no external force acts on the system (∵ it is isolated), therefore according to
Newton’s second law of motion,
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
or
w
Action = – Reaction,
w
which means that action and reaction are equal and opposite. It is the
(w
statement of Newton’s 3rd law of motion. Thus 3rd law is contained in the
second law of motion.
As both First and Third Law is contained in Second law, so Second law is the
real law of motion.
2. Answer:
The working of a rocket is based upon the principle of conservation of
momentum. Consider the flight of the rocket in outer space where no external
forces act on it.
Let mo = initial mass of rocket with fuel.
Vu = initial velocity of the rocket,
m = mass of the rocket at any instant t.
(24)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
v = velocity of the rocket at that instant.

dm = mass of the gases ejected by the rocket, in a small-time it.
u =H velocity of exhaust gases,
DV = increase in the velocity of the rocket in a time dt.
∴ Change in the momentum of exhaust gases = dm. u
Change in momentum of rocket = – (m – dm) dv.
A negative sign shows that the rocket is moving in a direction opposite to the
motion of exhaust gases.
)
Applying the law of conservation of linear momentum,
m
dm.u = – (m – dm) dv …(1)
.co
As dm being very small as compared to m, so it can be neglected, Thus, eqn. (1)
reduces to
la
dm.u = – m dv
a
or hs
𝑑𝑚
at
dv = – u …(2)
𝑚
lp
Instantaneous velocity of the rocket:

ita
At t = 0, mass of rocket = m0, velocity of rocket = vo.

At t = t, mass of rocket = m, velocity of rocket = v.
ig
∴ Integrating Eqn. (1) within these limits, we get

.d
w
w
In actual practice, the velocity of exhaust gases nearly remains constant.

(w
(25)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
equation (3) gives the instantaneous velocity of the rocket. In general vo = 0 at t

= 0,
∴ Eqn. (3) reduces to
From Eqn. (4), we conclude that the velocity of the rocket at any instant
depends upon:
• speed (u) of the exhaust gases.
• Log of the ratio of initial mass (m0) of the rocket to its mass (m) at that
)
m
instant of time.
.co
Upthrust on the rocket (F): It is the upward force exerted on the rocket by the
expulsion of exhaust gases. It is obtained as follows:
la
Dividing Eqn. (2) by dt, we get
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
where F = ma is the instantaneous force (thrust).

(w
From Eqn. (5), we conclude that the thrust (F) on the rocket at any instant is
the product of the velocity of exhaust gases and the rate of combustion of fuel
at that instant. Here negative sign shows that the thrust and velocity of
exhaust gases are in opposite direction.
3. Answer:
(a) The tendency of bodies to remain in their state of rest or uniform motion
along a straight line in the absence of an external force is called inertia.
Inertia is of the following three types:
1. The inertia of rest: When a body continues to lie at the same position with
respect to its surrounding, it is said to possess inertia of rest. This situation
may be changed only by the application of external force. For example, if a
(26)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
cot or sofa is lying in a particular place in the house, it will remain there even
after days or years unless someone removes (by applying force) the same
from its position. This is an example of the inertia of rest.
2. The inertia of motion: When a body is moved on a frictionless surface or a
body is thrown in a vacuum, it will continue to move along its original path
unless acted upon by an external force. In actual situations, air or floor etc.
exert friction on the moving bodies so we are unable to visualize a force-free
motion. This type of inertia when a body continues to move is called the
inertia of direction.
3. In the above examples it is found that the direction of motion of the body
)
or particle also does not change unless an external force acts on it. This
m
tendency to preserve the direction of motion is called the inertia of
.co
direction.
(b) According to the First law of motion, “Everybody continues to be in the state
la
of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line until it is acted upon by an
a
external force.”
hs
It means that if a book lying on a table, it will remain there for days or years
at
together unless force is applied on it from outside to pick it.
Similarly, if a body is moving along a straight line with some speed, it will
lp
continue to do so until some external force is applied to it to change its

ita
direction of motion.
Thus, First law tells us the following:
ig
It tells us about the tendency of bodies to remain in the state of rest or of

.d
motion and the bodies by themselves can neither change the state of rest
w
nor of uniform motion. This tendency is called inertia. To break the inertia of
w
rest or motion or direction, we need an external force. Thus the definition of

the first law matches with the definition of inertia and hence first law is
(w
called the law of inertia.

The first law of motion also provides the definition of another important
physical quantity called force. Thus force is that agency which changes or
tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body along a
straight line.
(c) It states that the time rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the force applied to it.
(27)
LAWS OF MOTION
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𝑑𝑣
where a = = acceleration produced in the body of mass m.
𝑑𝑡
k = proportionality constant which depends on the system of units chosen to
)
m
measure F, m, and a.
.co
In the S.I. system, k = l,
∴ F = ma
la
The magnitude of the force is given by
a
F = ma …. (2) hs
Note: We have assumed that the magnitude of velocity is smaller and much
at
less than the speed of light. Only under this condition Eqns. (1) and (2) hold
good.
lp
The definition of the Second law and its mathematical form is given in Eqn.
ita
(2) provide us a mean of measuring force.

ig
One can easily find the change in velocity of a body in a certain interval of
time. Both velocity and time can be easily measured. Thus, by knowing the
.d
mass of the body one can determine both change in momentum as well as
w
the acceleration of the body produced by an external force. If the force is

w
increased, the rate of change of momentum is also found to increase. So

also, is the acceleration. Now with known values of m and we can find F.
(w
Units of force: Force in S.I. units is measured in newton or N. From Eqn. (1)
or (2) we can see that a newton of force is that fore? which produces 1 ms-2
acceleration in the body of mass 1 kg.
1 newton = 1 kilogram × 1 metre/(second)2
or
1 N = 1 kg × 1 ms-2 = 1 kg ms-2
In CGS system force is measured in dyne
1 dyne = 1 gram × 1 cm/s2 = 1 g cm s-2
Since 1 N = 1 kgm s-2 = 1000 g × 100 cm s-2
(28)
LAWS OF MOTION
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= 105 g cm s-2 = 105 dyne

1 N = 105 dyne
or
1 dyne = 105 N
Gravitational Unit: If a falling mass of 1 kg is accelerated towards the Earth
with 9.8 ms-2, then the force generated is called 1 kg wt (1-kilogram weight)
force. It is the S.I. gravitational unit of force.
We know that the earth accelerates the mass with g = 9.8 ms-2
1 Kg wt = 9.8 N [1 kg × 9.8 ms 2 = 9.8 N]
)
m
C.G.S. gravitational unit is gf or g wt.
.co
1 gf = 1g × 980 cms-2
= 980 dyne
la
4. Answer:
a
hs
(a) Newton’s Third law of motion states that “to every action, there is always an
equal and opposite reaction.”’
at
So, if a body 1 applies a force F12 on body 2 (action), then body 2 also
lp
applies a force F2] on body 1 but in opposite direction, then

ita
F21 = – F12
In terms of magnitude
ig
|F21| = |-F12|
.d
It is very important to note that F12 and F21 though are equal in magnitude
w
and opposite in direction yet act on different points or else no motion will be
w
possible.
(w
For example, hands pull up a chest expander (spring), and spring in turn
exerts a force on the arms. A football when pressed reacts on the foot with
the same force and so on. The most important consequence of the third law
of motion is the law of conservation of linear momentum and its application
in collision problems.
(29)
LAWS OF MOTION
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Here Δt is the time for which the bodies come in contact during impact. This
is the same for the two bodies of masses m1 and m2 and having velocity
changes Δv1 and Δv2 respectively. Therefore,
m1 Δv1 = – m2 Δv2
or
m1 Δv1 + m2Δv2 = 0
Let u1, u2 and v1 and v2 be initial and final velocities of the two masses before
and after collision, then
m1(v1 – u1) = – m2(v2 – u2)
)
m
or
.co
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Momentum before impact = momentum after impact
la
This is the law of conservation of momentum.
a
(b) ‘The linear momentum of an isolated system always remains the same
hs
provided no external force is applied on it.’ This is the law of conservation of
at
linear momentum.
lp
The linear momentum of a body = mass × velocity

p = mv
ita
If a system has several bodies initially at rest then initial momentum = 0.

ig
The final momentum = p1 + p2 + p3 + ……

.d
According to law of conservation of linear momentum

w
p1 + p2 + p3 + … = 0
w
Linear momentum is a vector quantity and is measured. in kg ms-1or Ns.

(w
For example, a gun and a bullet make a system in which both are initially at
rest. When the bullet of mass m is
fired with muzzle velocity v, the gun of mass M gets a recoil velocity V. Since
the initial linear momentum of the system is zero.
MV + mv = 0
or
MV = – mv
Thus, gun moves in the opposite direction to that of the bullet.
(30)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
(c) The total quantity of motion possessed by the body is called is momentum.
Mathematically, it is equal to the product of the mass of the body and the
velocity of the body.
In linear motion, this term is called linear momentum P.
It is a vector quantity.
p = mv
The units of linear momentum are kg ms-1 or NS in S.I. units.
Impulse: The action or impact of force is called the impulse of force.
Mathematically, impulse J is equal to the product of the force F acting on the
)
body and the time for which the force acts on it. Thus
m
J = F × t = Ft
.co
J is a vector quantity and is measured in Ns or kg ms-1
la
The action of force or impulse is increased if the force acts for a smaller
a
interval.
hs
at
lp
assertion.
Explanation:
ita
On a rainy day, the roads are wet. Wetting of roads lowers the coefficient of friction
ig
between the types and the road. Therefore, grip on a road of car reduces and thus
chances of skidding increases.
.d
2. (c) Assertion is correct, reason is incorrect+

w
Explanation:
w
Newton’s second law cannot be used for any object.

(w
Case Study Answer:

1. i (d) 500 m/s
Explanation:
Conservation of linear momentum gives
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LAWS OF MOTION
05
)
m
.co
ii(c) 100m s-1
la
Explanation:
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
iii(d)0.2 m s-1
w
Explanation:
w
From the law of conservation of momentum, Initial momentum = Final momentum

(w
iv (d) Zero
Explanation:
From 0 to T, area is positive and from T to 2T, area is negative, so net area is zero.
Hence, there is no change in momentum.
v (c) 1 : 2
(32)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
Explanation:
Two masses are moving with equal kinetic energy.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
2. i (c) Frictional force
lp
Explanation:
ita
Frictional force acts between pulley and rope.

ii (d) 14 g
ig
Explanation:
.d
The reaction force is

w
R = T1 T2 = (8 + 6) g = 14 g
w
iii (d) Nothing can be said

(w
Explanation:
So, the side having 8 kg mass will have more tension.

iv (a) 20 N
Explanation:
(33)
LAWS OF MOTION
05
)
m
Due to friction, tension at all points of the thread is not alike.
.co
a la
iv (b)
1
7
hs
at
Explanation:
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
(34)
PHYSICS
)
m
.co
a la
Chapter 6: Work, Energy and Power
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
(1)
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
06
Work, Energy and Power

Introduction
Work, Energy and Power are fundamental concepts of Physics. Work is said to be done when a
force (push or pull) applied to an object causes a displacement of the object. We define the
capacity to do the work as energy. Power is the work done per unit of time.
We use the words work, energy and power in our day-to-day life often.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
However, their meaning differ from the meaning we get from scientific definitions.
Formula of Work
The work done by a force is defined to be the product of the component of the force in the
direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement.
Where W is the work done, F is the force, d is the displacement, θ is the angle between force
and displacement and F cosθ is the component of force in the direction of displacement.
We understand from the work equation that if there is no displacement, there is no work done,
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irrespective of how large the force is. To summarize, we can say that no work is done if:
• the displacement is zero
• the force is zero
• the force and displacement are mutually perpendicular to each other.
Unit of Work
The SI unit of work is Joule (J). For example, if a force of 5 newtons is applied to an object and
moves 2 meters, the work done will be 10 newton-meter or 10 Joule. It should be noted that 1 J
= 1 N ⋅ m = 1 kg ⋅ m2/s2.
Work done by a variable force
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The variable force is more commonly encountered than the constant force.
If the displacement Dx is small, we can take the force F (x) as approximately constant, and the
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work done is then
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DW =F (x) Dx
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For total work, we add all work done along small displacements.
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The Work-Energy Theorem for a Variable Force

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Energy
Energy is the ability to perform work. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, and it can
only be transformed from one form to another. The unit of Energy is the same as of Work, i.e.
Joules. Energy is found in many things, and thus there are different types of energy.
All forms of energy are either kinetic or potential. The energy in motion is known as Kinetic
Energy, whereas Potential Energy is the energy stored in an object and is measured by the
amount of work done.
Types of Energy
Some other types of energy are given below:
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Mechanical energy
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Mechanical wave energy
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Chemical energy
Electric energy
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Magnetic energy
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Radiant energy hs
Nuclear energy
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Ionization energy
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Elastic energy
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Gravitational energy
Thermal energy
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Heat Energy
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Unit of Energy
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The SI unit of energy is Joules (J), named in honour of James Prescott Joule.
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Kinetic energy
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The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of the work an object can do by the virtue of its
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motion.
If an object of mass m has velocity v, its kinetic energy K is
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity.
Potential energy
Potential energy is the ‘stored energy’ by virtue of the position or configuration of a body.
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Physically, the notion of potential energy is applicable only to the class of forces where work
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done against the force gets ‘stored up’ as energy.

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Mathematically, the potential energy V(x) is defined, if the force F(x) can be written as
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This relation is valid only for Conservative Forces

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Potential energy of spring

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The spring force is an example of a variable force, which is conservative.

In an ideal spring, Fs = − kx, this force law for the spring is called Hooke’s law.
The constant k is called the spring constant. Its unit is N m-1.
The spring is said to be stiff if k is large and soft if k is small.
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Spring force is position dependent as first stated by Hooke, (Fs = − kx)
a
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Work done by spring force only depends on the initial and final positions. Thus, the spring force
is a conservative force.
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We define the potential energy V(x) of the spring to be zero when block and spring system is in
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the equilibrium position.

𝑘𝑥 2
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For an extension (or compression) x, 𝑉(𝑥) =

2
If the block of mass m is extended to xm and released from rest, then its total mechanical
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energy at any arbitrary point x (where x lies between – xm and + xm) will be given by:
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Various forms of energy

Heat: The work done by friction is not ‘lost’, but is transferred as heat energy
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Chemical Energy:
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Chemical energy arises from the fact that the molecules participating in the chemical reaction
have different binding energies.
If the total energy of the reactants is more than the products of the reaction, heat is released
and the reaction is said to be an exothermic reaction.
Example- When you freeze water you remove energy from water to lower its temperature and
its phase is changed to ice, so it is a exothermic process
If the reverse is true, heat is absorbed, and the reaction is endothermic.
Example- While melting the ice you provide energy to the ice to increase its temperature and
change its phase to water, so it is a endothermic process.
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Electrical Energy: The flow of electrical current causes bulbs to glow, fans to rotate and bells to
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ring. Energy is associated with an electric current.

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Nuclear Energy:
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The energy released from the nuclear reactions, either fission or fusion, is called as nuclear
energy.
Nuclear fusion and fission are manifestations of the equivalence of mass and energy.
In fusion light atom nuclei like Hydogen fuse to form a bigger nucleus whose mass is less than
the sum of the masses of the reactants.
In fission, a heavy nucleus like uranium 235U92, is split by a neutron into lighter nuclei. Once
again the final mass is less than the initial mass and the mass difference translates into energy.
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The Equivalence of Mass and Energy

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Physicists believed that in every physical and chemical process, the mass of an isolated system
is conserved till Albert Einstein show the relation, E = m c2 where c, the speed of light in vacuum
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is approximately 3 ×108 m s-1.

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This equation showed that mass and energy are equivalent and are related by E = m c2.
If there is a difference between the sum of reactants and products that difference, Dm, is called
mass defect.
In case of chemical reactions the mass defect is very small and can be neglected, but in the case
of nuclear reactions this becomes significant.
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Principle of Conservation of Energy

If the forces involved are non-conservative, part of the mechanical energy may get transformed
into other forms such as heat, light and sound.
However, the total energy of an isolated system does not change.
Since the universe as a whole may be viewed as an isolated system, the total energy of the
universe is constant.
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Collosion
A collision is an event in which two or more bodies exert forces on each other for a relatively
short time.
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In all collisions the total linear momentum is conserved.

The total impulse on the first object is equal and opposite to that on the second, if two bodies
collide.
Elastic collision is when the initial Kinetic energy is equal to the final kinetic energy.
Inelastic collision is when some of the kinetic energy is lost after collision.
Completely inelastic collision is when the bodies after collision move together.
Collision in 1-D
If the initial velocities and final velocities of both the bodies are along the same straight line,
then it is called a one-dimensional collision, or head-on collision.
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Elastic collision:
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a la
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(A ball of mass m1 with initial velocity v1 strikes a ball of mass m2 initially at rest and after
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collision ball 1 moves with velocity v’1 and ball 2 moves with velocity v’2, in the same direction)
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Momentum conservation: m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1v1’ + m2 v2’

KE conservation: m1 v12 + m2 v22 = m1v’12 + m2 v’22
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Where m1, m2 are the masses of the two blocks

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v1 is initial velocity of block 1, v2=0 here

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v’1 is final velocity of block 1

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After solving these two equations we get,

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Special cases in elastic collision:

Case 1 – If the two masses are equal m1=m2, then, v1’ = 0 & v2’ = v1
The first mass comes to rest and pushes off the second mass with its initial speed on collision.
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Case 2 – If m2 >> m1 then, v1’ » -v1 & v2’ » 0
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The heavier mass is undisturbed while the lighter mass reverses its ve
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Completely inelastic collision

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(A ball of mass m1 with initial velocity v1 strikes a ball of mass m2 initially at rest and the two ball
stick to each other after collision, in the same direction)
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Where m1, m2 are the masses of the two blocks

v1 is initial velocity of block 1, v2 = 0 here
vf is final velocity of the two block moving together
Collosions in 2-D
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(A ball of mass m1 with initial velocity v1 strikes a ball of mass m2 initially at rest after collision,
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ball 1 moves with velocity v’1 and ball 2 moves with velocity v’2 with directions as shown in
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figure)
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With the above equations we have to solve the problem

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Conservative & Non-Conservative Forces

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Conservative forces are those for which work done depends only on initial and final points.
Example- Gravitational force, Electrostatic force.
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Non-Conservative forces are those where the work done or the kinetic energy did depend on
other factors such as the velocity or the particular path taken by the object.
Example- Frictional force.
The Conservation of Mechanical Energy
• Mechanical Energy is the energy associated with the motion and position of an object.
• The quantity K +V(x), is called the total mechanical energy of the system.
• For a conservative force, ΔK = ΔW = F(x) Δx
• Also, - V(x) = F(x) Δx
• This employs Δ(K+V) =0 for a conservative force.
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• Individually the kinetic energy K and the potential energy V(x) may vary from point to point,
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but the sum is a constant.
• Conservative Force:
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• A force F(x) is conservative if it can be derived from a scalar quantity V(x) by the relation:
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dv
F(x) = −
dx hs
• The work done by the conservative force depends only on the end points.
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• A third definition states that the work done by this force in a closed path is zero.
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• The total mechanical energy of a system is conserved if the forces, doing work on it, are
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conservative.
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Power
Power is a physical concept with several different meanings, depending on the context and the
available information. We can define power as the rate of doing work, and it is the amount of
energy consumed per unit of time.
Formula of Power
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As discussed, power is the rate of doing work. Therefore, it can be calculated by dividing work
done by time.
Where, P is the power, W is the work done and t is the time taken.
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Unit of Power
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As power doesn’t have any direction, it is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is Joules per
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Second (J/s), which is termed as Watt. Watt can be defined as the power needed to do one
joule of work in one second. The unit Watt is dedicated in honour of Sir James Watt, the
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developer of the steam engine.
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Scalar product
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The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (Read A dot B) is
defined as, where q is the angle between the two vectors.
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A, B and cos θ are scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar quantity. Both vectors, A and B,
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have a direction but their scalar product does not have a direction.
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B is the product of the magnitude of A and the component of B along A. Alternatively, it is the
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product of the magnitude of B and the component of A along B.

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• B = B.A , i.e. Scalar product is commutative.

• (B + C) = A.B + A.C , i.e. Scalar product is distributive.
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• Further, λ A. (λ B) = λ (A.B) where λ is a real number.
Top Formulae
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Important Questions
1. When a force of 50 N acts on a body, the body is displaced through a distance of
3 m in a direction normal to the direction of the force. The work done by the force
(a) 150 J
(b) 1470 J
(c) Zero
(d) -150 J
)
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2. A body of mass 20 kg is initially at a height of 3 m above the ground. It is lifted to
a height of 2 m from that position. Its increase in potential energy is
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(a) 100 J
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(b) 392 J
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(c) 60 J
(d) -100 J
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3. A wooden cube having mass 10 kg is dropped from the top of a building. After 1
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s, a bullet of mass 20 g fired at it from the ground hits the block with a velocity of
1000 m/s at an angle of 30° to the horizontal moving upwards and gets imbedded
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in the block. The velocity of the block/bullet system immediately after the collision
is
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(a) 17 m/s
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(b) 27 m/s
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(c) 52 m/s
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(d) 10 m/s
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4. A body of mass 10 kg is moved parallel to the ground, through a distance of 2 m.

The work done against gravitational force is
(a) 196 J
(b) -196 J
(c) 20 J
(d) zero
5. A quantity of work of 1000 J is done in 2 seconds. The power utilized is
(a) 998 W
(b) 1002 W
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(c) 2000 W
(d) 500 W
6. A body of mass 1 kg travels with a velocity of 10 m/s, this a wall and rebounds. If
50% of its initial energy is wasted as heat, its kinetic energy at the instant of
rebounding is
(a) 20 J
(b) 60 J
(c) 50 J
(d) 25 J
)
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7. A marble moving with some velocity collides perfectly elastically head-on with
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another marble at rest having mass 1.5 times the mass of the colliding marble. The
percentage of kinetic energy by the colliding marble after the collision is
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(a) 4
a
(b) 25
(c) 44
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(d) 67
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8. A particle of mass m is moving in a horizontal circle of radius r under a centripetal

force given by (-kr²) where k is a constant , then
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(a) the total energy of the particle is (- k/2r)

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(b) the kinetic energy of the particle is (k/r)

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(c) the potential energy of the particle is (k/2r)

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(d) the kinetic energy of the particle is (- k/r)

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9. A sphere of mass m moving with a constant velocity u hits another stationary

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sphere of the same mass. If e is the coefficient of restitution, then the ratio of
velocity of the two spheres after the collision will be
(a) 1– e / 1 + e
(b) 1 + e / 1 – e
(c) e + 1 / e – 1
(d) e – 1 / e + 1
10. Two masses 1 g and 4 g are moving with equal kinetic energies.s The ratio of the
magnitudes of their linear momenta is
(a) 4 : 1
(b) 0 : 1
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(c) 1 : 2
(d) 1 : 6
Very Short:
1. What is the source of the kinetic energy of the falling raindrops?
2. A spring is stretched. Is the work done by the stretching force positive or
negative?
3. What is the type of collision when?
(a) Does a negatively charged body collide with a positively charged body?
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(b) Do macroscopic bodies collide?
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(c) Do two quartz balls collide?
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4. (a) Give two examples of potential energy other than gravitational potential
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energy.
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(b) Give an example of a device that converts chemical energy into electrical
energy. hs
(c) Heat energy is converted into which type of energy in a steam engine?
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(d) Where is the speed of the swinging pendulum maximum?
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(e) A heavy stone is lowered to the ground. Is the work done by the applied
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force positive or negative?

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5. What is the work done by the centripetal force? Why?

6. (a) What is the work done by the tension in the string of simple pendulum?
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(b) What is the work done by a porter against the force of gravity when he is
carrying a load on his hand and walking on a horizontal platform?
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(c) Name the force against which the porter in part (A) is doing some work.
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7. When an arrow is shot, wherefrom the arrow will acquire its K.E.?
8. When is the exchange of energy maximum during an elastic collision?
9. Does the work done in raising a load onto a platform depend upon how fast it
is raised?
10.Name the parameter which is a measure of the degree of elasticity of a body.
Short Questions:
1. An airplane’s velocity is doubled,
(a) What happens to its momentum? Is the law of conservation of momentum
obeyed?
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(b) What happens to its kinetic energy? Is the law of conservation of energy
obeyed?
2. In a thermal station, coal is used for the generation of electricity. Mention how
energy changes from one form to the other. before it is transformed into
electrical energy?
3. Chemical, gravitational and nuclear energies are nothing but potential energies
for different types of forces in nature. Explain this statement clearly with
examples.
4. What went wrong at the Soviet atomic power station at Chernobyl?
)
5. A man can jump higher on the moon than on Earth. With the same effort can a
m
runner improve his timing for a 100 m race on the moon as compared to that
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on Earth?
6. How many MeV are there in a 1-watt hour?
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7. What is Newton’s experimental law of impact?
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8. Two masses one n times as heavy as the other have the same K.E. What is the
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ratio of their momenta?
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Long Questions:
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1. (a) State work-energy theorem or principle.

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(b) State and prove the law of conservation of energy.

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(d) given below.

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assertion.
for assertion
Assertion: A work done by friction is always negative.
Reason: If frictional force acts on a body its K.E. may decrease.
(d) given below.
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assertion.
for assertion
Assertion: The work done in moving a body over a closed loop is zero for every force
in nature.
Reason: Work done depends on nature of force.
)
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1. The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B (read A
dot B) is defined as
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A.B = A B cos θ
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Where q is the angle between the two vectors. Since A, B and cos θ are scalars, the dot
a
product of A and B is a scalar quantity. Each vector, A and B, has a direction but their
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scalar product does not have a direction. Following are properties of dot product
• the scalar product follows the commutative law: A.B = B.A
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• Scalar product obeys the distributive law: (B + C) = A.B + A.C Further, A. (λ B) = λ
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(A.B) where λ is a real number.

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• For unit vectors i, j, k we have

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i × i = j × j = k × k = 1 and i × j = j × k = k × i = 0
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• A x A = |A ||A| cos 0 = A2.

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• B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular.

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The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in the
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direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement. Thus

W = (F cos θ) d = F.d (We see that if there is no displacement, there is no work done even
if the force is large. Work has only magnitude and no direction. Its SI unit is (N m) or joule
(J). Thus, when you push hard against a rigid brick wall, the force you exert on the wall
does not work.
No work is done if:
• The displacement is zero.
• The force is zero. A block moving on a smooth horizontal table is not acted upon by
Horizontal force (since there is no friction) but may undergo a large displacement.
• The force and displacement are mutually perpendicular. This is so since, for θ = π/2
rad
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• Cos (π/2) = 0. For the block moving on a smooth horizontal table, the gravitational
force mg does no work since it acts at right angles to the displacement. If we
assume that the moon’s orbits around the earth are perfectly circular, then the
earth’s gravitational force does not work. The moon’s instantaneous displacement
is tangential while the earth’s force is radially inwards and θ = π/2.
i. Scalar product A.B = B.A is
a. Commutative law
b. Distributive law
c. Both a and b
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d. None of these
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ii. When force acts in the direction of displacement then work done will be
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a. Positive
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b. Negative
a
c. Both a and b can possible
d. None of these
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iii. Define scalar product. give its properties
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iv. Define work done. Give its SI unit

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v. Write down the conditions for which work done is zero

2. The kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass, m and moving with a uniform
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velocity, v is
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Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. The kinetic energy of an object is a measure of

the work and the energy possessed by an object is thus measured in terms of its
capacity of doing work. The unit of energy is, therefore, the same as that of work,
that is, joule (J).
Work energy theorem: The change in kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the
work done on it by the net force. Mathematically
Kf – K i = W
Where Ki and Kf are respectively the initial and final kinetic energies of the object.
Work refers to the force and the displacement over which it acts. Work is done by a
force on the body over a certain displacement.
i. Kinetic energy is
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a. Scalar quantity
b. Vector quantity
c. None of these
ii. Which of the following has same unit?
a. Potential energy and work
b. Kinetic energy and work
c. Force and weight
d. All of the above
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iii. What is work energy theorem?
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iv. Kinetic energy is scalar quantity. Justify the statement.
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v. Give formula for kinetic energy of body.
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✓ Answer Key:
a
Multiple Choice Answers- hs
1. Answer: (c) Zero
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2. Answer: (b) 392 J
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3. Answer: (a) 17 m/s

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4. Answer: (d) zero

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5. Answer: (d) 500 W

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6. Answer: (d) 25 J
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7. Answer: (a) 4
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8. Answer: (a) the total energy of the particle is (- k/2r)

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9. Answer: (a) 1 – e / 1 + e
10.Answer: (c) 1 : 2
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: It is the gravitational potential energy that is converted into kinetic
energy.
2. Answer: Positive because the force and the displacement are in the same
direction.
3. Answer:
(a) Perfectlyjnelastic collision.
(b) Inelastic collision.
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(c) Perfectly elastic collision.

4. Answer:
(a) Electrostatic P.E. and elastic P.E.
(b) Daniell cell.
(c) Mechanical energy.
(d) At the bottom of the swing.
(e) Negative work.
5. Answer: Zero. This is because the centripetal is always perpendicular to the
)
displacement.
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6. Answer:
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(a) zero
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(b) zero
a
(c) Frictional force.
hs
7. Answer: It is the potential energy of the bent bow which is converted into K.E.
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8. Answer: When two colliding bodies are of the same mass, there will be a
maximum exchange of energy.
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9. Answer: The work done is independent of time.

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10.Answer: Coefficient of restitution.

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1. Answer:
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(a) The momentum of the airplane will be doubled. Yes, the law of
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conservation of momentum will also be obeyed

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because the increase in momentum of the airplane is simultaneously

accompanied by an increase in momentum of exhaust gases.
(b) K.E. becomes four times. Yes, the law of conservation of energy is obeyed
with the increase in K.E. coming from the chemical energy of fuel i. e. from the
burning of its fuel.
2. Answer: When coal is burnt, heat energy is produced which converts water
into steam. This steam rotates the turbine and thus heat energy is converted
into mechanical energy of rotation. The generator converts this mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
3. Answer: A system of particles has potential energy when these particles are
held a certain distance apart against some force. For example, chemical energy
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is due to the chemical bonding between the atoms. Gravitational energy arises
when the objects are held at some distance against the gravitational attraction.
Nuclear energy arises due to the nuclear force acting between the nuclear
particles.
4. Answer: In this reactor, graphite was used as a moderator. The fuel elements
were cooled by water and steam was produced from within the reactor. Both
water and the steam came in contact with hot graphite. Due to this hydrogen
and carbon-monoxide (CO) were released. When they came in contact with air,
there was a big explosion.
5. Answer: Man can jump higher on the moon because the acceleration due to
)
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gravity on the moon is less than that on the Earth. But acceleration due to
gravity does not affect the horizontal motion. Hence the runner can’t improve
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his timing on the moon for the 100 m race.
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6. Answer:
We know that 1 watt hour = 1 JS-1 × 3600 s = 3600 J
a
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7. Answer: The ratio of the relative speed of separation after a collision to the
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relative speed of approach before the collision is always constant. This

constant is known as the coefficient of restitution. It is denoted by e.
where u1i and u2i, are the velocities of the bodies before collision and v2f, v1f are
the velocities of the bodies after the collision.
8. Answer:
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06
)
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1. Answer:
(a) It states that the work done on a body is equal to the change in its kinetic
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energy.
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i.e., W = change in kinetic energy
a
Proof: Let m = mass of a body moving in a straight line with a constant initial
velocity u. hs
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Let F = force applied on it at point A to B so that its velocity is V at B.

If dx = small displacement from P to Q
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and a = acceleration produced in the body, then

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F = ma
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If dw be the work done from P to Q, then

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If W = total work done from A to B, then
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(b) It states that energy can neither be created nor can be destroyed but it can
be changed from one form of energy into another i.e. total energy =
constant.
)
Proof: Let a body of mass m be lying at rest at point A at a height h above
m
the ground. Let it be allowed to fall freely and reaches a point B after falling
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through a distance x and it finally hits the ground at point C. Let v and V be
its velocities at points B and C respectively.
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∴ AB = x and BC = h – x
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At point A: u = 0
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∴ K.E. = 0
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P.E. = mgh
If E be the total energy of the body, then
E = K.E. + P.E. = 0 + mgh
or
E = mgh …. (i)
At point B: using the relation,
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At point C: Here, v = vc, a = g, s = h
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Thus, from (i), (ii), and (iii), it is clear that total energy at points A, B, and C is
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the same. It is purely P.E. at A and purely K.E. at point C.

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1. (d) Assertion is incorrect, reason is correct.

Explanation
When frictional force is opposite to velocity, kinetic energy will decrease.
2. (b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for
assertion
Explanation:
In close loop, s = 0, and so W = Fs = 0.
Case Study Answer:
1. i. (a) commutative law
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ii. (a) positive

iii. the scalar product or dot product of any two vectors A and B, denoted as A.B
(read
A dot B) is defined as
A.B = A B cos q. where q is the angle between the two vectors. Since A, B and cos
θ are scalars, the dot product of A and B is a scalar quantity. Each vector, A and B,
has a direction but their scalar product does not have a direction. Following are
properties of dot product
▪ the scalar product follows the commutative law:
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A.B = B.A
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▪ Scalar product obeys the distributive law:
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(B + C) = A.B + A.C
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Further, A. (λ B) = λ (A.B) where λ is a real number.
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▪ For unit vectors i, j, k we have
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i × i = j × j = k × k = 1 and i × j = j × k = k × i = 0
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▪ A×A = |A ||A| cos 0 = A2.
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▪ B = 0, if A and B are perpendicular.

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Iv. The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in
the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement. Thus
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W = (F cos θ) d = F.d
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Work has only magnitude and no direction. Its SI unit is (N m) or joule (J).
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v. No work is done if:

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• The displacement is zero.

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• The force is zero. A block moving on a smooth horizontal table is not acted
upon by a Horizontal force (since there is no friction) but may undergo a large
displacement.
• The force and displacement are mutually perpendicular. This is so since,
for θ = π/2 rad Cos (π/2) = 0
2. i. (a) Scalar quantity
ii. (c)All of the above
iii. Work energy theorem: The change in kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the
work
done on it by the net force. Mathematically
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Kf – Ki = W
Where Ki and Kf are respectively the initial and final kinetic energies of the object.
Work refers to the force and the displacement over which it acts. Work is done by a
force on the body over a certain displacement. Energy possessed by object due to
its motion is called as kinetic energy. Its SI unit is N-m or Joule (J).
iv. Kinetic energy is scalar quantity as it is a work done and work done is scalar
quantity
hence kinetic energy is also scalar quantity and doesn’t have any direction.
)
v. the kinetic energy possessed by an object of mass, m and moving with a uniform
m
velocity,
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v is
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Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity. Having unit, the same as that of work, that is,
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joule (J).
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PHYSICS
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Chapter 7: System of Particles and Rotational Motion
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SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION
07
System of Particles and Rotational Motion

Introduction
Rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances between all
pairs of particles of such a body do not change.
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In pure translational motion at any instant of time all particles of the body have the same
velocity.
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In rotation of a rigid body about a fixed axis, every particle of the body moves in a circle, which
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lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and has its centre on the axis.
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The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is either a pure translation
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or a combination of translation and rotation. The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or
fixed in some way is rotation.
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Rotational Motion
Let’s us understand this by an example. Now let us imagine a circular block going down the
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edge of the right-angled triangle. Examining the location and orientation of different points on
a
the cylindrical block will tell us something new. The points on the cylindrical body experience
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something much different than the rectangular block. As shown by the arrows in the diagram
representing the velocity, each point experiences a different magnitude of velocity in a
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different direction. Here the points are arranged with respect to an axis of rotation.
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Rotation is what you achieve when you constrain a body and fix it along with a straight line. This
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means that the body can only turn around the line, which is defined as rotational motion. A
ceiling fan, a potter’s wheel, a vehicle’s wheel are all examples of rotational motion.
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Translational Motion
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Let us understand translational motion with the help of examples. Let’s imagine a rectangular
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block placed on the slanting edge of a right-angled triangle. If the block is assumed to slide
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down this edge without any side movement, every point in the rectangular block experiences
the same displacement and more importantly, the distance between the points is also
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maintained.
In a pure translational motion, every point in the body experiences the same velocity be it at
any instant of time. Both the points, P1 and P2 undergo the exact same motions. A car moving
in a straight line, the path of a bullet out of a gun etc. are examples of translational motion.
Centre of mass
Centre of mass of a body or system of a particle is defined as, a point at which the whole of the
mass of the body or all the masses of a system of particle appeared to be concentrated. In
physics, we can say that the centre of mass is a point at the centre of the distribution of mass in
space (also known as balance point) wherein the weighted relative position of the distributed
mass has a sum of zero. In simple words, the centre of mass is a position that is relative to an
object. We can say that it is the average position of all the parts of the system or it is the mean
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location of a distribution of mass in space. It is a point where force is usually applied that results
in linear acceleration without any angular acceleration.
When we are studying the dynamics of the motion of the system of a particle as a whole, then
we need not bother about the dynamics of individual particles of the system. But only focus on
the dynamic of a unique point corresponding to that system.
Motion of this unique point is identical to the motion of a single particle whose mass is equal to
the sum of all individual particles of the system and the resultant of all the forces exerted on all
the particles of the system by surrounding bodies (or) action of a field of force is exerted
directly to that particle. This point is called the centre of mass of the system of particles. The
concept of centre of mass (COM) is useful in analyzing the complicated motion of the system of
)
objects, particularly when two and more objects collide, or an object explodes into fragments.
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Centre of Gravity
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The Centre of gravity can be taken as the point through which the force of gravity acts on an
object or system. It is basically the point around which the resultant torque due to gravity
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forces disappears. In cases where the gravitational field is assumed to be uniform, the centre of
gravity and centre of mass will be the same. Sometimes these two terms – the centre of gravity
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and centre of mass are used interchangeably as they are often said to be at the same position
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or location.
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System of Particles
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The term system of particles means a well-defined collection of a large number of particles that
may or may not interact with each other or are connected to each other. They may be actual
particles of rigid bodies in translational motion. The particle which interacts with each other
apply force on each other.
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These forces of mutual interaction between the particle of the system are called the internal
force of the system.
These internal forces always exist in pairs of equal magnitude and opposite directions. Other
than internal forces, external forces may also act on all or some of the particles. Here the term
external force means a force that is acting on any one particle, which is included in the system
by some other body outside the system.
Rigid body
In practice, we deal with extended bodies, which may be deformable or non-deformable (or)
)
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rigid. An extended body is also a system of an infinitely large number of particles having an
infinitely small separation between them. When a body deforms, the separation between the
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distance between its particles and their relative locations changes. A rigid body is an extended
object in which the separations and relative location of all of its constituent particles remain the
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same under all circumstances.
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It is the average position of all the parts of the system, weighted according to their masses. For
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a simple rigid object which has a uniform density, the centre of mass is located at the centroid.
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Linear Momentum of a System of Particles
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Linear momentum is a product of the mass (m) of an object and the velocity (v) of the object. If
an object has higher momentum, then it harder to stop it. The formula for linear momentum is
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p = mv. The total amount of momentum never changes, and this property is called conservation
of momentum. Let us study more about Linear momentum and conservation of momentum.
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We know that the linear momentum of the particle is

p = mv
Newton’s second law for a single particle is given by,
where F is the force of the particle. For ‘ n ‘ no. of particles total linear momentum is,
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So comparing these equations we get,

P=MV
Therefore we can say that the total linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the
product of the total mass of the system and the velocity of its center of mass. Differentiating
the above equation we get,
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m
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𝑑𝑣
is acceleration of centre of mass, MA is the force external. So,
𝑑𝑡
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This above equation is nothing but Newton’s second law to a system of particles. If the total
external force acting on the system is zero,
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This means that P = constant. So, whenever the total force acting on the system of a particle is
equal to zero then the total linear momentum of the system is constant or conserved. This is
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nothing but the law of conservation of total linear momentum of a system of particles.
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Vector Product
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Vector product (cross product) of two vectors a and b is a × b = ab 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐, where 𝜃 is angle
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between a & b
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Vector product c is perpendicular to the plane containing a and b.

If you keep your palm in direction of vector a and curl your fingers to the direction a to b, your
thumb will give you the direction of vector product c
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Properties of vector product
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Angular velocity & its relation with linear velocity
a
Every particle of a rotating body moves in a circle. Angular displacement of a given particle
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about its centre in unit time is defined as angular velocity.
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𝛥𝜃
Average angular velocity =
𝛥𝑡
𝑑𝜃
Instantaneous angular velocity, 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡
v = w r , where v – linear velocity of particle moving in a circle of radius r
All parts of a moving body have the same angular velocity in pure rotation motion.
Angular velocity, ω, is a vector quantity
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If you curl your fingers of right hand in the sense of rotation, thumb will give direction of
angular velocity.
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v=ωxr
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Angular acceleration is given by rate of change of angular velocity with respect to time.
𝑑𝜔
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𝛼 =
𝑑𝑡
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Torque & Angular Momentum

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The rotational analogue of force is moment of force (Torque).

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If a force acts on a single particle at a point P whose position with respect to the origin O is
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given by the position vector r the moment of the force acting on the particle with respect to the
origin O is defined as the vector product 𝑡 = 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
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Torque is vector quantity.

The moment of a force vanishes if either
The magnitude of the force is zero, or
The line of action of the force (𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) passes through the axis.
Conservation of Angular Momentum
if the total external torque on a system of particles is zero, then the total angular momentum of
the system is conserved
𝑑𝐿
If text = 0, then = 0 => L = constant
𝑑𝑡
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Equilibrium of Rigid Body

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A force changes the translational state of the motion of the rigid body, i.e., it changes its total
linear momentum.
A torque changes the rotational state of motion of the rigid body, i.e., it changes the total
angular momentum of the body
Note: Unless stated otherwise, we shall deal with only external forces and torques.
A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if both its linear momentum and angular
momentum are not changing with time. This means
Total force should be zero => Translational Equilibrium
Total torque should be zero => Rotational Equilibrium
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A pair of equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as a couple or torque.
A couple produces rotation without translation.
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When you open the lid of a jar , you apply couple on it
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An ideal lever is essentially a light rod pivoted at a point along its length. This point is called the
fulcrum
The lever is a system in mechanical equilibrium.
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Mechanical advantage greater than one means that a small effort can be used to lift a large
load.
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Centre of Gravity
a
The centre of gravity of a body is that point where the total gravitational torque on the body is
zero. hs
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The centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass in uniform gravity or gravity-
free space.
If g varies from part to part of the body, then the centre of gravity and centre of mass will not
coincide.
Moment of Inertia
• Moment of inertia (I) is analogue of mass in rotational motion.
•
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• Moment of inertia about a given axis of rotation resists a change in its rotational motion; it
can be regarded as a measure of rotational inertia of the body.
• It is a measure of the way in which different parts of the body are distributed at different
distances from the axis.
• the moment of inertia of a rigid body depends on
• The mass of the body,
• Its shape and size
• Distribution of mass about the axis of rotation
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• The position and orientation of the axis of rotation.
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• The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be defined as the distance from the
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axis of a mass point whose mass is equal to the mass of the whole body and whose
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moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the body about the axis.
• I = M k2, where k is radius of gyration.
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Theorem of perpendicular axis

Perpendicular Axis Theorem: The moment of inertia of a planar body (lamina) about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of inertia about two perpendicular
axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body.
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Applicable only to planar bodies.

Theorem of parallel axis
Parallel Axis Theorem: The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of
the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and
the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
)
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This theorem is applicable to a body of any shape.
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Kinematics of Rotational Motion around a Fixed Axis
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As we know, the rotational motion and translational motion are analogous to each other in any
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respect. Also, the terms we use in rotational motion such as the angular velocity and angular
acceleration as analogous to the terms velocity and acceleration in translational motion. In that
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respect, we see that the rotation of a body about a fixed axis is analogous to the linear motion
of a body in translational motion. In this section, we will discuss the kinematics of a body
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undergoing rotational motion about a fixed axis.

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Dynamics of Rotational Motion about a Fixed Axis

Only those components of torques, which are along the direction of the fixed axis, need to be
considered because the component of the torque perpendicular to the axis of rotation will tend
to turn the axis from its position.
This means
We need to consider only those forces that lie in planes perpendicular to the axis. Forces which
are parallel to the axis will give torques perpendicular to the axis.
We need to consider only those components of the position vectors which are perpendicular to
the axis. Components of position vectors along the axis will result in torques perpendicular to
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the axis
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Angular Momentum in Case of Rotation about a Fixed Axis
Rolling motion
)
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Rolling motion is a combination of rotation and translation.
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All the particles on a rolling body have two kinds of velocity

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• Translational, which is velocity of COM.

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• Linear velocity on account of rotational motion.

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• Here in the figure we can see that every point have two velocities, one in the direction of
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velocity of COM and other perpendicular to the line joining centre and the point.
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• Point Po have opposite velocities , and if condition of no-slipping is there then it must have
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zero velocity, so Vcom = ω R

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• At point P1 both the velocities add up.

• At any other point, add both the velocities vectorially to get the resultant, which are shown
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for some of the cases in red color in figure.

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• The line passing through PO and parallel to w is called the instantaneous axis of rotation.
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• The point PO is instantaneously at rest.

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• Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion

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• KErolling = KEtranslation + KErotation
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Top Formulae
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Important Questions
1. A particle performing uniform circular motion has angular momentum L. If its
angular frequency is doubled and its kinetic energy halved, then the new angular
momentum is
(a) L/2
(b) L/4
(c) 2 L
)
(d) 4 L
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2. A car is moving with a speed of 108 km/hr on a circular path of radius 500 m. Its
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speed is increasing at the rate of 2 m/s. What is the acceleration of the car?
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(a) 9.8 m/s²
a
(b) 2.7 m/s²
(c) 3.6 m/s²
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(d) 1.8 m/s²
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3. The moment of inertia of uniform circular disc about an axis passing its center is
6kgm². its M.I. about an axis perpendicular to its plane and just touching the rim
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will be
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(a) 18 kg m²
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(b) 30 kg m²
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(c) 15 kg m²
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(d) 3 kg m²
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4. A particle undergoes uniform circular motion. About which point on the plane of
the circle will the angular momentum of the particle remain conserved?
(a) center of the circle
(b) on the circumference of the circle
(c) inside the circle
(d) outside the circle
5. Two particles A and B, initially at rest, moves towards each other under a mutual
force of attraction. At the instant when the speed of A is u and the speed of B is 2 u,
the speed of center of mass is,
(a) Zero
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(b) u
(c) 1.5 u
(d) 3 u
6. The moment of inertia of a body about a given axis is 1.2 kg metre². Initially, the
body is at rest. In order to produce a rotating kinetic energy of 1500 joules, an
angular acceleration of 25 radian/sec² must be applied about that axis for a
duration of
(a) 4 sec
(b) 2 sec
)
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(c) 8 sec
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(d) 10 sec
7. Two discs has same mass rotates about the same axes. r1 and r2 are densities of
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two bodies (r1 > r2) then what is the relation between l1 and
a
(a) l2.
(b) l1 > l2
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(c) l1 < l2
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(d) l1 = l2
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None of these
8. The kinetic energy of a body is 4 joule, and its moment of inertia is 2 kg m² then
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angular momentum is
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(a) 4 kg m²/sec
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(b) 5 kg m²/sec
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(c) 6 kg m²/sec
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(d) 7 kg m²/sec
9. A mass is revolving in a circle which is in the plane of the paper. The direction of
angular acceleration is
(a) Upward to the radius
(b) Towards the radius
(c) Tangential
(d) At right angle to angular velocity
10. By keeping moment of inertia of a body constant, if we double the time period,
then angular momentum of body
(a) Remains constant
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(b) Becomes half

(c) Doubles
(d) Quadruples
Very Short Question:
1. Can the geometrical centre and C.M. of a body coincide? Give examples.
2. How does the M.I. change with the speed of rotation?
3. Under what conditions, the torque due to an applied force is zero?
4. Is it correct to say that the C.M. of a system of n-particles is always given by
)
average position vectors of the constituent particles? If not, when the
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statement is true?
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5. A cat is able to land on her feet after a fall. Which principle of Physics is being
used by her?
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6. What is conserved when a planet revolves around a star?
a
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7. If no external torque acts on a body, will its angular velocity remain conserved?
8. A body is rotating at a steady rate. Is a torque acting on the body?
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9. What is the other name for angular momentum?
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10.Out of two spheres of equal masses, one rolls down a smooth inclined plane of
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height h and the other is falling freely through height h. In which case, the
work done is more?
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Short Questions:
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1. What is the difference between the centre of gravity and C.M.?

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2. There are two spheres of the same mass and radius, one is solid, and the other
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is hollow. Which of them has a larger moment of inertia about its diameter?
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3. What shall be the effect on the length of the day if the polar ice caps of Earth
melt?
4. If only an external force can change the state of motion of the C.M. of a body,
how does it happen that the internal force of brakes can bring a vehicle to
rest?
5. What do you understand by a rigid body?
6. What do you understand by a rigid body?
7. Two equal and opposite forces act on a rigid body. Under what conditions will
the body (a) rotate, (Z>) not rotate?
8. (a) Why is it easier to balance a bicycle in motion?
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(b) Why spokes are fitted in the cycle wheel?

Long Questions:
1. Discuss the rolling of a cylinder (without slipping) down a rough inclined plane
and obtain an expression for the necessary coefficient of friction between the
cylinder and the surface.
2. Prove that
(a) Δω = τ Δθ
(b) P = τ ω.
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(d) given below.
a
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assertion.
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for assertion
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Assertion: The Centre of mass of a body may lie where there is no mass.
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Reason: Centre of mass of body is a point, where the whole mass of the body is
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supposed to be concentrated.
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(d) given below.

assertion.
for assertion
Assertion: The earth is slowing down and as a result the moon is coming nearer
to it.
Reason: The angular momentum of the earth moon system is conserved.
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1. The cross product of two vectors is given by Vector C = A × B. The magnitude of

the vector defined from cross product of two vectors is equal to product of
magnitudes of the vectors and sine of angle between the vectors. Direction of the
vectors is given by right hand corkscrew rule and is perpendicular to the plane
containing the vectors.
∴ |vector C| = AB sin θ and Vector C = AB sin θ n
Where, cap n is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors A
and B. Following are properties of vector product
a) Cross product does not obey commutative law. But its magnitude obeys
commutative low.
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c) It obeys distributive law
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d) The magnitude cross product of two vectors which are parallel is zero. Since θ = 0.
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vector |A x B| = AB sin 0° = 0
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e) For perpendicular vectors, θ = 90°, vector |A x B| = AB sin 90° |cap n| = AB

îxî=ĵxĵ=ƙxƙ=0
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î x ĵ = ƙ; ĵ x ƙ = î; ƙ x î = ĵ
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ĵ x î = – (î x ĵ) = – ƙ ; ƙ x ĵ = – (ĵ x ƙ) = – î ; î x ƙ = – (ƙ x î) = – ĵ
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f) The expression for a × b can be put in a determinant form which is easy to remember
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i. If θ is angle between two vectors, then resultant vector is maximum when θ is

a) 0
b) 90
c) 180
d) None of these
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ii. Cross product is operation performed between

a) Two scalar numbers
b) One scalar other vector
c) 2 vectors
d) None of these
iii. Define cross product of two vectors
iv. State right hand screw rule for finding out direction of resultant after cross product
of two vectors.
)
v. Give properties of cross product of parallel vector.
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2. Radius of gyration: The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be defined as
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the distance from the axis of a mass point whose mass is equal to the mass of the
whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the
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body about the axis.
a
the moment of inertia of a rigid body analogous to mass in linear motion and depends
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on the mass of the body, its shape and size, distribution of mass about the axis of
rotation, and the position and orientation of the axis of rotation.
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Theorem of perpendicular axes
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It states that the moment of inertia of a planar body (lamina) about an axis
ita
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of inertia about two
perpendicular axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the
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body. If we consider a planar body, An axis perpendicular to the body through a point
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O is taken as the z-axis. Two mutually perpendicular axes lying in the plane of the body
and concurrent with z-axis, i.e., passing through O, are taken as the x and y-axes. The
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theorem states that

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I z = I x + I y.
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Theorem of parallel axes

The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of the moment of
inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of mass and the
product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
z and z’ are two parallel axes, separated by a distance a. The z-axis passes through the
centre of mass O of the rigid body. Then according to the theorem of parallel axes
Iz’= Iz + Ma2
Where Iz and Iz’ are the moments of inertia of the body about the z and z¢ axes
respectively, M is the total mass of the body and a is the perpendicular distance
between the two parallel axes.
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i. SI unit of radius of gyration

a) Metre (m)
b) M2
c) M3
d) None of these
ii. Moment of inertia is analogous to
a) Mass
b) Area
)
c) Force
m
d) None of these
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iii. Define radius of gyration
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iv. State Theorem of perpendicular axes
a
v. State Theorem of parallel axes
hs
✓ Answer Key:
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1. Answer: (b) L/4

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2. Answer: (b) 2.7 m/s²

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3. Answer: (a) 18 kg m²
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4. Answer: (a) center of the circle

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5. Answer: (a) Zero

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6. Answer: (b) 2 sec

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7. Answer: (b) l1 > l2

8. Answer: (a) 4 kg m²/sec
9. Answer: (c) Tangential
10.Answer: (b) Becomes half
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: Yes, C.M. and geometrical centre may coincide when the body has a
uniform mass density, e.g. C.M. and geometrical centre are the same in case of
a sphere, cube and cylinder etc.
2. Answer: M.I. is not affected by the speed of rotation of the body.
3. Answer:
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07
We know that τ = rF sin θ. If θ = 0 or 180,

or
r = 0, then τ = 0, r = 0 means the applied force passes through the axis of
rotation.
4. Answer: No, this statement is true when all the particles of the system are of
the same mass.
5. Answer: Principle of conservation of angular momentum.
6. Answer: Angular momentum.
7. Answer: No, it is the angular momentum that will be conserved.
)
m
8. Answer: No, torque is required only for producing angular acceleration.
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9. Answer: Moment of momentum.
10.Answer: Moment of momentum.
la
a
hs
1. Answer: C.G.: It is the point where the whole of the weight of the body is
supposed to be concentrated i.e. on this point, the resultant of the
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gravitational force on all the particles of the body acts.
lp
C.M.: It is the point where the whole of the mass of the body may be supposed
ita
to be concentrated to describe its motion as a particle.

2. Answer: The hollow sphere shall have greater M.I., as its entire mass is
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concentrated at the boundary of the sphere which is at maximum distance

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from the axis.

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3. Answer: Melting of polar ice caps will produce water spread around the Earth
going farther away from the axis of rotation that will increase the radius of
w
gyration and hence M.I. In order to conserve angular momentum, the angular
(w
2𝜋
velocity ω shall decrease. So the length of the day (𝑇 = ) shall increase.
𝜔
4. Answer: The internal force of brakes converts the rolling friction into sliding
friction. When brakes are applied, wheels stop rotating. When they slide, the
force of friction comes into play and stops the vehicle. It is an external force.
5. Answer: A rigid body is that in which the distance between all the constituting
particles remains fixed under the influence of external force. A rigid body thus
conserves its shape during its motion.
6. Answer:
• The mutual forces between the particles of a system are called internal
forces.
(28)
07
• The forces exerted by some external source on the particles of the system
are called external forces.
7. Answer: Two equal and opposite forces acting on a rigid body such that their
lines of action don’t coincide constitute a couple. This couple produces a
turning effect on the body. Hence the rigid body will rotate. If the two equal
and opposite forces act in such a way that their lines of action coincide, then
the body will not rotate.
8. Answer:
(a) The rotating wheels of a bicycle possess angular momentum. In the absence
of an external torque, neither the magnitude nor the direction of angular
)
m
momentum can change. The direction of angular momentum is along the
axis of the wheel. So the bicycle does not get tilted.
.co
(b) The cycle wheel ¡s constructed in such a way so as to increase the M.I. of
la
the wheel with minimum possible mass, which can be achieved by using
spokes and the M.I. is increased to ensure the uniform speed.
a
Long Questions Answers: hs
at
1. Answer:
lp
Consider a solid cylinder of mass m, radius R and MJ. I rolling down an inclined
plane without slipping as shown in the figure. The condition of rolling down
ita
without slipping means that at each instant of time, the point of contact P of
the cylinder with the inclined plane is momentarily at rest and the cylinder is
ig
rotating about that as the axis.

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Let θ = angle of inclination of the plane. The forces acting on the cylinder are:
w
• The weight mg of the cylinder acting vertically downward.

w
• The force of friction F between the cylinder and the surface of the
(w
inclined plane and acts opposite to the direction of motion.

• The normal reaction N due to the inclined plane acting normally to the
plane at the point of contact. The weight W of the cylinder can be
resolved into two rectangular components:
(a) mg cos θ along ⊥ to the inclined plane.
(b) mg sin θ along the inclined plane and in the downward direction. It
makes the body move downward.
Let a = linear acceleration produced in the cylinder,
Then according to Newton’s 2nd law of motion,
ma = mg sin θ – F …. (1)
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07
and N = mg cos θ …. (2)

If α = angular acceleration of the cylinder about the axis of rotation, then
τ = I α …. (3)
)
m
Here, τ is provided by F i.e.
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τ = F.R …. (4)
a la
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at
lp
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(30)
07
)
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a la
hs
at
lp
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w
w
If μs be the coefficient of static friction between the cylinder and the surface,
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Then
For rolling without slipping
(31)
07
1
equation (9) is the required condition for rolling without slipping i.e., tan θ
3
should be less than equal to μs i.e., the maximum allowed inclination of the
plane with the horizontal is given by
θmax = tan-1 (3 μs)
2. Answer:
(a) Δω = τ Δθ
Let F = force applied on a body moving in XY plane.
Δr = linear displacement produced in the body by the force F in moving
from P to Q.
)
m
If Δω is the small work done by the force, then by definition of work.
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ΔW = F . Δr ….(1)
ita
In component form,
ig
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w
w
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Let PN ⊥ on X-axis & PON = θ

∴ in rt ∠d ΔPNO,
(32)
07
As Δθ is very small, i.e. Δθ → 0, cos Δθ → 1 and sin Δθ → Δθ
)
m
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(b) P = τ ω.
a
hs
at
lp
ita

ig

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assertion.
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Explanation
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As the concept of Centre of mass is only theoretical, therefore in practice no mass

may lie at the Centre of mass. For example, Centre of mass of a uniform circular
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ring is at the Centre of the ring where there is no mass.

2. (d) The earth is not slowing down. The angular momentum of the earth – moon
system is conserved.
Explanation:
The earth is not slowing down. The angular momentum of the earth – moon
system is conserved.
Case Study Answer:
1. Answer
i. (a) 0
(33)
07
ii. (c) 2 vectors

iii. The cross product of two vectors is given by Vector C = A × B. The
magnitude of the vector defined from cross product of two vectors is equal
to product of magnitudes of the vectors and sine of angle between the
vectors.
∴ |vector C| = ABsinθ and Vector C = ABsinθ n. Where, cap n is the unit
vector perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors A and B.
iv. We can find the direction of the unit vector with the help of the right-hand
rule. In this rule, we can stretch our right hand so that the index finger of
the right hand in the direction of the first vector and the middle finger is in
)
the direction of the second vector. Then, the thumb of the right hand
m
indicates the direction or unit vector n.
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v. The cross product of two vectors is zero vectors if both the vectors are
parallel or opposite to each other. Conversely, if two vectors are parallel or
la
opposite to each other, then their product is a zero vector. Two vectors
a
have the same sense of direction. θ = 900 As we know, sin 0° = 0 and sin 90°
=1
hs
at
lp
ita
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w
w
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2. Answer
i. (a) Metre (m)
ii. (c) Mass
iii. Radius of gyration: The radius of gyration of a body about an axis may be
defined as the distance from the axis of a mass point whose mass is equal
to the mass of the whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to the
moment of inertia of the body about the axis.
iv. Theorem of perpendicular axes
It states that the moment of inertia of a planar body (lamina) about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of inertia about
two perpendicular axes concurrent with perpendicular axis and lying in the plane
(34)
07
of the body. If we consider a planar body, an axis perpendicular to the body

through a point O is taken as the z-axis. Two mutually perpendicular axes lying in
the plane of the body and concurrent with z-axis, i.e., passing through O, are
taken as the x and y-axes. The theorem states that
Iz=Ix+Iy
v. The moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to the sum of the
moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of
mass and the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the
two parallel axes. z and z’ are two parallel axes, separated by a distance a. The z-
axis passes through the centre of mass O of the rigid body. Then according to the
)
theorem of parallel axes
m
Iz’= Iz + Ma2
.co
Where Iz and Iz’ are the moments of inertia of the body about the z and z¢ axes
respectively, M is the total mass of the body and a is the perpendicular distance
between the two parallel axes.
a la
hs
at
lp
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(35)
PHYSICS
)
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a la
Chapter 8: Gravitation
hs
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lp
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(1)
GRAVITATION
08
Gravitation
Gravitation
When we talk about gravitation or gravity it is a naturally occurring phenomenon or a force
which exists among all material objects in the universe.
Whenever we throw an object towards the sky it will fall back onto the ground.
For Example: - A ball comes down when thrown up. Rain drops fall towards the ground; Planets
revolve in an elliptical orbit around sun etc.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
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Planets revolving in the elliptical orbit.

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Rain drops falling on the earth.
(1)
GRAVITATION
08
Leaves fall off the tree.
)
m
There is a force due to which all things are attracted towards the earth. This force is known as
.co
Gravitation.
Gravitation is the force of attraction between all masses in the universe, especially the force of
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attraction exerted by the earth on all the bodies near its surface.
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In this chapter we will take a look at gravitation force, its laws, and we will also study about the
planetary motion.
hs
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Gravitational Constant and Universal Law of Gravitation
We know that the universal law of gravitation was put forth by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. It is
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one of the most important laws of physics. Let us know more about Newton’s universal law of
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gravitation and gravitational constant.

Universal Law of Gravitation
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According to Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation, the force exerted between two objects by
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each other is given by the following relation.

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where g is the gravitational force between two bodies, m1 is the mass of one object, m2 is the
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mass of the second object and r is the distance between the centres of two objects.
Gravitational Constant
The actual force exerted between two bodies can be given by the following equation
where G is the universal gravitational constant with a value (G = 6.674 × 10-11 N · (m/kg)^{2}).
G here is an empirical constant of proportionality.
What is interesting here is that, even though it is Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation, the
value of G wasn’t given by him. This was calculated by Henry Cavendish in 1798 through a series
of experiments and observations. The influence of the earth’s core on the experiments is
hypothesised to alter its rotational inertia, because of which the value of G given is not always
constant throughout the globe.
(2)
GRAVITATION
08
Another theory regarding the universal gravitational constant (fun fact: it is also referred to as
Big G) is that, if it is true that the universe is expanding since the Big Bang, then the value of G
will keep decreasing!
The universal gravitational constant is used in Newton’s Universal Law of Gravitation, Einstein’s
General Theory of Relativity and also Kepler’s Third Law of Planetary Motion to calculate the
time period of a planet to complete one full revolution in its orbit.
Acceleration due to gravity of the earth
Acceleration attained due to gravity of earth.
All the objects fall towards the earth because of gravitational pull of the earth.
)
And when a body is falling freely, it will have some velocity and therefore it will attain some
m
acceleration. This acceleration is known as acceleration due to gravity.
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It is a vector quantity.
Denoted by ‘g’.
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Its value is 9.8m/s2.
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Example: Stones falling from a rock will have some velocity because of which some
hs
acceleration. This acceleration is due to the force exerted by the earth on the rocks.This is
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known as acceleration due to gravity.
lp
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Stones falling from rock

Expression for Acceleration due to gravity
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Consider any object of mass ‘m’ at a point A on the surface of the earth.
The force of gravity between the body and earth can be calculated as
Newton’s Second law states that

F=ma (2)
Comparing the equations (1) and (2)
(3)
GRAVITATION
08
Therefore, the expression for Acceleration due to gravity.
)
m
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a la
hs
Acceleration due to gravity below the surface of earth
To calculate acceleration due to gravity below the surface of the earth (between the surface
at
and centre of the earth).
lp
Density of the earth is constant throughout. Therefore,

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ig
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w
w
As entire mass is concentrated at the centre of the earth.

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Therefore, density can be written as
Comparing equation (1) and (2)
To calculate Gravitational force (F) between earth and point mass m at a depth d below the
surface of the earth.
(4)
GRAVITATION
08
Above figure shows the value of g at a depth d. In this case only the smaller sphere of radius
(Re-d) contributes to g.
)
m
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Putting the value of Ms from equation (3)
a
hs
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lp
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Acceleration due to gravity above the surface of earth

To calculate the value of acceleration due to gravity of a point mass m at a height h above the
w

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(5)
GRAVITATION
08
Above figure shows the value of acceleration due to gravity g at a height h above the surface of
the earth.
Force of gravitation between the object and the earth will be
By calculating we will get,
)
m
The value of acceleration due to gravity varies on the surface, above the surface and below the
.co
Inertial and Gravitational Mass
la
Inertial mass is a mass parameter giving the inertial resistance to acceleration of the body when
a
responding to all types of force. Gravitational mass is determined by the strength of the
hs
gravitational force experienced by the body when in the gravitational field g.
at
Inertial Mass: - Inertial mass is defined as the mass of body by virtue of inertia of mass.
By Newton’s Law F=ma
lp
𝐹
𝑚 = where m= inertial mass (as it is because of inertia of a body)
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𝑎
Gravitational Mass: -Gravitational mass is defined as the mass of the body by virtue of the
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gravitational force exerted by the earth.

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By Gravitation Force of attraction

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𝐺𝑚𝑀
𝐹 = 2
𝑟
w
𝐹𝑟 2
M= where
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𝐺𝑀
M = mass of the object
F = force of attraction exerted by the earth
R = distance between object and earth
M = mass of the earth
Experimentally, Inertial mass = Gravitational mass
Gravitational Potential Energy
• Potential energy is due to the virtue of position of the object.
• Gravitational Potential Energy is due to the potential energy of a body arising out of the
force of gravity.
(6)
GRAVITATION
08
• Consider a particle which is at a point P above the surface of earth and when it falls on the
surface of earth at position Q, the particle is changing its position because of force of gravity.
• The change in potential energy from position P to Q is same as the work done by the gravity.
• It depends on the height above the ground and mass of the body.
)
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Stationary roller-coaster
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Expression for Gravitational Potential Energy
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Case1:- ‘g’ is constant.
a
Consider an object of mass ‘m’ at point A on the surface of earth.
Work done will be given as:
hs
at
WBA = F X displacement where F = gravitational force exerted towards the earth)
= mg (h2 - h1) (body is brought from position A to B)
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= mgh2 - mgh1
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WAB = VA - VB
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where
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VA = potential energy at point A

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VB = potential energy at point B

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From above equation we can say that the work done in moving the particle is just the
difference of potential energy between its final and initial positions.
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Case2:-‘g’ is not constant.

Calculate Work done in lifting a particle from r = r1 to r = r2 (r2> r1) along a vertical path,
We will get, W=V (r2) – V (r1)
In general the gravitational potential energy at a distance ‘r’ is given by :
where
V(r) = potential energy at distance ‘r’
Vo = At this point gravitational potential energy is zero.
Gravitational potential energy is ∝ to the mass of the particle.
Gravitational Potential
(7)
GRAVITATION
08
Gravitational Potential is defined as the potential energy of a particle of unit mass at that point
due to the gravitational force exerted byearth.
Gravitational potential energy of a unit mass is known as gravitational potential.
Mathematically:
𝐺𝑀
Gpotential = −
𝑅
Planetary Motion
Ptolemy was the first scientist who studied the planetary motion.
)
He gave geocentric model. It means all the planets, stars and sun revolve around the earth and
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earth is at the centre.
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Heliocentric model was proposed by some Indian astronomers.
According to which all planets revolve around the sun.
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Nicholas proposed the Nicholas Copernicus model according to which all planets move in circles
a
around the sun.
hs
After Nicholas one more scientist named Tycho Brahe did lot of observations on planets.
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Finally came Johannes Kepler who used Tycho Brahe observations, and he gave Kepler’s 3 laws
of Gravitation.
lp
These 3 laws became the basis of Newton’s Universal law of Gravitation.

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Kepler’s 1st Law: Law of Orbits

Statement: - The orbit of every planet is an ellipse around the sun with sun at one of the two
foci of ellipse.
(8)
GRAVITATION
08
Whenever a planet revolves around sun it traces an ellipse around the sun. The closest point is
)
m
P and the farthest point is A, P is called the perihelion and A the aphelion. The semi major axis is
half the distance AP.
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Kepler’s 1st law Vs. Copernicus Model
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According to Copernicus planets move in circular motion whereas according to Kepler planets
revolve in elliptical orbit around the sun.
a
hs
Copernicus model is based on one special case because circle is a special case of ellipse whereas
Kepler’s laws aremore of ageneral form.
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Kepler’s law also tells us about the orbits which planets follow.
lp
To Show ellipse is a special form of Circle

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Select two points F1 and F2.

Take a piece of string and fix its ends at F1 and F2.
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Stretch the string taut with the help of a pencil and then draw a curve by moving the pencil
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keeping the string taut throughout. Fig. (a).

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The resulting closed curve is an ellipse. For any point T on the ellipse, the sum of distances from
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F1 and F2 is a constant. F1, F2 are called the foci.

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Join the points F1 and F2 and extend the line to intersect the ellipse at points P and A as shown
in Fig. (a).
The centre point of the line PA is the centre of the ellipse O and the length PO = AO, which is
also known as the semimajor axis of the ellipse.
For a circle, the two foci merge onto one and the semi-major axis becomes the radius of the
circle.
(9)
GRAVITATION
08
Fig(a)
A string has its ends fixed at F1 and F2. The tip of the pencil holds the string taut and is moved
around and we will get an ellipse.
Kepler’s 2nd law: Law of Areas
Statement: The line that joins a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of
time.
Area covered by the planet while revolving around the sun will be equal in equal intervals of
time. This means the rate of change of area with time is constant.
Suppose position and momentum of planet is denoted by ‘r’ and ‘p’ and the time taken will be
)
Δt.
m
1
𝛥𝐴 = 𝑥𝑟𝑥𝑣𝛥𝑡 (where vΔt is distance travelled by a planet in Δt time.)
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2
𝛥𝐴 1
= (𝑟𝑥𝑣)
𝛥𝑡 2
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where
a
(Linear momentum) p=mv or we can write as hs
𝑝
𝑣 =
at
𝑚
1
lp
= 𝑚(𝑟 × 𝑝)
2
ita
1𝐿
= 𝑚 where L= angular momentum (It is constant for any central force)
22
𝛥𝐴
ig
= constant (This means equal areas are covered in equal intervals of time).
𝛥𝑡
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Kepler’s 3rdLaw: Law of periods

Statement:
According to this law the square of time period of a planet is ∝ to the cube of the semi-major
axisof its orbit.
Suppose earth is revolving around the sun then the square of the time period (time taken to
(10)
GRAVITATION
08
complete one revolution around sun) is ∝ to the cube of the semi major axis.
It is known as Law of Periods as it is dependent on the time period of planets.
Derivation of 3rd Law: assumption: The path of the planet is circular.
Let m=mass of planet
M= mass of sun
According to Newton’s Law of Gravitation:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= 2
𝑟
𝑚𝑣 2
)
𝐹𝑐 =
𝑟
m
Where,
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Fc =centripetal force which helps the planet to move around sun in elliptical order.
la
F = Fc
𝐺𝑀𝑚 𝑚𝑣 2
a
= where r=radius of the circle
𝑟2 𝑟 hs
𝐺𝑀
= 𝑣 2 (1)
𝑟
at
𝜋𝑟
𝑣 = 2
lp
𝑇
Squaring both the sides the above equation
ita
𝑣 2 = 4 𝜋 2 𝑟 2 /𝑇 2
ig
putting the value (1)

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𝐺𝑀
= 4 𝜋𝑟 2 /𝑇 2
𝑟
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T = (4 π2 r3/GM) where (4 π2/GM) = constant

2
w
T2 = r3 (In ellipse semi-major axis is same as radius of the circle)

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Escape Velocity
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity that a body must attain to escape the gravitational field
of the earth.
Suppose if we throw a ball, it will fall back. This is happening due to the force of gravitation
exerted on the ball by the surface of the earth due to which the ball is attracted towards the
If we increase the velocity to such an extent that the object which is thrown up will never fall
back. This velocity is known as escape velocity.
(11)
GRAVITATION
08
Ball is thrown up but it falls down because of force of gravitation.
)
m
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a la
hs
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The same ball is thrown with a velocity that itescapes the force of gravitation of earth and does
not come back. This velocity is known as escape velocity.
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Mathematically:
Suppose we throw a ball and the initial velocity of the ball is equal to the escape velocity such
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that ball never comes back.

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Final Position will be infinity.

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At Final Position: At Infinity

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V0 = potential energy at surface of earth, r = ∞ r = distance from the centre of the earth.
Where h= height of the ball from the surface of the earth.
(12)
GRAVITATION
08
)
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This is the initial velocity with which if the ball is thrown it will never fall back on the earth
a
surface. hs
In terms of ‘g’
at
g = GM/Re2
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Escape velocity can be written as

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Earth Satellites
.d
Any object revolving around the earth.

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Natural Satellite
Satellite created by nature.
Example: - Moon is the only natural satellite of earth.
(13)
GRAVITATION
08
Artificial Satellites:
Human built objects orbiting the earth for practical uses. There are several purposes which
these satellites serve.
Example:- Practical Uses of Artificial satellites
Communication
Television broadcasts
Weather observation
Military support
Navigation
)
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Scientific research
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a la
hs
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lp
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Determining the Time Period of Earth Satellite

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Time taken by the satellite to complete one rotation around the earth.
.d
As satellites move in circular orbits there will be centripetal force acting on it.
w
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = It is towards the centre.
w
𝑅𝑒 +ℎ
Where,
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H = distance of satellite forms the earth

Fc = centripetal force
𝐺𝑚𝑀𝑒
𝐹𝐺 =
(𝑅𝑒 + ℎ)2
Where,
Fg = Gravitation force
M = mass of the satellite
Me = mass of the earth
Fc = F G
(14)
GRAVITATION
08
This is the velocity with which satellite revolve around the earth.
The satellite covers distance = 2 π (Re + h) with velocity v.
)
m
Special Case:-
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h<< Re (satellite is very near to the surface of the earth)
la
After calculating
a
hs
at
Energy of an orbiting satellite
lp
m= mass of the satellite, v=velocity of the satellite

1
ita
E.= mv2
2
ig
.d
w
w
(w
P.E. = 2 x K.E.
Total energy is negative. This means the satellite cannot escape from the earth’s gravity.
Geostationary Satellite:
(15)
GRAVITATION
08
Geo means earth and stationary means at rest. This means something which is stationary.
Satellites orbiting around the Earth in equatorial plane with time period equal to 24 hours.
Appear to be stationary with respect to earth. They also rotate around earth with time period
of 24 hours.
These satellites can receive telecommunication signals and broadcast them back to a wide area
on earth.
Example: INSAT group of satellites.
Polar Satellites
These are low altitude satellites. This means they orbit around earth at lower heights.
)
They orbit around the earth in North-South direction. Whereas earth is moving from East to
m
West.
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A camera is fixed above this type of satellite so they can view small strips of earth.
As earth also moves, so at each instance different types of stripes of earth can be viewed.
la
Adjacent stripes of earth are viewed in subsequent orbits.
a
hs
They are useful in remote sensing, meteorology and environmental studies of the earth.
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
In the above image we can see that the orbit of polar satellites is from north to south direction.
w
Weightlessness
w
Weightlessness is a condition of free fall, in which the effect of gravity is cancelled by the
inertial (e.g., centrifugal) force resulting from orbital flight. There is no force of gravity acting on
(w
the objects.
It is the condition in which body does not feel its weight at all.
When an apple falls from a tree it won’t feel its weight. This condition experienced by anybody
while in free-fall is known as weightlessness.
Examples: -When we throw an object from the top of building, the object experiences free fall,
that is the object is not under any force. This is weightlessness.
(16)
GRAVITATION
08
Weightlessness in the orbital motion of satellites
• In case of a satellite that is rotating around the earth.

• There is an acceleration which is acting towards the centre of the Earth.
• This acceleration is known as centripetal acceleration (ac).
• There is also earth’s acceleration which is balancing this centripetal acceleration.
g = ac they are equal in magnitude and they are balancing each other.
• Inside the satellites there is no acceleration which means everything is moving with uniform
velocity.
)
m
• Inside an orbiting satellite weightlessness is experienced.
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Top Formulae
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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(17)
08
GRAVITATION
(w
w
w
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ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
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m
)
(18)
08
GRAVITATION
(w
w
w
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ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
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m
)
(19)
08
GRAVITATION
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w
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ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
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m
)
(20)
GRAVITATION
08
Important Questions
1. A body is projected vertically from the surface of the earth of radius R with velocity
equal to half of the escape velocity. The maximum height reached by the body is
(a) R
(b) R/2
(c) R/3
(d) R/4
)
m
2. When the planet comes nearer the sun moves
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(a) fast
(b) slow
la
(c) constant at every point
a
(d) none of the above hs
3. Keplers second law regarding constancy of arial velocity of a planet is a consequence
at
of the law of conservation of
lp
(a) energy
ita
(b) angular momentum

(c) linear momentum
ig
(d) none of these

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4. The escape velocity for a body projected vertically upwards from the surface of the
w
earth is 11km/s. If the body is projected at an angle of 45° with the vertical, the escape
w
velocity will be
(w
(a) 11 /√2 km/s

(b) 11√2 km/s
(c) 2 km/s
(d) 11 km/s
5. The radii of the earth and the moon are in the ratio 10 : 1 while acceleration due to
gravity on the earths surface and moons surface are in the ratio 6 : 1. The ratio of
escape velocities from earths surface to that of moon surface is
(a) 10 : 1
(b) 6 : 1
(c) 1.66 : 1
(21)
GRAVITATION
08
(d) 7.74 : 1
6. The escape velocity of a body from the surface of the earth is v. It is given a velocity
twice this velocity on the surface of the earth. What will be its velocity at infinity?
(a) v
(b) 2v
(c) √2v
(d) √3v
7. The period of geostationary artificial satellite is
)
(a) 24 hours
m
(b) 6 hours
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(c) 12 hours
la
(d) 48 hours
a
8. If the radius of the earth were to shrink by 1% its mass remaining the same, the
hs
acceleration due to gravity on the earths surface would
(a) decrease by 2%
at
(b) remain unchanged
lp
(c) increase by 2%
ita
(d) will increase by 9.8%

ig
9. The mean radius of the earth is R, its angular speed on its own axis is w and the
.d
acceleration due to gravity at earth’s surface is g. The cube of the radius of the orbit of
a geo-stationary satellite will be
w
(a) r²g / w
w
(b) R²w² / g
(w
(c) RG w²
(d) R²g / w²
10. If escape velocity from the earth’s surface is 11.2 km/sec. then escape velocity from
a planet of mass same as that of earth but radius one fourth as that of earth is
(a) 11.2 km/sec
(b) 22.4 km/sec
(c) 5.65 km/sec
(d) 44.8 km/sec
Very Short:
(22)
GRAVITATION
08
1. What velocity will you give to a donkey and what velocity to a monkey so that both
escape the gravitational field of Earth?
2. How does Earth retain most of the atmosphere?
3. Earth is continuously pulling the moon towards its center. Why does not then, the
moon falls on the Earth?
4. Which is greater out of the following:
(a) The attraction of Earth for 5 kg of copper.
(b) The attraction of 5 kg copper for Earth?
5. Where does a body weigh more – at the surface of Earth or in a mine?
)
m
6. How is it that we learn more about the shape of Earth by studying the motion of an
.co
artificial satellite than by studying the motion of the moon?
7. If the Earth is regarded as a hollow sphere, then what is the weight of an object
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below the surface of Earth?
a
8. What is the formula for escape velocity in terms of g and R?
hs
9. What is the orbital period of revolution of an artificial satellite revolving in a
at
geostationary orbit?
lp
10.Can we determine the mass of a satellite by measuring its time period?

ita
Short Questions:
1. Explain how the weight of the body varies en route from the Earth to the moon.
ig
Would its mass change?

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2. Among the known type of forces in nature, the gravitational force ¡s the weakest.
w
Why then does ¡t play a dominant role in the motion of bodies on the terrestrial,
astronomical, and cosmological scale?
w
3. Show that the average life span of humans on a planet in terms of its natural years
(w
is 25 planet years if the average span of life on Earth is taken to be 70 years.

4. Hydrogen escapes faster from the Earth than oxygen. Why?
5. In a spaceship moving in a gravity-free region, the astronaut will not be able to
distinguish between up and down. Explain why?
6. Why the space rockets are generally launched from west to east?
7. Explain why the weight of a body becomes zero at the centre of Earth.
8. We cannot move even our little fingers without disturbing the whole universe.
Explain why.
Long Questions:
(23)
GRAVITATION
08
1. (a) Derive the expression for the orbital velocity of an artificial Earth’s satellite. Also,
derive its value for an orbit near Earth’s surface.
(b) Derive the expression for escape velocity of a body from the surface of Earth and
show that it √2 times the orbital velocity close to the surface of the Earth. Derive its
value for Earth.
2. (a) Explain Newton’s law of gravitation.
(b) Define gravitational field intensity. Derive its expression at a point at a distance x
from the center of Earth. How is it related to acceleration due to gravity?
3. Discuss the variation of acceleration due to gravity with:
)
m
(a) Altitude or height
(b) Depth
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(c) Latitude i.e. due to rotation of Earth.
la
a
1. Directions: Each of these questions contain two statements, Assertion and Reason.
hs
Each of these questions also has four alternative choices, only one of which is the
at
correct answer. You have to select one of the codes (a), (b), (c) and (d) given below.
lp

assertion.
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(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for
assertion
ig

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Assertion: Gravitational potential of earth at every place on it is negative.

Reason: Everybody on earth is bound by the attraction of earth.
w
(w
assertion.
(b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for
assertion
Assertion: Planets appear to move slower when they are farther from the sun than
when they are nearer.
Reason: All planets move in elliptical orbits with sun at one of the foci of the ellipse.
(24)
GRAVITATION
08
✓ Answer Key:
1. Answer: (c) R/3
2. Answer: (a) fast
3. Answer: (b) angular momentum
4. Answer: (d) 11 km/s
5. Answer: (d) 7.74 : 1
6. Answer: (d) √3v
)
m
7. Answer: (a) 24 hours
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8. Answer: (c) increase by 2%
9. Answer: (d) R²g / w²
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10.Answer: (b) 22.4 km/sec
a
Very Short Answers: hs
at
1. Answer: We will give them the same velocity as escape velocity is independent of
the mass of the body.
lp
2. Answer: Due to force of gravity.

ita
3. Answer: The gravitational force between the Earth and the moon provides the
necessary centripetal force to the moon to move around the Earth. This centripetal
ig
force avoids the moon to fall onto the Earth.

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4. Answer: Same.
w
5. Answer: At the surface of Earth, a body weighs more.

w
6. Answer: This is because an artificial satellite is closer to the Earth than Moon.
(w
7. Answer: Zero.
8. Answer: Ve = √2𝑔𝑅.
9. Answer: It is 24 hours.
10.Answer: Yes.
1. Answer: When a body is taken from Earth to the moon, then its weight slowly
1
decreases to zero and then increases till it becomes th of the weight of the body on
6
the surface of the moon.
(25)
GRAVITATION
08
2ℎ
We know that mgh = mg (1 – )
𝑅
𝑅
As h increases, gh, and hence mgh, decreases. When R = the force of attraction of
2
Earth is equal to the force of attraction of the moon.
1
Then gh = 0, so mg becomes zero, and the value of g on the moon’s surface is th of
6
𝑅
its value on the surface of Earth. Hence on increasing h beyond , mg starts
2
increasing due to the gravity of the moon. f ts mass remains constant.
2. Answer: Electrical forces are stronger than gravitational forces for a given distance,
but they can be attractive as well as repulsive, unlike gravitational force which is
)
always attractive. As a consequence, the forces between massive neutral bodies are
m
predominantly gravitational and hence play a dominant role at long distances. The
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strong nuclear forces dominate only over a range of distances of the order of 10-14
m to 10-15 m.
la
3. Answer: Take the distance between Earth and Sun twice the distance between Earth
a
and planet. According to Kepler’s third law of planetary motion,
hs
at
lp
where Te, TR is the average life span on Earth and planet respectively.
ita
Rg = distance between Earth and Sun.

ig
Rp = distance between Earth and planet.

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Here, Re = 2Rp
w
w
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(26)
GRAVITATION
08
)
m
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a la
hs
4. Answer: The thermal speed of hydrogen is much larger than oxygen. Therefore a
large number of hydrogen molecules are able to acquire escape velocity than that of
at
oxygen molecules. Hence hydrogen escapes faster from the Earth than oxygen.
lp
5. Answer: The upward and downward sense is due to the gravitational force of
ita
attraction between the body and the earth. In a spaceship, the gravitational force is
counterbalanced by the centripetal force needed by the satellite to move around
ig
the Earth in a circular orbit. Hence in the absence of zero force, the astronaut will
not be able to distinguish between up and down.
.d
w
6. Answer: Since the Earth revolves from west to east around the Sun, so when the
rocket is launched from west to east, the relative velocity of the rocket = launching
w
velocity of rocket + linear velocity of Earth. Thus the velocity of the rocket increases
(w
which helps it to rise without much consumption of the fuel. Also, the linear velocity
of Earth is maximum in the equatorial plane.
7. Answer: We know that the weight of a body at a place below Earth’s surface is given
by
W = mgd …. (i)
Where gd = acceleration due to gravity at a place at a depth ‘d’ below Earth’s
surface and is given
(27)
GRAVITATION
08
From Eqn. (i) W = 0 at the center of Earth.

i.e., g decreased with depth and hence becomes zero at the center of Earth, so W =
0 at Earth’s center.
)
m
8. Answer: According to Newton’s law of gravitation, every particle of this universe
attracts every other particle with a force that is inversely proportional to the square
.co
of the distance between them. When we move our fingers, the distance between
the particle’s changes, and hence the force of attraction changes which in turn
la
disturbs the whole universe.
a
Long Questions Answers: hs
1. Answer:
at
1. Let m = mass of the satellite.
lp
M, R = mass and radius of Earth.

ita
h = height of the satellite above the surface of Earth.

ig
r = radius of the robot of the satellite

.d
= R + h.
w
v0 = orbital velocity of the satellite.

w
𝑚𝑣02
The centripetal force required by the satellite to move in a circular orbit is
𝑟
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proved by the gravitational force between satellite and the Earth.
(28)
GRAVITATION
08
)
m
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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If the satellite is close to the earth’s surface, then h ≈ 0

w
w
(w
2. Escape velocity is the minimum velocity with which a body is projected from
Earth’s surface so as to just escape its gravitational pull or of any other planet. It
is denoted by ve.
Expression: Consider the earth to be a homogenous sphere of radius R, mass M,
center O, and density p.
(29)
GRAVITATION
08
Let m = mass of the body projected from point A on the surface of Earth with vel.
ve.
1
∴ K.E. of the body at point A = mve2 …(i)
2
Let it reaches a point P at a distance x from O. If F be the gravitational force of
attraction on the body at P, then
)
m
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a la
F=
𝐺𝑀𝑚
…(ii)
hs
at
𝑥2
lp
Let it further moves to Q by a distance dx.

ita
If dW be the work done in moving from P to Q, then

ig
.d
w
If w be the total work done in moving the body from A to ∞,

w
Then
(w
(30)
GRAVITATION
08
)
m
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∴ According to the law of conservation of energy
a la
K.E. = RE
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Relation between ve and vo: Also we know that the orbital velocity around Earth
close to its surface is given
(31)
GRAVITATION
08
by v0 = √𝑔𝑅
and ve = √2𝑔𝑅 = √2 √𝑔𝑅
= √2v0
Hence proved.
2. Answer:
(a) We know that Newton’s law of gravitation is expressed mathematically as:
)
m
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where r̂ = unit vector along F
la
It was found that law is equally applicable anywhere in the universe between
a
small and big objects like stars and galaxies. The value of G remains the same
hs
everywhere. (Some scientists have claimed that as the size of the object under
consideration becomes big like a galaxy, the value of G also changes). Hence this
at
law of Newton is also called Newton’s universal law of gravitation.
lp
The force of attraction is called the force of gravitation or gravitational force.

This force is only attractive and is never repulsive. The force is both ways i.e.,
ita
particle 1 attracts particle 2 and so does particle 2 attracts particle 1.

ig
Hence F12 = – F21.

.d
The law is a direct outcome of the study of acceleration of bodies. Newton

w
wondered how Moon revolves around the Earth or other planets revolve around
the Sun. His calculations showed that the Moon is accelerated by the same
w
amount as does any other object towards the Earth.

(w
His famous narration of the apple falling from the tree and noticing every other
object fall towards Earth led to the announcement of his famous law of
gravitation about 50 years later in his book ‘Principia’.
Out of the known forces in nature, the Gravitational force is the weakest, yet it is
the most apparent one as it acts for long distances and between objects which
are visible to us. The law of gravitation has been used to determine the mass of
heavenly bodies. It has been used to study the atmosphere of planets. Man-
made satellites remain in the orbits due to gravitation.
(b) The gravitational field intensity at a point is defined as the force acting on a unit
mass placed at that point in the field.
(32)
GRAVITATION
08
Thus, the gravitational field intensity is given by:

𝐹
E=
𝑚
Now at distance x from the centre of Earth, the gravitational force is
)
m
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a la
hs
at
So, the intensity of the gravitational field at the surface of Earth is equal to the
lp
acceleration due to gravity.

ita
3. Answer:
ig
Let M, R be the mass and radius of the earth with centre O.

.d
g = acceleration due to gravity at a point

w
An on Earth’s surface.
w
(w
(a) Variation of g with height: Let g0h be the acceleration due to gravity at a point B
at a height h above the earth’s surface
(33)
GRAVITATION
08
)
m
If h << R, then using Binomial Expansion, we get
.co
a la
hs
at
Thus, from Eqn. (3), we conclude that acceleration due to gravity decreases with
height.
lp
(b) With depth: Let the Earth be a uniform sphere.

ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Let gd = acceleration due to gravity at a depth d below earth’s surface i.e., at point
B.
Let ρ = density of Earth of mass M.
(34)
GRAVITATION
08
Also, let M’ = mass of Earth at a depth d, then
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
From equation (iv), we see that acceleration due to gravity decreases with depth.
ita
Special case: At the centre of Earth, d = R

∴ gd = 0
ig
Hence an object at the centre of Earth is in a state of weightlessness.

.d
(c) Variation of g with latitude:

w
Let m = mass of a particle at a place P of latitude X.

w
ω = angular speed of Earth about axis NS.

(w
(35)
GRAVITATION
08
As the earth rotates about the NS axis, the particle at P also rotates and describes a
horizontal circle of radius r,
where r = PC = OP cos λ, = R cos λ
Let g’ be the acceleration due to gravity at P when the rotation of Earth is taken
into account. Now due to the rotation of the earth, two forces that act on the
particle at P are:
Its weight mg, acting along with PO.
Centrifugal force mroo2 along PO’.
∴ The angle between them = 180 – λ
)
m
∴ According to the parallelogram law of vector addition
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Using binomial expansion, we get
⇒ g decreases with the rotation of the earth.

At poles, λ = 90°, ∴ g’ = gp = g
At equator, λ = 0, g’ = ge = g- Rω2.
(36)
GRAVITATION
08
Clearly gp > ge.

assertion.
Explanation:
Because gravitational force is always attractive in nature, and everybody is bound
by this gravitational force of attraction of earth.
2. (b) Assertion is correct, reason is correct; reason is not a correct explanation for
assertion.
)
m
Explanation:
.co
Both assertion and reason are true, but reason is not correct explanation of the assertion.
Case Study Questions-
la
1. If a stone is thrown by hand, we see it falls back to the earth. Of course using machines
a
hs
we can shoot an object with much greater speeds and with greater and greater initial
speed, the object scales higher and higher heights. A natural query that arises in our
at
mind is the following: can we throw an object with such high initial speeds that it does
not fall back to the earth ? Thus minimum speed required to throw object to infinity
lp
away from earth’s gravitational field is called escape velocity.

ita
ve = √2𝑔𝑟
Where g is acceleration due to gravity and r is radius of earth and after solving ve 11.2
ig
km/s. This is called the escape speed, sometimes loosely called the escape velocity.
.d
This applies equally well to an object thrown from the surface of the moon with g
w
replaced by the acceleration due to Moon’s gravity on its surface and r replaced by the
radius of the moon. Both are smaller than their values on earth and the escape speed
w
for the moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times smaller. This is the reason that
(w
moon has no atmosphere. Gas molecules if formed on the surface of the moon having
velocities larger than this will escape the gravitational pull of the moon. Earth satellites
are objects which revolve around the earth. Their motion is very similar to the motion
of planets around the Sun and hence Kepler’s laws of planetary motion are equally
applicable to them. In particular, their orbits around the earth are circular or elliptic.
Moon is the only natural satellite of the earth with a near circular orbit with a time
period of approximately 27.3 days which is also roughly equal to the rotational period
of the moon about its own axis.
i. Time period of moon is
a. 27.3 days
b. 20 days
(37)
GRAVITATION
08
c. 85 days
d. None of these
ii. Escape velocity from earth is given by
a. 20 km/s
b. 11.2 km/s
c. 2 km/s
d. None of these
iii. Define escape velocity. Give its formula
)
Why moon don’t Have any atmosphere?
m
iv.
v. What is satellite? Which law governs them?
.co
2. Satellites in a circular orbits around the earth in the equatorial plane with T = 24 hours
la
are called Geostationary Satellites. Clearly, since the earth rotates with the same
period, the satellite would appear fixed from any point on earth. It takes very powerful
a
rockets to throw up a satellite to such large heights above the earth but this has been
hs
done in view of the several benefits of many practical applications. Thus radio waves
at
broadcast from an antenna can be received at points far away where the direct wave
fails to reach on account of the curvature of the earth. Waves used in television
lp
broadcast or other forms of communication have much higher frequencies and thus
ita
cannot be received beyond the line of sight. A Geostationery satellite, appearing fixed
above the broadcasting station can however receive these signals and broadcast them
ig
back to a wide area on earth. The INSAT group of satellites sent up by India is one such
group of geostationary satellites widely used for telecommunications in India. Another
.d
class of satellites is called the Polar satellites. These are low altitude (500 to 800 km)
w
satellites, but they go around the poles of the earth in a north-south direction whereas
w
the earth rotates around its axis in an east-west direction. Since its time period is
around 100 minutes it crosses any altitude many times a day. However, since its height
(w
h above the earth is about 500-800 km, a camera fixed on it can view only small strips
of the earth in one orbit. Adjacent strips are viewed in the next orbit, so that in effect
the whole earth can be viewed strip by strip during the entire day. These satellites can
view polar and equatorial regions. at close distances with good resolution. Information
gathered from such satellites is extremely useful for remote sensing, meterology as
well as for environmental studies of the earth.
i. Time period of geospatial satellite is
a. 24 hours
b. 48 hours
c. 72 hours
(38)
GRAVITATION
08
d. None of these
ii. Polar satellites are approximately revolving at height of
a. 500 to 800km
b. 1500 to 2000 km
c. 3000 to 4000 km
d. None of these
iii. Which satellite used to view polar and equatorial regions?
iv. Write note on polar satellites
)
v. Write a note on geostationary satellite. Give its applications.
m
.co
Case Study Answer-
la
1. Answer
a
i. (a) 27.3 days hs
ii. (b) 500 to 800km
at
iii. Polar satellites are used to view polar and equatorial regions as they rotate on poles
lp
of earth.
ita
iv. The escape speed for the moon turns out to be 2.3 km/s, about five times smaller
than that of earth. Therefore all atmospheric gas can go easily out of atmosphere of
ig
moon. This is the reason that moon has no atmosphere.

.d
v. Earth satellites are objects which revolve around the earth. Their motion is very
w
similar to the motion of planets around the Sun and hence Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion are equally applicable to them.
w
2. Answer
(w
i. (a) 24 hours
ii. (a) Pascal’s law
iii. Polar satellites are used to view polar and equatorial regions as they rotate on poles
of earth.
iv. Polar satellites are low altitude (500 to 800 km) satellites, but they go around the
poles of the earth in a north-south direction. Since its time period is around 100
minutes it crosses any altitude many times a day. Information gathered from such
satellites is extremely useful for remote sensing, meterology as well as for
environmental studies of the earth.
(39)
GRAVITATION
08
v. Satellites in circular orbits around the earth in the equatorial plane with time period
same as earth are called Geostationary Satellites.
Applications:- Radio waves broadcast. Satellites widely used for
telecommunications in India. GPS system, navigation system , defence etc.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
(40)
PHYSICS
)
m
.co
a la
Chapter 9: Mechanical Properties of Solids
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
09
Mechanical Properties of Solids

Elastic Behaviour of Solids
Elastic Behavior of Solids – What happens to a rubber band when you stretch it and let go? It
deforms but regains its original nature when you stop applying a force. But say, you take an
aluminium rod and try to bend it using your arm strength. You somehow do manage to bend it
a little and then stop applying force. Does the rod regain its original shape? of course not. It is
referred to as the Elastic Behavior of Solids
What happens to a rubber band when you stretch it and let go? It deforms but regains its
original nature when you stop applying force. But suppose you try to bend an aluminium rod
)
using your arm strength. You somehow do manage to bend it a little and then stop applying
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force. Does the rod regain its original shape? Of course not.
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This difference in the behaviour of the materials is based on their elastic and plastic nature. The
rubber band has high elasticity. Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist any permanent
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changes to it when stress is applied. The body regains its original shape and size when stress
application ceases.
All materials have an elastic limit beyond which, if continuous stress is applied, they will start
losing their ability to exhibit perfect elastic behaviour and start deforming. In contrast, plastic
deformation is the non-reversible deformation of solid materials on the application of forces.
Important Points on Elastic Behaviour of Solids
An elastic body is one that regains its original shape and size when deforming forces are
removed
A plastic body is one that succumbs to deforming forces (however small) and cannot return to
its original shape and size
Elasticity is the property of a body to regain its original shape and size when deforming forces
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are removed. It exhibits an opposition to change.

Elasticity
This difference in the behaviour of the material is based on their elastic and plastic nature. The
rubber band has high elasticity. Elasticity is the ability of a body to resist any permanent
changes to it when stress is applied. the body regains its original shape and size when stress
application ceases.
Difference Between Elasticity and Plasticity
All materials have an elastic limit beyond which, if continuous stress is applied, they will start
losing their ability to exhibit perfect elastic behaviour and start deforming. In contrast, plasticity
is the non-reversible deformation of solid materials on the application of forces.
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Looking at the elasticity in the atomic level, solids are made of atoms (or molecules). They are
surrounded by other such atoms which are held in a state of equilibrium by interatomic forces.
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When an external force is applied these particles are displaced, resulting in the deformation of
the solid. When the application of the deforming force is stopped, interatomic forces drive the
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atoms to regain their state of equilibrium.
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The concept of elasticity is an idealization as no material is perfectly elastic. For example, if you
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use a hair tie to groom yourself, you may have noticed that its size tends to deform after
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prolonged use. After a point, it may snap as well. This is because the hair tie eventually loses its
elastic nature.
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Stress
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Stress is defined as the ratio of the internal force F, produced when the substance is deformed,
to the area A over which this force acts. In equilibrium, this force is equal in magnitude to the
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externally applied force. In other words,

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Stress is of two types:

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(i) Normal stress: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface
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of the body. Normal stress is of two types: tensile stress and compressive stress.
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(ii) Tangential stress: When the elastic restoring force or deforming force acts parallel to the
surface area, the stress is called tangential stress.
Strain
It is defined as the ratio of the change in size or shape to the original size or shape. It has no
dimensions; it is just a number.
Strain is of three types:
(i) Longitudinal strain: If the deforming force produces a change in length alone, the strain
produced in the body is called longitudinal strain or tensile strain. It is given as:
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(ii) Volumetric strain: If the deforming force produces a change in volume alone, the strain
produced in the body is called volumetric strain. It is given as:
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(iii) Shear strain: The angle tilt caused in the body due to tangential stress expressed is called
shear strain. It is given as: hs
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The maximum stress to which the body can regain its original status on the removal of the
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deforming force is called elastic limit.

Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law states that, within elastic limits, the ratio of stress to the corresponding strain
produced is a constant. This constant is called the modulus of elasticity. Thus
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Stress Strain Curve

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Stress strain curves are useful to understand the tensile strength of a given material. The given
figure shows a stress-strain curve of a given metal.
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• The curve from O to A is linear. In this region Hooke’s Proportional limit law is obeyed.
• In the region from A to 6 stress and strain are not . proportional. Still, the body regains its
original dimension, once the load is removed.
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• Point B in the curve is yield point or elastic limit and the corresponding stress is known as
yield strength of the material.
• The curve beyond B shows the region of plastic deformation.
• The point D on the curve shows the tensile strength of the material. Beyond this point,
additional strain leads to fracture, in the given material.
Young’s Modulus
For a solid, in the form of a wire or a thin rod, Young’s modulus of elasticity within elastic limit
is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain. It is given as:
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Bulk Modulus
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Within elastic limit the bulk modulus is defined as the ratio of longitudinal stress and volumetric
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strain. It is given as:

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-ve indicates that the volume variation and pressure variation always negate each other.
Reciprocal of bulk modulus is commonly referred to as the “compressibility”. It is defined as the
fractional change in volume per unit change in pressure.
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity
It is defined as the ratio of the tangential stress to the shear strain.
Modulus of rigidity is given by
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Poisson’s Ratio
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The ratio of change in diameter (ΔD) to the original diameter (D) is called lateral strain. The
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ratio of change in length (Δl) to the original length (l) is called longitudinal strain. The ratio of
lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poisson’s ratio.
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Elastic Fatigue
It is the property of an elastic body by virtue of which its behaviour becomes less elastic under
the action of repeated alternating deforming forces.
Relations between Elastic Moduli
For isotropic materials (i.e., materials having the same properties in all directions), only two of
the three elastic constants are independent. For example, Young’s modulus can be expressed in
terms of the bulk and shear moduli.
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Breaking Stress
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The ultimate tensile strength of a material is the stress required to break a wire or a rod by
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pulling on it. The breaking stress of the material is the maximum stress which a material can
withstand. Beyond this point breakage occurs.
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𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
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𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑:
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Complete step-by-step solution -
The formula for breaking stress is given as
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Breaking stress checks for metals determine how long a single alloy is stretched until it reaches
its maximum tensile strength and how much metal can be loaded until structural stability is
lost. Therefore, it is a very important concept in material science and for safety considerations.
Breaking stress is also known as the ultimate tensile stress or breaking strength.
Tensile stress is the stress state induced by the load being applied that appears to elongate the
material in the load-axis, that is, the force generated by the material being tensioned. The
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power of equivalent cross-sectional structures charged with voltage is independent of the

nature of the cross-section.
Note- Breaking stress is a limit state of tensile stress that leads to tensile failure in one of two
manners: Ductile failure - Some yield as the first stage of failure, some hardening in the second
stage and breakage after a possible "neck" formation. Brittle failure - It is defined as the abrupt
breaking of the material into two or more pieces at a low stress state.
Bulk Modulus
Bulk modulus is the ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain.
Denoted by ‘B’
𝑝
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𝐵 = − 𝛥𝑉
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𝑉
𝛥𝑉
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Where p = hydraulic stress, = hydraulic strain
𝑉
(-) ive signs show that the increase in pressure results in decrease in volume.
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S.I. Unit: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
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B(solids) > B(liquids) > B(gases) hs
Compressibility
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Compressibility is the measure of compression of a substance.
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Reciprocal of bulk modulus is termed as ‘Compressibility’.

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Mathematically:
1 1 𝛥𝑉
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𝑘= = −( )( )
𝐵 𝑝 𝑉
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It is denoted by ‘k’.
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k(solids) < k(liquids) < k(gases)

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Hydraulic Stress
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Hydraulic stress is the restoring force per unit area when force is applied by a fluid on the body.
For example:
Consider a rubber ball and if it is dipped in the pond. Due to the pressure of water from all
directions force acts on the ball as a result, the ball seems to be slightly contracted.
Because of the force exerted by the water there is restoring force which develops in the ball
which is equal in magnitude to the force applied by the water but in opposite direction.
This type of stress is known as hydraulic stress.
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Ball under the water

Top Formulae
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Important Questions

1. The ratio of the change in dimension at right angles to the applied force to the initial
dimension is known as
(a) Youngs modulus
(b) Poissions ratio
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(c) Lateral strain
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(d) Shearing strain
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2. Hookes law essentially defines
(a) Stress
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(b) Strain
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(c) Yield point hs
(d) Elastic limit
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3. Theoretical value of Poissions ratio lies between
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(a) -1 to 0.5
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(b) -1 to -2
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(c) 0.5 to 1
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(d) None
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4. A wire suspended vertically from one of its ends is stretched by attaching a weight of
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100N to its lower end. What is the elastic potential energy stored in the wire, if the
weight stretches the wire by 1.5 mm?
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(a) 5 × 10-2 J
(b) 10-3 J
(c) 2.5 × 10-3 J
(d) 7.5 × 10-2 J
5. An iron bar of length l m and cross section A m² is pulled by a force of F Newton from
both ends so as to produce and elongation in meters. Which of the following statement
statements is correct?
(a) Elongation is inversely proportional to length l
(b) Elongation is directly proportional to cross section A
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(c) Elongation is inversely proportional to A

(d) Elongation is directly proportional to Youngs modulus
6. temperature?
(a) Copper
(b) Invar steel
(c) Brass
(d) Silver
7. Longitudinal strain is possible in the case of
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(a) Gases
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(b) Liquid
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(c) Only solids
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(d) Only gases & liquids
a
8. Two wires A and B are of the same length. The diameters are in the ratio 1 : 2 and
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the Youngs modulus are in ratio 2 : 1. if they are pulled by the same force, then their
elongations will be in ratio
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(a) 4 : 1
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(b) 1 : 4
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(c) 1 : 2
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(d) 2 : 1
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9. A body of mass 500 g is fastened to one end of a steel wire of length 2 m and area of
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cross-section 2 mm². if the breaking stress of he wire is 1.25 × 107 N/m², then the
maximum angular velocity with which the body can be rotated in a horizontal circle is
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(a) 2 rad/s
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(b) 3 rad/s
(c) 4 rad/s
(d) 5 rad/s
10. If a material is heated and annealed, then its elasticity is
(a) Increased
(b) Decreased
(c) Not change
(d) Becomes zero
Very Short:
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1. Give an example of pure shear.

2. What is an elastomer?
3. What is breaking stress?
4. What is the:
(a) value of modulus of rigidity of a liquid?
(b) order of strain within the elastic limit?
5. A wire is stretched to double its length. What is the value of longitudinal strain?
6. Mention a situation where the restoring force is not equal and opposite to the
)
applied force.
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7. What is a Cantilever?
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8. A wire is suspended from a roof but no weight is attached to the wire. Is the wire
under stress?
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9. Why strain has no units?
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10.What is Poisson’s ratio? hs
Short Questions:
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1. What are the factors due to which three states of matter differ from one’s Other?
2. When we stretch a wire, we have to perform work Why? What happens to the
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energy given to the wire in this process?

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3. Why are the bridges declared unsafe after long use?

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4. Why are the springs made of steel and not of copper?

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5. A heavy machine is to be installed in a factory. To absorb vibrations of the machine,

a block of rubber is placed between the machinery and the floor. Which of the two
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rubbers (A) and (B) of Figure would you prefer to use for this purpose? Why?
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6. Metal wires after being heavily loaded dop’\ regain their lengths completely explain
why?
7. Explain. Why spring balances show wrong readings after they have been, Used for a
long time?
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8. Elasticity is said to be the internal property of matter. Explain.

Long Questions:
1. (a) Derive the expression for the orbital velocity of an artificial Earth’s satellite. Also,
derive its value for an orbit near Earth’s surface.
(b) Derive the expression for escape velocity of a body from the surface of Earth and
show that it √2 times the orbital velocity close to the surface of the Earth. Derive its
value for Earth.
2. (a) Explain Newton’s law of gravitation.
(b) Define gravitational field intensity. Derive its expression at a point at a distance x
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from the center of Earth. How is it related to acceleration due to gravity?
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3. Discuss the variation of acceleration due to gravity with:
(a) Altitude or height
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(b) Depth
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(c) Latitude i.e. due to rotation of Earth.
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1. Directions:
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(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct
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explanation of the assertion.

(b) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct
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(c) If assertion is true but reason is false.

(d) If the assertion and reason both are false.
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Assertion: Steel is more elastic than rubber.

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Reason: Under given deforming force, steel is deformed less than rubber.
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2. Directions:
Assertion: Glassy solids have sharp melting point.
Reason: The bonds between the atoms of glassy solids get broken at the same
temperature.
✓ Answer Key:
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09

1. Answer: (c) Lateral strain
2. Answer: (d) Elastic limit
3. Answer: (a) -1 to 0.5
4. Answer: (d) 7.5 × 10-2 J
5. Answer: (c) Elongation is inversely proportional to A
6. Answer: (b) Invar steel
7. Answer: (c) Only solids
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8. Answer: (d) 2 : 1
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9. Answer: (d) 5 rad/s
10.Answer: (b) Decreased
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Very Short Answers:
a
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1. Answer: The twisting of a cylinder produces pure shear.
2. Answer: It is a substance that can be elastically stretched to large values t of strain.
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3. Answer: It is defined as the ratio of maximum load to which the wire is < subjected
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to the original cross-sectional area.

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4. Answer:
(a) zero.
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(b) 10-3 cm per cm = 10-3 cm/cm.

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5. Answer: Unity.
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6. Answer: This happens when the body is deformed beyond the elastic limit.
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7. Answer: It is a beam loaded at one end and free at the other end.
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8. Answer: Yes, the weight of the wire itself acts as the deforming force.
9. Answer: As it is the ratio of two similar quantities.
10.Answer: It is the ratio of lateral strain to linear strain.
1. Answer:
Three states of-matter differ from each other due to the following two factors:
(a) The different magnitudes of tester atomic and intermolecular forces.
(b) The degree of random thermal motion of the atoms and molecules of a
substance depends upon the temperature.
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2. Answer: In a normal situation, the atoms of a solid are at the locations of minimum
potential energy. When we stretch a wire, the work has to be done against
interatomic forces. This work is stored in the wire in the form of elastic potential
energy.
3. Answer: A bridge during its use undergoes alternative strains a large number of
times each day, depending upon the movement of vehicles on it. When a bridge is
used for a long time it loses its elastic strength, due to which the number of strains
in the bridge for given stress will become large and ultimately the bridge may
collapse. Thus, !» to avoid this, the bridges are declared unsafe after long use.
4. Answer: Spring will be a better one if a large restoring force is set up in it on being
)
deformed, which in turn depends upon the elasticity of the material of the spring.
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Since Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel is more than that of copper, hence steel
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is preferred in making the springs.
5. Answer: The area of this hysteresis loop measures the amount of heat energy
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dissipated by the material. Since the area of the loop B is more than that of A,
a
therefore B can absorb more vibrations than that of Av Hence B is preferred.
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6. Answer: A material regains its original Configuration (length, shape dr volume) only
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when the deforming force is within the elastic limit. Beyond the elastic limit, the
bodies lose the property of elasticity and hence don’t completely regain the length
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of being heavily loaded.

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7. Answer: When spring balances are used for a long time, they get fatigued. So the
springs of such balances will take time to recover their original configuration. Hence
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the readings shown by such spring balances will be wrong.

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8. Answer: When a deforming force acts on a body, the atoms of the substances get
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displaced from their original positions. Due to this the configuration of the matter
(substance) changes. The moment, the deforming force is removed, the atoms
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return to their original positions and hence the substance or matter regains its
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original configuration. Hence elasticity is said to be the internal property of matter.

1. Answer:
(a) The following factors affect the elasticity of a material:
• Effect of hammering and rolling: It causes a decrease in the plasticity of
the material due to break-up of crystal grains into smaller units and hence
– the elasticity of the material increases.
• Effect of Annealing: Annealing results in the increases in the plasticity of
the material due to, the formation of large crystal grains. Hence the
elasticity of the material decreases.
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09
• Effect of the presence of impurities: The effect of the presence of

impurities in a material can be both ways i.e. it can increase as well as
decrease the elasticity r of the material. The type of effect depends upon
the
• nature of the impurity present in the material.
• Effect of temperature: The increase in the temperature of the material in
most cases causes a decrease in the elasticity of the material. The
elasticity of invar does not change with the change of temperature.
(b) Poisson’s Ratio (σ): Within elastic limits, it is defined; as the ratio of lateral strain
)
(β) to the linear strain i.e.
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(c) Breaking Load: It is defined as the product of the breaking stress and area of
cross-section of the given object. It is also called maximum load a body (cable/
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wire) can support
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i.e., breaking load = Breaking stress × area of cross-section. It should be noted
that breaking stress is a constant for the given material.
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2. Answer:
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Let L, A be the length and area of the cross-section of the wire.

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Also, let l be the extension produced on applying a force F, then

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where Y = Young’s modulus.

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Now when F = T1 and l = L1 – L.
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a
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1. (a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of
the assertion.
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Explanation:
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Elasticity is a measure of tendency of the body to regain its original configuration. As

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steel is deformed less than rubber therefore steel is more elastic than rubber.
2. (d) If the assertion and reason both are false.
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Explanation:
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In a glassy solid (i.e., amorphous solid) the various bonds between the atoms or ions
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or molecules of a solid are not equally strong. Different bonds are broken at
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different temperatures. Hence there is no sharp melting point for a glassy solid.
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1. The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a column of air of
unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere. At
sea level, it is 1.013 × 105 Pa (1 atm). Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647)
devised for the first time a method for measuring atmospheric pressure.
p = pa +pgh
Where r is the density of mercury and h is the of the mercury column in the tube In the
experiment it is found that the mercury column in the barometer has a height of about
76 cm at sea level equivalent to one atmosphere (1 atm). This can also be obtained
using the value of r. A common way of stating pressure is in terms of cm or mm of
mercury (Hg). A pressure equivalent of 1 mm is called a torr (after Torricelli). 1 torr =
133 Pa. The mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine and physiology. In meteorology, a
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common unit is the bar and millibar.1 bar = 105 Pa. An open tube manometer is a
useful instrument for measuring pressure differences.
i. Who gave for the first time a method for measuring atmospheric pressure?
a. Newton
b. Pascal
c. Torricelli
d. None of the above
ii. 1 torr is equal to
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a. 1000 pa
m
b. 133 pa
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c. 50 pa
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d. None of these
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iii. What is 1 torr? Where it is used?
iv.
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Which device is used for measurement of pressure difference?
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v. What is atmospheric pressure?
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2. Whenever external pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is

transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions. This is another form of the
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Pascal’s law and it has many applications in daily life. A number of devices, such as
hydraulic lift and hydraulic brakes, are based on the Pascal’s law. In these devices,
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fluids are used for transmitting pressure. Fluid flow is a complex phenomenon.
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Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow in artery. The artery may get
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constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In order to drive the
blood through this constriction a greater demand is placed on the activity of the heart.
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The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is raised which lowers the pressure
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inside and the artery may collapse due to the external pressure. The heart exerts
further pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood rushes
through the opening, the internal pressure once again drops due to same reasons
leading to a repeat collapse. This may result in heart attack. Dynamic lift is the force
that acts on a body, such as airplane wing, a hydrofoil or a spinning ball, by virtue of its
motion through a fluid. In many games such as cricket, tennis, baseball, or golf, we
notice that a spinning ball deviates from its parabolic trajectory as it moves through air.
This deviation can be partly explained on the basis of Bernoulli’s principle. A ball which
is spinning drags air along with it. If the surface is rough more air will be dragged.
shows the streamlines of air for a ball which is moving and spinning at the same time.
The ball is moving forward and relative to it the air is moving backwards. Therefore, the
velocity of air above the ball relative to the ball is larger and below it is smaller .The
stream lines, thus, get crowded above and rarified below. This difference in the
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velocities of air results in the pressure difference between the lower and upper faces
and there is a net upward force on the ball. This dynamic lift due to spining is called
Magnus effect. The Venturi-meter is a device to measure the flow speed of
incompressible fluid. The principle behind this meter has many applications. The
carburetor of automobile has a Venturi channel (nozzle) through which air flows with a
high speed. The pressure is then lowered at the narrow neck and the petrol (gasoline)
is sucked up in the chamber to provide the correct mixture of air to fuel necessary for
combustion. Filter pumps or aspirators, Bunsen burner, atomisers and sprayers used
for perfumes or to spray insecticides work on the same principle.
i. The Venturi-meter is a device used to measure the
)
a. Flow speed of incompressible fluid.
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b. Area occupied by fluid.
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ii. hydraulic brakes works on principle of
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a. Pascal’s law
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b. Newton’s law
c. Bernoulli’s principle
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d. None of these
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iii. With the help of Bernoulli’s principle. How heart attack happens?
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iv. Explain Magnus effect with example of ball with spin in air.
v. What is dynamic lift?
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Case Study Answer-

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1. Answer
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i. (c) Torricelli
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ii. (b) 133 pa

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iii. A pressure equivalent of 1 mm is called a torr 1torr = 133 Pa.

The mm of Hg and torr are used in medicine and physiology.
iv. An open tube manometer is a useful instrument for measuring pressure differences.
v. The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a column of
air of unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the
atmosphere. At sea level, it is 1.013 × 105 Pa (1 atm). 76 cm at sea level equivalent
to one atmosphere (1 atm).
2. Answer
i. (a) Flow speed of incompressible fluid.
ii. (a) Pascal’s law
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09
iii. With the help of Bernoulli’s principle we can explain heart attack phenomenon. The
artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In
order to flow the blood through this constriction a large pressure is exerted on
heart. The speed of the flow of the blood in this region is raised which lowers the
pressure inside and the artery may collapse due to the external pressure. The heart
exerts further pressure to open this artery and forces the blood through. As the
blood flows fast trough the opening, the internal pressure once again drops due to
same reasons leading to a repeat collapse. This result in heart attack.
iv. A ball which is spinning drags air along with it. If the surface is rough more air will be
dragged. When ball is moving forward and relative to it the air is moving backwards.
)
Therefore, the velocity of air above the ball relative to the ball is larger and below it
m
is smaller. This difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure difference
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between the lower and upper faces and there is a net upward force on the ball. This
dynamic lift due to spining is called Magnus effect.
la
v. A ball which is spinning drags air along with it. If the surface is rough more air will be
dragged. When ball is moving forward and relative to it the air is moving backwards.
a
hs
Therefore, the velocity of air above the ball relative to the ball is larger and below it
is smaller. This difference in the velocities of air results in the pressure difference
at
between the lower and upper faces and there is a net upward force on the ball. This
dynamic lift due to spining is called Magnus effect.
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PHYSICS
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Chapter 10: Mechanical Properties of Fluids
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
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Mechanical Properties of Fluids

Fluids
Fluids can be defined as any substance which is capable of flowing.
They don’t have any shape of their own.
For example: water which does not have its own shape but it takes the shape of the container
in which it is poured.
But when we pour water in a tumbler it takes the shape of the tumbler
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Both liquids and gases can be categorised as fluids as they are capable of flowing.
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Volume of solids, liquids and gas depends on the stress or pressure acting on it.
In this chapter we will study if we apply force on the fluid how does it affects the internal
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properties of fluids.
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Fluids offer very little resistance to shear stress.

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We will also study some characteristic properties of fluids.

Pressure
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Pressure is defined as force per unit area.

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𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆
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𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 =
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
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For Example:
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Consider a very sharp needle which has a small surface area and consider a pencil whose back is
very blunt and has more surface area than the needle. If we poke needle in our palm it will hurt
as needle gets pierced inside our skin. Whereas if we poke the blunt side of the pencil into our
hand it won’t pain so much.
This is because area of contact between the palm and the needle is very small therefore the
pressure is large. Whereas the area of contact between the pencil and the palm is more
therefore the pressure is less.
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Two factors which determine the magnitude of the pressure are:-

Force – greater the force greater is the pressure and vice-versa.
Coverage area – greater the area less is the pressure and vice-versa.
Example:
Consider a stuntman lying on the bed of nails which means there are large numbers of nails on
any rectangular slab. All the nails are identical and equal in height.
We can see that the man is not feeling any pain and he is lying comfortably on the bed. This is
because there isa large number of nails and all the nails are closely spaced with each other.
All the small, pointed nails make large surface area therefore the weight of the body is
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compensated by the entire area of all the nails.
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The surface area increases therefore pressure is reduced.
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But even if one nail is greater than the others then it will hurt. Because then the surface area
will be less as a result pressure will be more.
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Stuntman lying on bed of nails.

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Pressure in Fluids:
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Normal force exerted by fluid per unit area.

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This means force is acting perpendicular to the surface of contact.

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Consider a body submerged in the water, force is exerted by the water perpendicular to the
surface of the body.
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If there is no force applied perpendicularly but in the parallel direction then there will be
motion along the horizontal direction.
Since fluid is at rest and body is submerged in the fluid. Therefore there cannot be motion along
the horizontal direction.
Therefore we always say the force is applied perpendicularly.
Pressure is a scalar quantity. Because the force here is not a vector quantity but it is the
component of force normal to the area.
Dimensional Formula [ML-1T-2]
I Unit: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).
Atmosphere unit (atm) is defined as pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level. It is a
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common unit of pressure.

1atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa
Pascal’s Law
Pascal’s law states that if the pressure is applied to uniform fluids that are confined, the fluids
will then transmit the same pressure in all directions at the same rate.
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Pascal’s law holds good only for uniform fluids.
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For example:
Consider a vessel filled with water which is uniform throughout as there is only one type of fluid
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which is water.
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Consider a vessel which has oil and water then it is not uniform. As it have two different fluids.
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Fluid should be confined meaning fluid is present within region in space. It is not allowed to
spread.
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For example, 1:
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A balloon filled with water and when we press it hard against the wall.
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We will see the shape of the balloon changes. This is because if we apply force on balloon,
pressure is exerted on the water.
Water is uniform fluid, and it is confined with in this balloon and is not allowed to spread.
On applying pressure, it is transmitted in all other directions.
Variation of pressure with depth
Consider a cylindrical object inside a fluid; consider 2 different positions for this object.
Fluid is at rest therefore the force along the horizontal direction is 0.
Forces along the vertical direction:
Consider two positions 1 and 2.
Force at position 1 is perpendicular to cross sectional area A, F1 = P1
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Similarly, F2 = P2
This net force will be balanced by the weight of the cylinder(m).

Therefore, under equilibrium condition
Fnet = mg = weight of the cylinder = weight of the fluid displaced.
= ρ Vg where ρ = density = volume of the fluid
= ρhAg where V = hA (h = height and A = area)
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Therefore (P2 - P1) A = ρhAg
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P2 - P1 = ρhg, Therefore the difference in the pressure is dependent on height of the cylinder.
Consider the top of the cylinder exposed to air therefore P1 = Pa (where Pa = P1 is equal to
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atmospheric pressure.)
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Then P2 = Pa + ρhg
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The pressure P, at depth below the surface of a liquid open to the atmosphere is greater than
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atmospheric pressure by an amount ρhg.
The pressure is independent of the cross sectional or base area or the shape of the container.
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Cylinder is inside the fluid.

Hydrostatic Paradox
Hydrostatic Paradox means: - hydro = water, static =at rest
Paradox means that something taking place surprisingly.
Consider 3 vessels of very different shapes (like thin rectangular shape, triangular and some
filter shape) and we have a source from which water enters into these 3 vessels.
Water enters through the horizontal base which is the base of these 3 vessels we observe that
the level of water in all the 3 vessels is same irrespective of their different shapes.
This is because pressure at some point at the base of these 3 vessels is same.
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The water will rise in all these 3 vessels till the pressure at the top is same as the pressure at the
bottom.
As pressure is dependent only on height therefore in all the 3 vessels the height reached by the
water is same irrespective of difference in their shapes.
This experiment is known as Hydrostatic Paradox.
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The three vessels A, B and C contain different amounts of liquids, all up to the same height
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Fluid is under gravity. The effect of gravity is illustrated through pressure on a vertical cylindrical
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column
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Atmospheric Pressure
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Pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere.

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Atmosphere is a mixture of different gases. All these gas molecules together constitute some
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weight. By virtue of this weight there is some pressure exerted by the atmosphere on all the
objects.
This pressure is known as atmospheric pressure.
Value of atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.01*105
1atm = 1.01*105Pa
Gauge Pressure
Pressure difference between the system and the atmosphere.
From relation P = Pa + ρgh where P = pressure at any point, Pa = atmospheric pressure.
We can say that Pressure at any point is always greater than the atmospheric pressure by the
amount ρgh.
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P – Pa = ρgh where
P = pressure of the system, Pa = atmospheric pressure,
(P - Pa) = pressure difference between the system and atmosphere.
hρg = Gauge pressure.
How to measure Gauge pressure
Gauge pressure is measured by Open Tube Manometer.
Open Tube Manometer is a U-shaped tube which is partially filled with mercury (Hg).
One end is open and other end is connected to some device where pressure is to be determined.
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This means it is like a system.
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The height to which the mercury column will rise depends on the atmospheric pressure.
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Similarly depending on the pressure of the system the height of mercury in another tube rises.
The pressure difference between these two heights is the difference between the atmospheric
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pressure and system.
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This difference in pressure is the gauge pressure.
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Consider if the level of mercury column is same in both the U-tubes.
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Patm = P, therefore the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure of the
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system is 0.
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Gauge Pressure is 0.
Patm = 760torr.
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Open tube manometer
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Closed end manometer

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is defined as the pressure above the zero value of pressure.
It is the actual pressure which a substance has.
It is measured against the vacuum.
Absolute pressure is measured relative to absolute zero pressure.
It is sum of atmospheric pressure and gauge pressure.
P = Pa + hρg where P = pressure at any point, Pa = atmospheric pressure and hρg = gauge
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pressure.
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Therefore P = Pa + Gauge Pressure. Where P = absolute pressure.
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It is measured with the help of barometer.
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Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
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Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure states that the pressure exerted anywhere in a
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confined incompressible fluid is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions
throughout the fluid.
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The above law means that if we consider a fluid which is restricted within a specific region in
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space and if the volume of the fluid doesn’t change with the pressure, then the amount of
pressure exerted will be same as the amount of pressure transmitted.
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Consider a circular vessel which have 4 openings and along these 4 openings 4 pistons are
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attached.
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When piston A is moved downwards pressure is exerted on the liquid in the downward
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direction, this pressure gets transmitted equally along all the directions. As a result, all the other
3 pistons move equal distance outwards.
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A circular vessel fitted with movable piston at all the four ends and when piston A is moved
downward a pressure is exerted downward. Equal amount of pressure is exerted along all the
directions as a result they will move equal distances outward.
Applications: Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure
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Hydraulic lift:
Hydraulic lift is a lift which makes use of a fluid.
For example: Hydraulic lifts that are used in car service stations to lift the cars.
Principle:
Inside a hydraulic lift there are 2 platforms, one has a smaller area and the other one has a
larger area.
It is a tube-like structure which is filled with uniform fluid.
There are 2 pistons (P1 and P2) which are attached at both the ends of the tube.
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Cross-sectional area of piston P1 is A1 and of piston P2 is A2.
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If we apply force F1 on P1, pressure gets exerted and according to Pascal’s law the pressure gets
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transmitted in all the directions and same pressure gets exerted on the other end. As a result the
Piston P2 moves upwards.
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Advantage of using hydraulic lift is that by applying small force on the small area we are able to
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generate a larger force.
Mathematically: F2 = PA2
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where F2 = Resultant Force, A2 = area of cross-section
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𝐹 𝐹
𝐹2 = ( 1 ) 𝐴2 where 𝑃 = 1 (Pressure P is due to force F1 on the area A1)
𝐴 1 𝐴 1
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𝐴 𝐴
𝐹2 = ( 2) 𝐹1 . This shows that the applied force has increased by 2
𝐴 1 𝐴 1
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Because of Pascal’s law the input gets magnified.

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The above figure shows the internal structure of the hydraulic lift.
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Hydraulic Brakes
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Hydraulic brakes work on the principle of Pascal’s law.
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According to this law whenever pressure is applied on a fluid it travels uniformly in all the
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directions.
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Therefore, when we apply force on a small piston, pressure gets created which is transmitted
through the fluid to a larger piston. As a result of this larger force, uniform braking is applied on
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all four wheels.

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As braking force is generated due to hydraulic pressure, they are known as hydraulic brakes.
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Liquids are used instead of gas as liquids are incompressible.

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Construction
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The fluid in the hydraulic brake is known as brake fluid.

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It consists of a master cylinder, four-wheel cylinders and pipes carrying brake fluid from master
cylinder to wheel cylinders.
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Master cylinder consists of a piston which is connected to pedal through connecting rod.
The wheel cylinders consist of two pistons between which fluid is filled.
Each wheel brake consists of a cylinder brake drum. This drum is mounted on the inner side of
wheel. The drum revolves with the wheel.
Two brake shoes which are mounted inside the drum remain stationary.
Working
When we press the brake pedal, piston in the master cylinder forces the brake fluid through a
linkage.
As a result, pressure increases and gets transmitted to all the pipes and to all the wheel cylinders
according to Pascal’s law.
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Because of this pressure, both the pistons move out and transmit the braking force on all the
wheels.
Advantages:
Equal braking effort to all the four wheels.
Less rate of wear due to absence of joints.
By just changing the size of one piston and cylinder, force can be increased or decreased.
Disadvantages:
Leakage of brake fluid spoils the brake shoes.
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Even the slightest presence of air pockets can spoil the whole system.
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Inside of the cylinder

Types of Fluid flow: Steady Flow
Some streamlines for fluid flow

The flow of a fluid is said to be steady, if at any point, the velocity of each passing fluid particle
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remains constant within that interval of time.

Streamline is the path followed by the fluid particle.
It means that at any particular instant the velocities of all the particles at any point are same. But
the velocity of all the particles won’t be same across all the points in the space.
Steady flow is termed as ‘Streamline flow’ and ‘Laminar flow’.
Consider a case when all the particles of fluid passing point A have the same velocity. This means
that the first particle will have velocity V1 and second will have velocity V1 and so on. All the
particles will have the same velocity V1 at point A.
At point B, all particles will have velocity V2.
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Similarly at point C the velocity of all the particles is V3.
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We can see that the velocity is changing from point to point but at one particular point it is
same.
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No two streamlines can intersect.
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If two streamlines intersect each other, the particles won’t know which path to follow and what
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velocity to attain. That is why no two streamlines intersect.
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The meaning of streamlines:

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(a) A typical trajectory of a fluid particle.

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(b) A region of streamline flow.

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Equation of Continuity
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According to the equation of continuity Av = constant. Where A = cross-sectional area and v =

velocity with which the fluid flows.
It means that if any liquid is flowing in streamline flow in a pipe of non-uniform cross-section
area, then rate of flow of liquid across any cross-section remains constant.
Consider a fluid flowing through a tube of varying thickness.
Let the cross-sectional area at one end (I) = A1 and cross-sectional area of other end (II) = A2.
The velocity and density of the fluid at one end (I) = v1, ρ1 respectively, velocity and density of
fluid at other end (II) = v2, ρ2
Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t, across left cross-sectional is Area (I) =
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A1 x v1 x ∆t
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Volume covered by the fluid in a small interval of time ∆t across right cross-sectional Area (II) =
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A2 x v2 x ∆t
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Fluid inside is incompressible (volume of fluid does not change by applying pressure) that is
density remains same ρ1 = ρ2. (Equation 1)
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Along(I) mass = ρ1 A1 v1 ∆t and along second point (II) mass = ρ2A2 v2∆t
By using equation (1). We can conclude that A1 v1 = A2 v2. This is the equation of continuity.
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From Equation of continuity, we can say that Av = constant.
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This equation is also termed as “Conservation of mass of incompressible fluids”.

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Conclusion:
Volume flux/Flow rate remains constant throughout the pipe. This means rate of flow of fluid of
liquid is more if cross-sectional area is more, then the velocity will be less, and vice-versa.
But the Av will remain constant.
So, the volume which is covered by the fluid at any cross-sectional area is constant throughout
the pipe even if pipe has different cross-sectional areas.
The fluid is accelerated while passing from the wider cross-sectional area towards the narrower
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area. This means if area is more the velocity is less and vice-versa.
Turbulent Flow:
A fluid flow is said to be turbulent if the velocity of the particles vary at any point erratically.
This means fluid particles are moving here and there, they are not moving in organized manner.
They all will have different velocities.
Eddies are generated by this flow. Eddies are same as ripples.
All the particles are moving here and there randomly.
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Bernoulli’s Principle
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For a streamline fluid flow, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume (
𝜌𝑣 2
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2
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and the potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remain constant.
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𝜌𝑣 2
Mathematically: 𝑃 + + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = constant
2
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where P = pressure,
1 1 2
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𝐸. 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑣 1
=2 = 2𝑚 = 𝜌𝑣 2
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𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 (𝑉 ) 2
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𝐸. 𝑚𝑔ℎ 𝑚
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= = ( ) 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝑉
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Derive: Bernoulli’s equation

Assumptions:
Fluid flow through a pipe of varying width.
Pipe is located at changing heights.
Fluid is incompressible.
Flow is laminar.
No energy is lost due to friction: applicable only to non-viscous fluids.
Mathematically:
Consider the fluid initially lying between B and D. In an infinitesimal time interval Δt, this fluid
would have moved.
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The flow of an ideal fluid in a pipe of varying cross section. The fluid in a section of length v1Δt
moves to the section of length v2Δt in time Δt.
Bernoulli’s equation: Special Cases
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Torricelli’s law
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Torricelli law states that the speed of flow of fluid from an orifice is equal to the speed that it
would attain if falling freely for a distance equal to the height of the free surface of the liquid
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above the orifice.
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Consider any vessel which has an orifice (slit)filled with some fluid.
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The fluid will start flowing through the slit and according to Torricelli law the speed with which
the fluid will flow is equal to the speed with which a freely falling body attains such that the
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height from which the body falls is equal to the height of the slit from the free surface of the
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fluid.
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Let the distance between the free surface and the slit = h
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Velocity with which the fluid flows is equal to the velocity with which a freely falling body attains
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if it is falling from a height h.

Derivation of the Law:
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Torricelli’s law. The speed of efflux, v1,from the side of the container is given bythe application
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of Bernoulli’s equation.
Case1: The vessel is not closed it is open to atmosphere that means P = Pa.
Therefore v1=√2gh.This is the speed of a freely falling body.
This is accordance to Torricelli’s law which states that the speed by which the fluid is flowing out
of a small slit of a container is same as the velocity of a freely falling body.
Case2: Tank is not open to atmosphere but P>>Pa.
Therefore 2gh is ignored as it is very very large, hence v1= √2P/ρ.
The velocity with which the fluid will come out of the container is determined by the Pressure at
the free surface of the fluid alone.
Venturimeter
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Venturimeter is a device to measure the flow of incompressible liquid.

It consists of a tube with a broad diameter having a larger cross-sectional area but there is a
small constriction in the middle.
It is attached to U-tube manometer. One end of the manometer is connected to the constriction
and the other end is connected to the broader end of the Venturimeter.
The U-tube is filled with fluid whose density is ρ.
A1 = cross-sectional area at the broader end, v1 = velocity of the fluid.
A2 =cross-sectional area at constriction, v2 = velocity of the fluid.
By the equation of continuity, wherever the area is more velocity is less and vice-versa. As A1 is
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more this implies v1 is less and vice-versa.
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As there is difference in the pressure the fluid moves,this movement of the fluid is marked by
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the level of the fluid increase at one end of the U-tube.
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A schematic diagram of Venturimeter

Venturimeter: determining the fluid speed
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Practical Application of Venturimeter:

Spray Gun or perfume bottle- They are based on the principle of Venturimeter.
• Consider a bottle filled with fluid and having a pipe which goes straight till constriction.
There is a narrow end of pipe which has a greater cross sectional area.
• The cross sectional area of constriction which is at middle is less.
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• There is pressure difference when we spray as a result some air goes in, velocity of the air
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changes depending on the cross sectional area.
• Also because of difference in cross sectional area there is pressure difference, the level of
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the fluid rises, and it comes out.
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Dynamic Lift
Dynamic lift is the normal force that acts on a body by virtue of its motion through a fluid.
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Consider an object which is moving through the fluid, and due to the motion of the object
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through the fluid there is a normal force which acts on the body.
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This force is known as dynamic lift.

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Dynamic lift is most popularly observed in aeroplanes.

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Whenever an aeroplane is flying in the air, due to its motion through the fluid here fluid is air in
the atmosphere. Due to its motion through this fluid, there is a normal force which acts on the
body in the vertically upward direction.
This force is known as Dynamic lift.
Examples:
Airplane wings
Spinning ball in air
Dynamic lift on airplane wings:
Consider an aeroplane whose body is streamline. Below the wings of the aeroplane there is air
which exerts an upward force on the wings. As a result aeroplane experiences dynamic lift.
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Magnus Effect
Dynamic lift by virtue of spinning is known as Magnus effect.
Magnus effect is a special name given to dynamic lift by virtue of spinning.
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Example: Spinning of a ball.
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Case1: When the ball is not spinning.
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The ball moves in the air it does not spin, the velocity of the ball above and below the ball is
same.
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As a result, there is no pressure difference. (ΔP= 0).
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Therefore, there is no dynamic lift. hs
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Case2: When the ball is moving in the air as well as spinning.

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When the ball spins it drags the air above it therefore the velocity above the ball is more as
compared to the velocity below the ball.
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As a result there is a pressure difference; the pressure is more below the ball.
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Because of pressure difference there is an upward force which is the dynamic lift.
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Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that resists the force tending to cause the fluid to flow.
It is analogous to friction in solids.
Example:
Consider 2 glasses one filled with water and the other filled with honey.
Water will flow down the glass very rapidly whereas honey won’t. This is because honey is more
viscous than water.
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Therefore in order to make honey flow we need to apply greater amount of force. Because
honey has the property to resist the motion.
Viscosity comes into play when there is relative motion between the layers of the fluid. The
different layers are not moving at the same pace.
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Coefficient of Viscosity
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Coefficient of viscosity is the measure of degree to which a fluid resists flow under an applied
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force.
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This means how much resistance does a fluid have to its motion.
Ratio of shearing stress to the strain rate.
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It is denoted by ‘η’.
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Mathematically
Δt=time, displacement = Δx
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Therefore,
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𝛥𝑥
shearing stress = where l = length
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𝑙
𝛥𝑥
Strain rate =
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𝑙𝛥𝑡
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𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜂 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
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𝐹
(𝐴) 𝐹𝑙 𝛥𝑥
= 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 =𝑣
𝛥𝑥 𝑣𝐴 𝑡
( )
𝑙𝛥𝑡
𝐹𝑙
Therefore 𝜂 =
𝑣𝐴
𝑃𝐼
𝑃𝑎
I. Unit: Poiseiulle
𝑁𝑠𝑚−2
Dimensional Formula: [ML-1T-1]
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(a) A layer of liquid sandwiched between two parallel glass plates in which the lower plate is
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fixed and the upper one is moving to the right with velocity v
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Velocity distribution for viscous flow in a pipe.

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Stokes Law
The force that retards a sphere moving through a viscous fluid is directly ∝to the velocity and
the radius of the sphere, and the viscosity of the fluid.
Mathematically: F =6πηrv where
Let retarding force F∝v where v =velocity of the sphere
F ∝ r where r=radius of the sphere
F∝η where η=coefficient of viscosity
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6π=constant
Stokes law is applicable only to laminar flow of liquids. It is not applicable to turbulent law.
Example: Falling raindrops
Consider a single rain drop, when raindrop is falling it is passing through air.
The air has some viscosity; there will be some force which will try to stop the motion of the rain
drop.
Initially the rain drop accelerates but after some time it falls with constant velocity.
As the velocity increases the retarding force also increases.
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There will be viscous force Fv and bind force Fb acting in the upward direction. There will also be
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Gravitational force acting downwards.
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After some time Fg = Fr (Fv + Fb)
Net Force is 0. If force is 0 as a result acceleration also becomes 0.
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Terminal Velocity
Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity of a body moving through a viscous fluid.
It is attained when force of resistance of the medium is equal and opposite to the force of
gravity.
As the velocity is increasing the retarding force will also increase and a stage will come when the
force of gravity becomes equal to resistance force.
After that point velocity won’t increase and this velocity is known as terminal velocity.
It is denoted by ‘vt’. Wheret = terminal.
Mathematically:
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Terminal velocity is attained when Force of resistance = force due to gravitational attraction.
6πηrv =mg
6πηrv = densityxVg (Because density=m/V), density=ρ – σ where ρ and σ are the densities of the
sphere and the viscous medium resp.
6πηrv = (ρ – σ)x4/3πr3g where Volume of the sphere(V) =4/3πr3
By simplifying
= (ρ – σ)gx4/3r2x1/(6η)
vt =2r2(ρ – σ)g/9 η .This is the terminal velocity. Where(v=vt)
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Reynolds Number
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Reynolds number is a dimensionless number, whose value gives an idea whether the flow would
be turbulent or laminar.
Types of flow are classified as 2 types: laminar flow and turbulent flow.
Reynolds number helps us to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.
It is denoted by Re. where ‘e’ shows Reynolds.
Expression: Re=ρvd/ η;
where ρ = density of the fluid,
v=velocity of the fluid,
d=diameter of the pipe through which the fluid flows
(24)
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η=viscosity of the fluid.

Liquid Surfaces
Certain properties of free surfaces:
Whenever liquids are poured in any container they take the shape of that container in which
they are poured and they acquire a free surface.
Consider a case if we pour water inside the glass it takes the shape of the glass with a free
surface at the top.
Top surface of the glass is a free surface. Water is not in contact with anything else, it is in
contact with the air only.
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This is known as free surfaces.
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Liquids have free surfaces. As liquids don’t have fixed shape they have only fixed volume.
Free surfaces have additional energy as compared to inner surfaces of the liquid.
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Surface Energy
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Surface energy is the excess energy exhibited by the liquid molecules on the surface compared
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to those inside the liquid.

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This means liquid molecules at the surface have greater energy as compared to molecules inside
it.
Suppose there is a tumbler and when we pour water in the tumbler,it takes the shape of the
tumbler.
It acquires free surface.
Case 1: When molecules are inside the liquid:
Suppose there is a molecule inside the water, there will be several other molecules that will
attract that molecule in all the directions.
As a result this attraction will bind all the molecules together.
This results in negative potential energy of the molecule as it binds the molecule.
(25)
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To separate this molecule huge amount of energy is required to overcome potential energy.
Some external energy is required to move this molecule and it should be greater than the
potential energy.
Therefore in order to separate this molecule a huge amount of energy is required.
Therefore a large amount of energy is required by the molecules which are inside the liquid.
Case2: When the molecules are at the surface:
When the molecule is at the surface, half of it will be inside and half of it is exposed to the
atmosphere.
For the lower half of the molecule it will be attracted by the other molecules inside the liquid.
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But the upper half is free. The negative potential energy is only because of lower half.
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But the magnitude is half as compared to the potential energy of the molecule which is fully
inside the liquid.
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So the molecule has some excess energy, because of this additional energy which the molecules
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have at the surface different phenomenon happen like surface energy, surface tension.
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Liquids always tend to have least surface are when left to itself.
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As more surface area will require more energy as a result liquids tend to have least surface area.
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Surface energy for two fluids in contact

Whenever there are two fluids, in contact, surface energy depends on materials of the surfaces
in contact.
Surface energy decreases if the molecules of the two fluids attract.
Surface energy increases if molecules of the two fluids repel.
(26)
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Surface Tension
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface which arises due to the fact that surface
molecules have extra energy.
Surface energy is the extra energy which the molecules at the surface have.
Surface tension is the property of the liquid surface because the molecules have extra energy.
Surface energy is defined as surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
Denoted by ’S’.
Mathematically:
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Consider a case in which liquid is enclosed in a movable bar.
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Slide the bar slightly and it moves some distance (‘d’).
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There will be increase in the area, (dl) where l=length of the bar.
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Liquids have two surfaces one on the bar and other above the bar. Therefore area=2(dl)
a
Work done for this change = F x displacement.
Surface tension(S)=Surface Energy/area
hs
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Or Surface Energy=S x area
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=Sx2dl
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Therefore S x 2dl =F x d
S = F/2d
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Surface tension is the surface energy per unit area of the liquid surface.
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It can be also defined as Force per unit length on the liquid surface.
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Important: -At any interface (it is a line which separates two different medium) the surface
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tension always acts in equal and opposite direction and it is always perpendicular to the line at
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the interface.
Schematic picture of molecules in a liquid, at the surface and balance of forces

(a) Molecule inside a liquid. Forces on a molecule due to others are shown. Direction of arrows
indicates attraction of repulsion. (b) Same, for a molecule at a surface. (c) Balance of attractive
(A) and repulsive (R) forces.
Surface tension and Surface energy: practical applications
(27)
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Consider a molecule which is present completely inside the liquid and if it is strongly attracted
by the neighbouring molecules then the surface energy is less.
Consider a molecule which is present partially inside the liquid the force of attraction by the
neighbouring molecules is lesser as a result surface energy is more.
Consider a molecule whose very little part is inside the water so very small force of attraction by
the neighbouring molecules as a result more surface energy.
Conclusion: A fluid will stick to a solid surface if the surface energy between fluid and solid is
smaller than the sum of energies between solid-air and fluid-air.
This means Ssf( solid fluid) < Sfa(fluid air) + Ssa(Solid air)
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Stretching a film (a) A film in equilibrium;(b) The film stretched an extra distance.
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How detergents work

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Washing alone with the water can remove some of the dirt but it does not remove the grease
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stains. This is because water does not wet greasy dirt.

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We need detergent which mixes water with dirt to remove it from the clothes.
Detergent molecules look like hairpin shape. When we add detergents to the water one end
stick to water and the other end sticks to the dirt.
As a result dirt is getting attracted to the detergent molecules and they get detached from the
clothes and they are suspended in the water.
Detergent molecules get attracted to water and when water is removed the dirt also gets
removed from the clothes.
(28)
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)
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Detergent action in terms of what detergent molecules do.
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In image (1) Soap molecules with head attracted to water
a
In image (2) greasy dirt
hs
In image (3) water is added but dirt does not get removed
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In image (4) when detergent is added, other end of the molecules get attracted to the boundary
where water meets dirt.
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In image (5) Dirt gets surrounded by inert end and dirt from the clothes can be removed by
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moving water.
In image (6) dirt is held suspended, surrounded by soap molecule,
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Angle of Contact
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Angle of contact is the angle at which a liquid interface meets a solid surface.
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It is denoted by θ.
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It is different at interfaces of different pairs of liquids and solids.

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For example: - Droplet of water on louts leaf. The droplet of water(Liquid) is in contact with the
solid surface which is leaf.
This liquid surface makes some angle with the solid surface. This angle is known as angle of
contact.
(29)
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Water form a spherical shape on lotus leaf
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Water spilt on the table.
Significance of Angle of Contact
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Angle of contact determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid or it will form
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droplets on it.
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If the Angle of contact is obtuse: then droplet will be formed.

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If the Angle of contact is acute: then the water will spread.

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Case1: When droplet is formed

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Consider we have a solid surface, droplet of water which is liquid and air.
The solid liquid interface denoted by Ssl, solid air interface denoted by Ssa and liquid air interface
denoted by Sla.
The angle which Ssl makes with Sla. It is greater than the 900.
Therefore droplet is formed.
(30)
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Case 2: When water just spreads

The angle which liquid forms with solid surface is less than 900.
Drops and Bubbles
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Why water and bubbles are drops
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• Whenever liquid is left to itself it tends to acquire the least possible surface area so that it has
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least surface energy so it has most stability.
• Therefore for more stability they acquire the shape of sphere, as sphere has least possible
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area.
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Spherical Shape
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Distinction between Drop, Cavity and Bubble

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Drop: Drop is a spherical structure filled with water.

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There is only one interface in the drop.

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The interface separates water and air.

Example: Water droplet.
Water droplets
Cavity: -Cavity is a spherical shape filled with air.
(31)
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In the surroundings there is water and in middle there is cavity filled with air.
There is only one interface which separates air and water.
Example: - bubble inside the aquarium.
Bubble: - In a bubble there are two interfaces. One is air water and another is water and air.
)
Inside a bubble there is air and there is air outside.
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But it consists of thin film of water.
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Capillary Rise
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In Latin the word capilla means hair.

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Due to the pressure difference across a curved liquid-air interface the water rises up in a narrow
tube in spite of gravity.
Consider a vertical capillary tube of circular cross section (radius a) inserted into an open vessel
of water.
The contact angle between water and glass is acute. Thus the surface of water in the capillary is
concave. As a result there is a pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface. This
is given by
Thus the pressure of the water inside thetube, just at the meniscus (air-water interface)is less
than the atmospheric pressure.
(32)
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Consider the two points A and B. They must be at the same pressure,
Therefore the capillary rise is due to surface tension. It is larger, for a smaller radius.
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Capillary rise, (a) Schematic picture of a narrow tube immersed water. (b) Enlarged picture near
interface.
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Top Formulae hs
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(36)
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Important Questions
1. Plants get water through the roots because of
(a) Capillarity
(b) Viscosity
(c) Gravity
(d) Elasticity
2. Water rises up to a height h1 in a capillary tube of radius r. the mass of the water
)
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lifted in the capillary tube is M. if the radius of the capillary tube is doubled, the mass
of water that will rise in the capillary tube will be
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(a) M
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(b) 2M
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(c) M/2
(d) 4M
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3. A number of small drops of mercury coalesce adiabatically to form a single drop.
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The temperature of drop

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(a) Increases
(b) Is infinite
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(c) Remains unchanged

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(d) May decrease or increase depending upon size

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4. When a soap bubble is charged

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(a) It contracts
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(b) It expands
(c) It does not undergo any change in size
(d) None of these
5. A liquid is kept in a glass vessel. If the liquid solid adhesive force between the
liquid and the vessel is very weak as compared to the cohesive force in the liquid,
then the shape of the liquid surface near the solid should be
(a) Concave
(b) Convex
(c) Horizontal
(d) Almost vertical
(37)
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6. A capillary tube is placed vertically in a liquid. If the cohesive force is less than the
adhesive force, then
(a) The meniscus will be convex upwards
(b) The liquid will wet the solid
(c) The angle of contact will be obtuse
(d) The liquid will drip in the capillary tube
7. When there are no external forces, the shape of a liquid drop is determined by
(a) Surface tension of the liquid
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(b) Density of liquid
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(c) Viscosity of liquid
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(d) Temperature of air only
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8. Water can rise up to a height of 12 cm in a capillary tube. If the tube is lowered to
keep only 9 cm above the water level then the water at the upper end of the
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capillary will hs
(a) Overflow
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(b) From a convex surface
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(c) From a flat surface

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(d) From a concave surface

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9. Rain drops are spherical in shape because of

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(a) Surface tension

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(b) Capillary
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(c) Downward motion

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(d) Acceleration due to gravity

10. When the angle of contact between a solid and a liquid is 90°, then
(a) Cohesive force > Adhesive force
(b) Cohesive force < Adhesive force
(c) Cohesive force = Adhesive force
(d) Cohesive force >> Adhesive force
Very Short:
1. State the law of floatation?
2. The blood pressure of humans is greater at the feet than at the brain?
3. Define surface tension?
(38)
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4. Define surface tension?

5. Oil is sprinkled on sea waves to calm them. Why?
6. Oil is sprinkled on sea waves to calm them. Why?
7. The diameter of ball A is half that of ball B. What will be their ratio of their
terminal velocities in water?
8. Define viscosity?
9. Give two areas where Bernoulli’s theorem is applied?
10.What is conserved in Bernoulli’s theorem?
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Short Questions:
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1. A glass bulb is balanced by an iron weight in an extremely sensitive beam balance
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covered by a bell jar. What shall happen when the bell jar is evacuated?
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2. It is easier to swim in seawater than in river water. Why?
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3. Does Archimedes’ Principle hold in a vessel in free fall or in a satellite moving in a
circular orbit? hs
4. A block of wood floats in a pan of water in an elevator. When the elevator starts
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from rest and accelerates downward, does the 1 block floats higher above the
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water surface? What happens when the elevator accelerates upward?

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5. The thrust on a human being due to atmospheric pressure is about 15 tons. How
human being can withstand such an enormous thrust while it is impossible for
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him to carry a load of even one ton?

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6. Why are sleepers used below the rails? Explain.

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7. The passengers are advised to remove the ink from their f pens while going up in
an airplane. Explain why?
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8. Why a sinking ship often turns over as it becomes immersed in water?

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9. Explain why a balloon filled with helium does not rise in the air indefinitely but
halts after a certain height?
10.A light ball can remain suspended in a vertical jet of water flow?
11.In the case of an emergency, a vacuum brake is used to stop the train. How does
this brake work?
12.Why dust generally settles down in a closed room?
13.How will the rise of a liquid be affected if the top of the capillary tube is closed?
14.What are buoyancy and the center of buoyancy?
15.Under what conditions:
(39)
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(a) Centre of buoyancy coincides with the center of gravity?

(b) The center of buoyancy does not coincide with the center of gravity?
Long Questions:
1. A copper cube of mass 0.50 kg is weighed in water (ρ = 103 kg m-3). The mass
comes out to be 0.40 kg. Is the cube hollow or solid? Given density of copper =
8.96 × 103 kg m-3.
2. A piece of pure gold (ρ = 9.3 g cm-3) is suspected to be hollow. It weighs 38.250 g
in air and 33.865 in water. Calculate the volume of the hollow portion in gold, if
)
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any.
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3. A glass plate of length 20 cm, breadth 4 cm, and thickness 0.4 cm weights 40 g in
air. If it is held vertically with the long side horizontal and the plate half breadth
immersed in water, what will be its apparent weight, the surface tension of water
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= 70 dyne cm-1.
a
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4. What is the work done in blowing a soap bubble of diameter 0.07 m?
5. If 3.6960 × 103 J of work is done to blow it further, find the new radius. Surface
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tension of soap solution is 0.04 Nm1.
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1. Directions:
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Assertion: It is easier to spray water in which some soap is dissolved.

Reason: Soap is easier to spread.
2. Directions:
Assertion: The angle of contact of a liquid decrease with increase in temperature.
Reason: With increase in temperature, the surface tension of liquid increase.
(40)
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✓ Answer Key:
1. Answer: (a) Capillarity
2. Answer: (b) 2M
3. Answer: (d) May decrease or increase depending upon size
4. Answer: (b) It expands
5. Answer: (b) Convex
6. Answer: (b) The liquid will wet the solid
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7. Answer: (a) Surface tension of the liquid
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8. Answer: (c) From a flat surface
9. Answer: (a) Surface tension
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10.Answer: (c) Cohesive force = Adhesive force
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Very Short Answers: hs
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1. Answer: Law of floatation states that a body will float in a liquid, if weight of the
liquid displaced by the immersed part of the body is at least equal to or greater
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than the weight of the body.

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2. Answer: The height of the blood column in the human body is more at the feet
than at the brain as since pressure is directly dependent on height of the column,
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so pressure is more at feet than at the brain.

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3. Answer: It is measured as the force acting on a unit length of a line imagined to

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be drawn tangentially anywhere on the free surface of the liquid at rest.

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4. Answer: Archimedes’s Principle will not hold in a vessel in free – fall as in this
case, acceleration due to gravity is zero and hence buoyant force will not exist.
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5. Answer: Since the surface tension of sea-water without oil is greater than the oily
water, therefore the water without oil pulls the oily water against the direction of
breeze, and sea waves calm down.
6. Answer: Since the cohesive forces between the oil molecules are less than the
adhesive force between the oil molecules and the drop of oil spreads out and
reverse holds for drop of water.
7. Answer: The terminal velocity is directly proportional to the square of radius of
the ball, therefore the ratio of terminal velocities will be 1:4.
8. Answer: Viscosity is the property of a fluid by virtue of which an internal frictional
force comes into play when the fluid is in motion and opposes the relative motion
of its different layers.
(41)
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9. Answer: Bernoulli’s theorem is applied in atomizer and in lift of an aero plane

wing.
10.Answer: According to Bernoulli’s theorem, for an incompressible non – Viscous
liquid (fluid) undergoing steady flow the total energy of liquid at all points is
constant.
1. Answer: The upthrust on the bulb is larger than the upthrust on the iron weight.
When the bell jar has evacuated the upthrust on both the bulb and the iron
weight become zero. Clearly, the bulb is affected more than the iron weight. Thus
)
the pan containing the bulb shall go down.
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2. Answer: Due to the presence of salt, the density of seawater is more than that of
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river water. Hence seawater offers more upthrust as compared to river water.
Therefore a lesser portion of our body is submerged in, seawater as compared to
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river water. Hence it is easier to swim in sea-water than in river water.
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3. Answer: A vessel in free fall or in a satellite moving in a circular orbit is in the
hs
state of weightlessness. It means the value of ‘g’ is zero. Thus the weight of the
vessel and upthrust will be zero. Hence Archimedes’ Principle does not hold good.
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4. Answer: When the elevator accelerates downward, the weight of the block of
lp
wood decreases. Hence it will float higher above the water’s surface.
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5. Answer: There is a large number of pores and openings on the skin of a body.
Through these openings, air goes within the system and there is free
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communication between the inside and the outside. The presence of; the air
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inside the body counterbalances the pressure outside.

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6. Answer: When sleepers are placed below the rails, the area of the cross- p section
F
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is increased. We know that P = , so when the train runs on the rails, the
A
pressure exerted on the ground due to the weight of the train is small because of
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a large area of cross-section of the sleeper. Hence the ground will not yield under
the weight of the train.
7. Answer: With the increase in height, the atmospheric pressure decreases. The ink
in the pen is filled at the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the earth. So as
the plane rises up, the pressure decreases \ and the ink will flow out of the pen
from higher pressure to the low ‘pressure region. This will spoil the clothes of
passengers.
8. Answer: When the ship is floating, the metacenter of the ship is above the center
of gravity. While sinking the ship takes in water and as a result, the center of
gravity is raised above the metacenter. The ship turns over due to the couple
formed by the weight and the buoyant force.
(42)
10
9. Answer: The balloon initially rises in the air because the weight of the displaced
air i.e> upthrust is greater than the weight of the helium and the balloon. Since
the density of air decreases with height, therefore, the balloon halts at a
particular height where the density of air is such that the weight of air displaced
is just equal to the weight of helium gas and the balloon. Hence the net force
acting on the balloon is zero and the balloon stops rising.
10.Answer: The region where the ball and the vertical jet of water are in contact is a
region of low pressure because of higher velocity. The pressure on the other side
of the ball is larger. Due, to the pressure difference, the ball remains suspended.
11.Answer: Steam at high pressure is made to enter the cylinder of the vacuum
)
brake. Due to high velocity, pressure decreases in accordance with Bernoulli’s
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principle. Due to this decrease in pressure, the piston gets lifted. Hence the brake
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gets lifted.
12.Answer: Dust particles may be regarded as tiny spheres. They acquire terminal
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velocity after having fallen through some distance in the air. Since the terminal
a
velocity varies directly as the square of the radius therefore the terminal velocity
hs
of dust particles is very small. So they settle down gradually.
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13.Answer: The air trapped between the meniscus of the liquid and the closed end
of the tube will be compressed. The compressed air shall oppose the rise of liquid
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in the tube.
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14.Answer: 1. The upward thrust acting on the body immersed in a liquid is called
buoyancy or buoyant force.
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2. The center of buoyancy is the center of gravity of the displaced liquid by the
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body when immersed in a liquid.

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15.Answer: (a) For a solid body of uniform density, the center of gravity coincides
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with the center of buoyancy.

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(b) For a solid body having different densities over different parts, its center of
gravity does not coincide with the center of buoyancy.
1. Answer: Let V be the volume of the cube, then according to Archimedes’
principle,
Loss of weight in water = weight of water displaced …. (i)
Here, mass in air, ma = 0.5 kg
mass in water, mw = 0.4 kg …. (ii)
ρ of water = 103 kg m3.
∴ From (i) and (ii), we get
(43)
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which is less than the density of copper (8.96 × 103 kg m-3). So the cube must be
hollow.
2. Answer: Density of pure gold, ρ = 9.3 g cm3,
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mass of gold piece, M = 3 8.250 g
m
𝑀 38.250
∴ volume of the gold piece, V = =
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𝑃 9.3
= 4.113 cm3
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Also mass of gold piece in water
a
m’ = 33.865 g hs
∴ apparent loss in mass of the gold piece in water = (M – m’)
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= (38.250 – 33.865)g
lp
= 4.3.85 g
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ρwater = 1 g Cm-3
𝑚 4.385
𝑐𝑚−3
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∴ volume of displaced water = =

𝜌 1
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= 4.385 cm-3
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∴ volume of the hollow portion in the gold piece

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= 4.385 – 4.113
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= 0.272 cm-3.
3. Answer: Here, l = 20 m, b = 4 cm , t = 0.4 cm, T = 70 dyne cm-1
Following three forces are acting on the plate:
1. Weight of the plate, W = 40 grand actings vertically downward.
2. Force due to surface tension acting vertically downward.
If F be the force due to surface tension, then
(44)
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(iii) Upthrust, U = Vρg
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hs
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∴ Net weight = W + F – U
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= 40 + 2.9143 – 16
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= 26.9143 gf
4. Answer: Here, initial radius of soap bubble, r1 = 0
Final radius of soap bubble, r2 = 0.035 m (∵ D2 = 0.07m)
Increase in surface area of soap bubble
surface tension of soap solution = T = 0.04 Nm-1

∴ work done to blow soap bubble = increase in area × T
(45)
10
= 0.0308 × 0.04
= 1.232 × 10-3
5. Answer: Let r be the new radius =?
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Assertion Rason Answer:
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1. (c) If assertion is true but reason is false.
a
Explanation:
hs
When a liquid is sprayed, the surface area of the liquid increases. Therefore, work
has to be done in spraying the liquid, which is directly proportional to the surface
at
tension.
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Because on adding soap, surface tension of water decreases, the spraying of

water becomes easy.
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2. (c) If assertion is true but reason is false.

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Explanation:
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With increase in temperature surface tension of the liquid decreases and angle of
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contact also decreases.

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1. Surface Tension
The property due to which the free surface of liquid tends to have the minimum surface area
and behaves like a stretched membrane is called surface tension. It is a force per unit length
acting in the plane of interface between the liquid and the bounding surface i.e., S = F/L, where
F = force acting on either side of an imaginary line on the surface and L = length of the
imaginary line. Surface tension decreases with rise in temperature. Highly soluble impurities
increase surface tension and sparingly soluble impurities decrease surface tension.
i. The excess pressure inside a soap bubble is three times than excess pressure inside a
second soap bubble, then the ratio of their surface area is
a. 9 : 1
b. 1 : 3
c. 1 : 9
(46)
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d. 3 : 1
ii. Which of the following statements is not true about surface tension?
a. A small liquid drop takes spherical shape due to surface tension.
b. Surface tension is a vector quantity.
c. Surface tension of liquid is a molecular phenomenon.
d. Surface tension of liquid depends on length but not on the area.

iii. Which of the following statement is not true about angle of contact?
a. The value of angle of contact for pure water and glass is zero.
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b. Angle of contact increases with increase in temperature of liquid.
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c. If the angle of contact of a liquid and a solid surface is less than 90°, then the liquid
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spreads on the surface of solid.
d. Angle of contact depend upon the inclination of the solid surface to the liquid surface.
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iv. Which of the following statements is correct?
a
a. Viscosity is a vector quantity. hs
b. Surface tension is a vector quantity.
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c. Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity.
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d. Angle of contact is a vector quantity

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v. A liquid does not wet the solid surface if the angle of contact is
a. 0°
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b. equal to 45°
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c. equal to 90°
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d. greater than 90°

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2. A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or transfer of heat occurs between the

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system and its surroundings. When different parts of an isolated system are at
different temperature a quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher
temperature to the part at lower temperature. The heat lost by the part at higher
temperature is equal to the heat gained by the part at lower temperature.
Calorimetry means measurement of heat. When a body at higher temperature is
brought in contact with another body at lower temperature, the heat lost by the hot
body is equal to the heat gained by the colder body, provided no heat is allowed to
escape to the surroundings. A device in which heat measurement can be done is
called a calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and stirrer of the same material,
like copper or aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden jacket, which contains
heat insulating material. Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas.
A transition from one of these states to another is called a change of state. Two
common changes of states are solid to liquid and liquid to gas (and, vice versa).
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These changes can occur when the exchange of heat takes place between the
substance and its surroundings. The change of state from solid to liquid is called
melting and from liquid to solid is called fusion. It is observed that the temperature
remains constant until the entire amount of the solid substance melts. That is, both
the solid and the liquid states of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium during
the change of states from solid to liquid. The temperature at which the solid and the
liquid states of the substance is in thermal equilibrium with each other is called its
melting point. The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called
vaporisation. It is observed that the temperature remains constant until the entire
amount of the liquid is converted into vapour. That is, both the liquid and vapour
states of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium, during the change of state
)
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from liquid to vapour. The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of
the substance coexist is called its boiling point. The change from solid state to
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vapour state without passing through the liquid state is called sublimation, and the
substance is said to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also iodine. During
la
sublimation both the solid and vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal
a
equilibrium.
i. Device used for measurement of heat is
hs
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a. Calorimeter
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b. Thermometer
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c. Both a and b
d. No one of these
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ii. The change of state from solid to liquid is called

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a. Melting
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b. Vaporization
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c. Sublimation
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d. None of these
iii. Define melting point and boiling point
iv. What is sublimation?
v. Define fusion process
Case Study Answer-

1. Answer
i. (c) 1 : 9
ii. (b) Surface tension is a vector quantity.
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iii. (d) Angle of contact depend upon the inclination of the solid surface to the liquid surface.
iv. (c) Reynolds number is a dimensionless quantity.
v. (d) greater than 90°
2. Answer
i. (a) Calorimeter
ii. (a) Melting
iii. The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting process and temperature
at which conversion of solid into liquid happens is called as melting point.
The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance
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coexist is called its boiling point.
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iv. The change from solid state directly into vapour state without passing through
the liquid state is called sublimation, and the substance is said to sublime.
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The change of state from liquid state to solid state is called as fusion process
a
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PHYSICS
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Chapter 11: Thermal Properties of Matter
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THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
11
Thermal Properties of Matter

Introduction
You might have noticed that you feel hotter on a sunny afternoon as compared to a windy
night. This is because of the difference in temperatures. Temperature is very high in the
afternoon as compared to night. This chapter basically gives us the
Examples: information about thermal properties of matter where we will study about the
properties of different substances by virtue of heat / heat transfer.
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In simple terms, we can say that when temperature is more heat is more and when
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temperature is less heat is less.
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Hot Sunny day (Temperature is more) and ice-cold water (Temperature is less).
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Thermal Properties of Matter

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Thermal properties are those properties of a material which is related to its conductivity of
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heat. In other words, these are the properties which are exhibited by a material when heat is
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passed through it. Thermal properties come under the broader topic of physical properties of
materials.
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Thermal properties of a material decide how it reacts when it is subjected to heat fluctuation
(excessive heat or very low heat, for example). The major components of thermal properties
are:
Heat capacity
Thermal Expansion
Thermal conductivity
Thermal stress
Heat Capacity
Heat capacity of a material can be defined as the amount of heat required to change the
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11
temperature of the material by one degree. The amount of heat is generally expressed in joules
or calories and the temperature in Celsius or Kelvin. In order to calculate the heat capacity of
materials with a given dimension, Molar heat capacity or Specific heat capacity is used.
Heat capacity can be measured by the following formula:
is the amount of heat transferred, is the change in temperature.
Heat Transfer: Thermal Conductivity
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Heat Transfer
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Heat is a very curious form of energy. It helps us stay warm, prepare hot and tasty food but its
applications far exceed the domestic uses mentioned here. Understanding the properties of
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heat and heat transfer is the key to many fields of science. Thermodynamics is a massive field
that deals only with the flow of heat through a system that is heat transfer through a system.
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Even nuclear energy uses the heat developed by the atom to create electricity. So it is clear that
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heat is quite important to us. That makes it imperative for us to take a closer look at heat.
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Heat transfer can occur only through three means:
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Conduction
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Convection
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Radiation
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Heat Transfer: Conduction

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Heat Conduction refers to the transfer of heat between bodies due to physical contact between
them. The transfer of heat by conduction actually occurs at a molecular level. Absorption of
heat by a body causes the molecules of that body to gain excess energy. What do you do when
you’re too energetic? You get very jittery and shaky, don’t you? You just want to move around
(3)
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to expend this energy. That is exactly what molecules do too.
In the process of gaining energy and vibrating excessively, they bump into their neighbours and
transfer a little of its extra energy to them. This extra energy appears in the neighbouring
molecules and heats them up too. This is how heat is transferred as long as heat is still being
supplied.
Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity
The rate of thermal conductivity depends on four basic factors:
Temperature Gradient: This is a physical quantity that illustrates to us in which direction and at
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what rate the temperature changes the most rapidly around a particular location. It basically
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tells us about the temperature difference between places and the direction of the transfer due
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to it. It is important to remember that heat always flows from the hottest to the coldest spot.
This flow will continue till the temperature difference disappears and a state of thermal
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equilibrium is reached.
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Cross-section and path length are dependent on the physical dimensions of the body. If the size
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of the body is large, then the heat required to heat it is also larger. With large bodies, we also
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have to consider the heat loss to the environment. Also, a greater surface area between the hot
and the cold body implies a greater rate of heat transfer.
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The physical properties of the body play an immense role in thermal conductivity through the
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body. Not all bodies are blessed with the same thermal behaviour. We measure the rate of
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transfer of heat through the material using a parameter called the Thermal Conductivity of the
material (K). The more the value of K, the more easily and quickly it can conduct heat. The SI
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Unit of K is JS-1m-1K-1. The thermal conductivity of a material is measured on a scale. This scale
w
has two extremes; on the end of high thermal conductivity we have Silver with a perfect score
of a 100 in heat conduction. On the other end of the scale, we have a vacuum, which is absent
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of molecules and hence is incapable of conducting heat. Everything else is ranked between this,
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for example, Copper (92), iron (11), water (0.1), Air (0.006), and Wood (0.03). Materials that are
poor conductors of heat are called insulators.
Thermal Expansion
When heat is passed through a material, its shape changes. Generally, a material expands when
heated. This property of a material is called Thermal Expansion. There can be a change in the
area, volume and shape of the material. For example, railway tracks often expand and as a
result, get misshapen due to extreme heat.
Thermal conductivity
It is the property of a material to conduct heat through itself. Materials with high thermal
conductivity will conduct more heat than the ones with low conductivity. Some materials do
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not conduct heat at all because of the insulating properties of materials.
Thermal stress
The stress experienced by a body due to either thermal expansion or contraction is called
thermal stress. It can be potentially destructive in nature as it can make the material explode.
Measurement of Temperature
Temperature is measured with the help of thermometer. Mercury and Alcohol are commonly
used liquids in the liquid-in-glass thermometers.
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To construct a thermometer two fixed points are to be chosen as a reference points. These
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fixed points are known as freezing (ice point) and boiling point (steam point). The water freezes
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and boils at these two points under standard pressure.
The ice and steam point in Fahrenheit Temperature scale are 32°F and 212 °F resp. It has 180
la
equal intervals between two reference points.
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On Celsius Scale values are 0°C and 100°C for ice and steam point resp. It has 100 equal
intervals between two reference points.
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Mercury-in-Thermometer
Graphically the relation between the temperature in Celsius and in Fahrenheit is given by the
following graph:
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And whose equation is:
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𝑡𝑓 − 32 𝑡𝑐
=
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180 100
Where tf = Fahrenheit temperature
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tc = Celsius temperature
Ideal-gas Equation and Absolute Temperature

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A thermometer that uses any gas, however, gives the same readings regardless of which gas is
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used because all gases have same expansion at low temperature.

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Variables that describe the behaviour of gas are:

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Quantity(mass)
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Pressure
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Volume
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Temperature i.e. (P,V,T) where (T = t + 273.15; t is the temperature in °C)
Gases which have low density obey certain laws:
1.Boyle’s Law– PV = constant (when temperature T is constant)
2.Charles’ Law- V/T = constant (when pressure P is constant)
If combine both the above laws the equation becomes PV = RT where R is called universal gas
constant and its value = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1.
PV = RT is the ideal gas equation which is applicable only at low temperature.
For any quantity of dilute gas,
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PV = μRT where μ, is the number of moles in the sample of gas.
In a constant volume gas thermometer temperature varies with respect to pressure.

Temperature changes linearly with increase in pressure.
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Absolute Zero
a
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Absolute Zero is defined as minimum absolute temperature of an ideal gas.
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If we plot pressure versus temperature, we get a straight line and if we extend the line
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backwards to the x-axis as shown in the graph below. The minimum temperature is found to be
273.15 °C (experimentally) and this value is known as absolute zero.
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The relation between the temperature in kelvin and in Celsius scale is given by
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T = tC + 273.15
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Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion is the phenomenon of increase in dimensions of a body due to increase in

its temperature.
Examples of Thermal Expansion
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The water is cold at the top of the lake because it expands and becomes less dense. So when
this water freezes it insulates the water below it from the outside which means cold air is like a
blanket. It is because of this property many fish can survive in the winter.
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(1)
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Even though the top layer of water is frozen as we can see in the image (1), the plant and
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animal life is not getting affected as shown in the image (2).

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As soon as we turn on a hot water tap, the water comes very fast as water is still cold. But as
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soon as hot water starts coming , the flow of water becomes less and in some cases it stops.
This is because the hot water heats the metal valve inside the tap which expands to block off
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any more flow of water.

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(8)
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Reason why Thermal Expansion happens is:
When any object is heated particles start moving in random motion and thus average distance
between the molecules increases and a result the object appears to be expanded when heated.
As we can see the picture below atoms is tightly packed but when we apply heat they will start
moving in random motion.
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a la
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As we can see in the Image (a) molecules are very tightly packed but when heated the
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molecules start moving apart in random motion, which can be seen in Image (b).
When an object is cooled it contracts which is referred as negative thermal expansion.

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Types of Thermal Expansion

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Linear Expansion: The expansion in length

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Area Expansion: The expansion in area

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Volume Expansion: The expansion in volume
Linear Expansion
Linear Expansion means expansion in length due to increase in temperature. Linear expansion
means fractional change in length i.e. how the length is changing with respect to original
length.
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As we can see from above images the length has been increased from
l to l + Δl.
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Coefficient of Linear Expansion is a parameter which tells us how the size of the object changes
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with change in temperature. It is defined as degree of linear expansion divided by the change in
temperature.
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If the solid is in the form of long rod, then for small change in temperature, ΔT, the fractional
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change in length, Δl/l, is directly proportional to ΔT.

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Mathematically can be written as:

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Where αl = the coefficient of linear expansion

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It is denoted by αl
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It is characteristic of the material of the rod. It varies for different substance.
Example
Automatic hot water kettle switches off on its own when the water boils.
Metals expand more and have higher value of coefficient of linear expansion.
Relation between αv and αl
Relation between coefficient of linear expansion and coefficient of volume expansion =
(10)
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To derive the above relation consider a block of cube initially its length is l ,suppose
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temperature is increased T + ΔT as a result length will also increase from (l+Δl)
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𝛥𝑙
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𝑙
Then 𝛼𝑙 =
𝛥𝑇
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Therefore, αllΔT = Δl
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Also as the temperature increases by ΔT the volume also increases V + ΔV
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Where ΔV = change in volume which we can write as
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ΔV = (l + Δl)3 - l3
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By solving we get ΔV = 3l2Δl (we are neglecting (Δl)2 and (Δl)3 as they are very small as to
compared to l.
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(3𝑉 𝛥𝑙)
Therefore, 𝛥𝑉 =
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𝑙
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= 3VαlΔT
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Which gives αv = 3αl the relation between coefficient of volume expansion and coefficient of
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linear expansion.
Heat Capacity
The change in temperature of a substance, when a given quantity of heat is absorbed or

rejected by substance is characterised by a quantity called the heat capacity of that substance.
It is denoted by S.
It is given as S = ΔQ/ ΔT
Where ΔQ = amount of heat supplied to the substance and T to T + ΔT change in its

temperature.
Specific heat capacity:

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Every substance has a unique value for the amount of heat absorbed or rejected to change the
temperature of unit mass of it by one unit. This quantity is referred to as the specific heat
capacity of the substance.
Where ΔQ = amount of heat absorbed or rejected by a substance
ΔT = temperature change
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Specific Heat Capacity
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Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat per unit mass absorbed or rejected by the
substance to change its temperature by one.
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Where
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ΔQ = amount of heat absorbed or rejected by a substance

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m = mass
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It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature.

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The SI unit of specific heat capacity is J kg-1 K-1.
Molar specific heat capacity:
Heat capacity per mole of the substance is the defined as the amount of heat (in moles)
absorbed or rejected (instead of mass m in kg) by the substance to change its temperature by
one unit.

𝑆 𝛥𝑄
𝐶 = = 𝛥𝑇
𝜇 𝜇
Where,
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μ= amount of substance in moles
C = molar specific heat capacity of the substance.
ΔQ = amount of heat absorbed or rejected by a substance.
It depends on the nature of the substance and its temperature. The SI unit of molar specific
heat capacity is Jmol-1 K-1
Calorimetry
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Calorimetry is made up of 2 words:
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Calorie which means heat and metry means measurement. Therefore Calorimetry means
measurement of heat.
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Calorimetry is defined as heat transfers from a body at a higher temperature to a body at a
a
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lower temperature provided there is no loss of heat to the atmosphere.
Principle of Calorimetry is heat lost by one body is equal to the heat gained by another body.
at
lp
The Device which measures Calorimetry is known as Calorimeter.

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Description of Calorimeter
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A calorimeter consists of metallic vessel and a stirrer both are made of same material (copper
or aluminum) and the vessel is kept in a wooden jacket so that there is no heat loss .A mercury
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thermometer can be inserted through a small opening in the outer jacket.

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Change of State
The transition from either solid to liquid or gas and gas to either liquid or solid is termed as
change of state.
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We can from the above image solid (ice) changes to liquid (water) and liquid changes to vapour
)
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(gas).
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Change from solid (ice) to liquid (water) is known as Melting.
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Change from liquid (water) to solid (ice) is known as Fusion.
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hs
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Thermal Equilibrium: At this state there is no loss or gain of heat takes place.
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The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance are in thermal
equilibrium with each other is called its melting point.
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It is depends on the
substance
Pressure.
(14)
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The melting point of a substance at standard atmospheric pressure is called its normal melting
point.
Regelation:
Regelation can be defined as phenomenon in which the freezing point of water is lowered by
the application of pressure.
Example:
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Cause of regelation:
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If we have a block of ice and a copper wire pulled by two masses if we will observe that copper
wire can pass through ice block this is because copper is good conductor of heat so as it passes
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through the ice it gets refreeze as the copper will generate heat and this heat will pass quickly
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to the ice below and it starts melting because there is increase in pressure which lowers
temperature as a result the wire will move through the ice. This happens because of regelation.
(15)
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The image above explains how a copper wire can pass through the block of ice.
Vaporisation: Transition from liquid to vapour.
The change of state from liquid to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation.
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The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance coexist is called its
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boiling point.
a
hs
Boiling point at standard atmospheric pressure is known as normal boiling point.
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It depends on nature of substance & pressure
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It increases with increase in pressure and vice versa.

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Example: As altitude increases, the density of the air becomes thinner, and thus exerts less
pressure. At high altitudes, external pressure on water is therefore decreased and will hence
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take less energy to break the water. If less energy is required it means less heat and less
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temperature which means that water will boil at a lower temperature.

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Sublimation: Transition from Solid to Vapour.

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During the sublimation (solid changes to vapour without going through liquid state) process
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both the solid and vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal equilibrium.
Example:
Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes iodine.
Naphthalene balls sublimes to gaseous state.
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Top Formulae
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laa
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Important Questions

Question 1. Two stars A and B radiate maximum energy at 3600°A and 3600°A
respectively. Then the ratio of absolute temperatures of A and B is
(a) 256 : 81
(b) 81 : 256
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(c) 3 : 4
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(d) 4 : 3
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Question 2. Which of the following will radiate heat to large extent?
(a) Rough surface
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(b) Polished surface
a
(c) Black rough surface hs
(d) Black polished surface
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Question 3. Two spheres made of same material have radii in the ratio 2 : 1. if both
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the spheres are at same temperature, then what is the ratio of heat radiation
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energy emitted per second by them?

(a) 1 : 4
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(b) 4 : 1
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(c) 3 : 4
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(d) 4 : 3
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Question 4. The earth intercepts approximately one billionth of the power radiated
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by the sun. if the surface temperature of the sun were to drop by a factor of 2, the
average radiant energy incident on earth per second would reduce by factor of
(a) 2
(b) 4
(c) 8
(d) 16
Question 5. A bucket full of hot water is kept in a room and it cools from 75°C to
70°C in t1 minutes from 70°C to 65°C in t2 minutes and from 65°C to 60°C in t3
minutes; then
(a) t1 – t2 = t3
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(b) t1 < t2 < t3

(c) t1 > t2 > t3
(d) t1 < t2 > t3
Question 6. A sphere, a cube and a thin circular plate, all made of the same material
and having the same mass are initially heated to a temperature of 3000°K, which of
these will cool fastest?
(a) Sphere
(b) Cube
(c) Plate
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(d) None
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Question 7.A perfectly black body emits radiation at temperature T1K. if it sis to
radiate 16 times this power, its temperature T². will be
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(a) T² = 16 T1
a
(b) T² = 8 T1 hs
(c) T1 = 4 T1
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(d) T² = 2 T1
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Question 8. Unit of Stefans constant is given by

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(a) W/ m K²
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(b) W/ m² K²
(c) W²/ m² K4
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(d) W/ mK
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Question 9. The good absorber of heat are

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(a) Non-emitter
(b) Poor-emitter
(c) Good-emitter
(d) Highly polished
Question 10.A black body is at a temperature of 500K. it emits energy at a rate
which is proportional to
(a) 500
(b) (500)2
(c) (500)3
(d) (500)4
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Very Short:
1. The fact that the triple point of a substance is unique is used in modern
thermometry. How?
2. Is it possible for a body to have a negative temperature on the Kelvin scale?
Why?
3. (a) Why telephone wires are often given snag?
(b) The temperature of a gas is increased by 8°C. What is the corresponding
change on the Kelvin scale?
4. There is a hole in a metal disc. What happens to the size of the hole if the
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metal disc is heated?
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5. Milk is poured into a cup of tea and is mixed with a spoon. Is this an example of
a reversible process? Why?
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6. The top of a lake is frozen. Air ¡n contact with it is at -15°C. What do you expect
a
the maximum temperature of water in contact with the lower surface ice?
hs
What do you expect the maximum temperature of water at the bottom of the
lake?
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7. How does the heat energy from the sun reaches Earth?
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8. Why does not the Earth become as hot as the Sun although it has been
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receiving heat from the Sun for ages?

9. Why felt rather than air is employed for thermal insulation?
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10.What are the three modes of transmission of heat energy from one point to
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another point?
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11.Why a thick glass tumbler cracks when boiling liquid is poured into it?
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12.What is the basic principle of a thermometer?

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13.Out of mass, radius and volume of a metal ball, which one suffers maximum
and minimum expansion on heating? Why?
14.The higher and lower fixed points on a thermometer are separated by 160 mm.
If the length of the mercury thread above the lower point is 40 mm, then what
is the temperature reading?
15.Two thermometers are constructed in the same way except that one has a
spherical bulb and the other an elongated cylindrical bulb. Which of the two
will respond quickly to temperature changes.
Short Questions:
1. Why gas thermometers are more sensitive than mercury thermometers?
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2. Why the brake drum of an automobile gets heated up when the automobile
moves down a hill at constant speed?
3. A solid is heated at a constant rate. The variation of temperature with heat
input is shown in the figure here:
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(а) What is represented by AB and CD?
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(b) What conclusion would you draw1 if CD = 2AB?
(c) What is represented by the slope of DE?
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(d) What conclusion would you draw from the fact that the slope of OA is
a
greater than the slope of BC? hs
4. Define:
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(a) Thermal conduction.
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(b) Coefficient of thermal conductivity of a material.

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5. On what factors does the amount of heat flowing from the hot face to the cold
face depend? How?
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6. State Newton’s law of cooling and define the cooling curve. What is its
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importance?
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7. Explain why heat is generated continuously in an electric heater but its

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temperature becomes constant after some time?

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8. A woollen blanket keeps our body warm. The same blanket if wrapped around
ice would keep ice cold. How do you explain this apparent paradox?
9. A liquid is generally heated from below. Why?
10.If a drop of waterfalls on a very hot iron, it does not evaporate fora long time.
Why?
11.On a hot day, a car is left in sunlight with all the windows closed. After some
time, it is found that the inside of the car is considerably warmer than the air
outside. Explain why?
12.It takes longer to boil water with a flame in a satellite in gravitational field-free
space, why? How it will be heated?
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13.Find γ for polyatomic gas and hence determine its value for a triatomic gas in
which the molecules are linearly arranged.
14.Food in a hot case remains warm for a long time during winter, how?
15.You might have seen beggars sleeping on footpaths or in open in winter with
their hands and knees pulled inside. Similarly dogs too curl while sleeping in
winter. How does such action help anybody?
Long Questions:
1. Calculate the increase in the temperature of the water which falls from a
height of 100 m. Assume that 90% of the energy due to fall is converted into
)
heat and is retained by water. J = 4.2 J cal-1.
m
2. A clock with a steel pendulum has a time period of 2s at 20°C. If the
.co
temperature of the clock rises to 30°C, what will be the gain or loss per day?
The coefficient of linear expansion of steel is 1.2 × 10-5 C-1
la
3. The thermal conductivity of brick is 1.7 W m-1 K-1 and that – of cement is 2.9 W
a
m-1 K-1. What thickness of cement will have the same insulation as the brick of
hs
thickness 20 cm.
at
4. Two metal cubes A and B of the same size are arranged as shown in the figure.
The extreme ends of the combination are maintained at the indicated
lp
temperatures. The arrangement is thermally insulated. The coefficient of

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thermal conductivity of A and B are 300 W/m°C and 200 W/m°C respectively.
After a steady-state is reached, what will be the temperature of the interface?
ig
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w
w
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5. The heat of combustion of ethane gas is 373 Kcal per mole. Assuming that 50%
of heat is lost, how many litres of ethane measured at STP must be burnt to
convert 50 kg of water at 10°G to steam at 100°C? One mole of gas occupies
22.4 litres at S.T.P. Latent heat (L) of steam = 2.25 × 106 JK-1.
(a) If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation
of the assertion.
(25)
11
(b) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation
of the assertion.
Assertion: Specific heat capacity is the cause of formation of land and sea breeze.
Reason: The specific heat of water is more than land.
)
m
of the assertion.
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of the assertion.
la
a
Assertion: A brass disc is just fitted in a hole in a steel plate. The system must be cooled
hs
to loosen the disc from the hole.
at
Reason: The coefficient of linear expansion for brass is greater than the coefficient of
linear expansion for steel.
lp
✓ Answer Key:
ita

ig
1. Answer: (d) 4 : 3
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2. Answer: (c) Black rough surface

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3. Answer: (b) 4 : 1
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4. Answer: (d) 16
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5. Answer: (b) t1 < t2 < t3

6. Answer: (c) Plate
7. Answer: (d) T² = 2 T1
8. Answer: (b) W/ m² K²
9. Answer: (c) Good-emitter
10.Answer: (d) (500)4
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: In modern thermometry, the triple point of water is a standard fixed point.
2. Answer: No. Because absolute zero of temperature is the minimum possible
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11
temperature on the Kelvin scale.

3. Answer: (a) It is done to allow for safe contraction in winter.
(b) 8 K.
4. Answer: The size of the hole increases on heating the metal disc.
5. Answer: No. When milk is poured into tea, some work is done which is not recoverable.
So the process is not reversible.
6. Answer: 0°C, 4°C.
7. Answer: It reaches by radiation.
)
8. Answer: Earth loses heat by convection and radiation.
m
9. Answer: In the air, loss of heat by convection is possible. But convection currents
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cannot be set up in felt.
10.Answer: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
la
11.Answer: Its inner and outer surfaces undergo uneven expansion due to the poor
a
conductivity of glass, hence it cracks.hs
12.Answer: The variation of some physical property of a substance with temperature
at
constitutes the basic principle of the thermometer.
lp
13.Answer: Volume and radius suffer maximum and minimum expansions respectively as
γ = 3α.
ita
100×40
14.Answer: The temperature reading = = 25.
ig
160
15.Answer: The thermometer with a cylindrical bulb will respond quickly as the area of the
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cylindrical bulb is greater than the area of the spherical bulb.

w

w
1. Answer: This is because the coefficient of expansion of a gas is very large as

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compared to the coefficient of expansion of mercury. For the same

temperature change, the gas would undergo a much larger change in volume
as compared to mercury.
2. Answer: Since the speed is constant so there is no change of kinetic energy. The loss in
gravitational potential energy is partially the gain in the heat energy of the brake drum.
3. Answer: (a) The portions AB and CD represent a change of state. This is because the
supplied heat is unable to change the temperature. While AB represents a change of
state from solid to liquid, the CD represents a change of state from liquid to vapour
state.
(b) It indicates that the latent heat of vaporisation is twice the latent heat of fusion.
(c) Slope of DE represents the reciprocal of the thermal or heat capacity of the
(27)
11
dT 1
substance in vapour state i.e. slope 0f DE = = (∴ dQ = mCΔT).
dQ mC
(d) Specific heat of the substance in the liquid state is greater than that in the solid-
1 1
state as the slope of OA is more than that of BC i.e. > where C1, C2 are
mC1 mC2
specific heats mC1 mC2 of the material in solid and liquid state respectively.
4. Answer: (a) It h defined as the process of the transfer of heat energy from one part of a
solid. to another part at a lower temperature without the actual motion of the
molecules. It is also called the conduction of heat.
(b) It is defined as the quantity of heat flowing per second across the opposite faces of
a unit cube made of that material when the opposite faces are maintained at a
)
m
temperature difference of 1K or 1°C.
.co
5. Answer: If Q is the amount of heat flowing from hot to the cold face, then it is found to
be:
la
1. directly proportional to the cross-sectional area (A) of the face
a
i.e. Q ∝ A …(1)
hs
2. directly proportional to the temperature difference between the two faces, i.e.
at
Q ∝ Δθ ….(2)
lp
3. directly proportional to the time t for which the heat flows i.e. Q ∝ t …. (3)
4. inversely proportional to the distance ‘d’ between the two faces.
ita
1
i.e. Q ∝ …(4)
ig
Δx
Combining factors (1) to (4), we get
.d
AΔθ
w
Q ∝ t
Δx
w
or
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Δθ
Q ∝ KA t
Δx
where K is the proportionality constant known as the coefficient – of thermal
conductivity.
6. Answer: Newton’s law of cooling: States that the rate of loss of heat per unit surface
area of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference between the body
and the surroundings provided the difference is not too large.
Cooling Curve: It is defined as a graph between the temperature of a body and the
time. It is as shown in the figure here.
The slope of the tangent to the curve at any point gives the rate of fall of temperature.
(28)
11
7. Answer: When the electric heater is switched on, a stage is quickly reached when the
rate at which heat is generated by an electric current becomes equal to the rate at
which heat is lost by conduction, convection and radiation and hence a thermal
equilibrium is established. Thus temperature becomes constant.
)
m
8. Answer: Wool is a bad conductor of heat. Moreover wool encloses air in it which is a
bad conductor. There can also be no loss of heat by convection. The woollen blanket
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keeps us warm by preventing the heat of the human body to flow outside and hence
our body remains warm.
la
9. Answer: When a liquid is heated, it becomes rarer due to a decrease in density and it
a
rises up. Liquid from the upper part of the vessel comes down to take its place and
hs
thus convection currents are formed. If the liquid is heated at the top, no such
at
convection currents will be formed and only the liquid in the upper part of the vessel
will become hot. However, the temperature in the lower part of the vessel will rise
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slightly due to a small amount of heat conducted by the hot liquid in the upper part of
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the vessel.
10.Answer: When a drop of waterfalls on a very hot iron, it gets insulated from the hot
ig
iron due to the formation of a thin layer of water vapour, which is a bad conductor in
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nature. It takes quite a long to evaporate as heat is conducted from hot iron to the
drop through the layer of water vapour very slowly.
w
On the other hand, if a drop of waterfalls on an iron which is not very hot, then it
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comes in direct contact with the iron and evaporates immediately.

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11.Answer: Glass possesses the property of selective absorption of heat radiation. It also
transmits about 50% of heat radiation coming from a hot source like the sun and is
more or less opaque to the radiation from moderately hot bodies (at about 100°C or
so). Due to this, when a car is left in the sun, heat radiation from the sun gets into the
car but as the temperature inside the car is moderate, it cannot escape through its
windows. Thus glass windows of the car trap the sun rays and because of this, the
inside of the car becomes considerably warmer.
12.Answer: Water boils with flame by the process of convection. Hot lighter particles raise
up and heavier particles move down under gravity. In. a gravity-free space in the
satellite, the particles cannot move down hence, water can’t be heated by convection.
It will be heated by conduction.
(29)
11
13.Answer: The energy of a polyatomic gas having n degrees of freedom is given by

1 n
E = n × kT × N = RT
2 2
)
m
.co
la
In case of a triatomic gas, n = 7
a
2 9
∴ γ = 1 +
7 7
= . hs
at
14.Answer: The hot case is a double-walled vessel. The space between the walls is
evacuated in a good hot case. The food container placed inside the hot case is made of
lp
crowning steel, thus neither the outside low-temperature air can enter the container
ita
nor the heat from inside can escape through the hot case by conduction or convection.
The highly polished shining surface of the food container helps in stopping loss of heat
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due to radiation. Thus, the heat of the food is preserved for a long time and food
remains hot in winter.
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15.Answer: The heat radiated or emitted from a body at a given temperature depends on
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1. the temperature difference between the body and the surrounding,

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2. area of the body in contact with the surroundings and

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3. the nature of the body.

For man and animals in winter (1) and (2) factors remain what they are. So, in order to
preserve, their body heat they curl up to reduce the surface area in contact with cold
air.
1. Answer: Here, h = 100 m
Let m (kg) = mass of water
∴ Its P.E. at a height h = mgh
Energy of fall retained by water i.e. useful work done is given by,
(30)
11
W = 90% of mgh
900
= mgh
100
90
= m × 9.8 × 100
100
= 882 m J.
𝑚×882𝐽
∴ Heat retained, 𝑄 = 𝑊𝐽 =
4.2𝐽 𝑐𝑎𝑙 −1
= m × 210 cal …(i)

Specific heat of water C = 10 cal kg-1 °C-1
)
m
Let Δθ (°C) be the rise in the temperature of water.
.co
∴ Heat gained, Q = mCΔθ
.= m × 103 × Δθ
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= m × Δθ × 103 cal …. (ii)
a
∴ From (1) and (ii), we get hs
m × 210 = m × Δθ × 103
at
or
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210
ita
Δθ = = 0.21°C.
103
2. Answer: Here α = 1.2 × 10-1 °C-1
ig
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Δt = 30 – 20= 10°C
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T = 2s.
w
Using the relation, Δl = l α Δt, we get

𝛥𝑙
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= 𝛼 𝛥𝑡
𝑙
= 1.2 × 10-5 × 10 = 1.2 × 10-4 …. (i)
𝑙
∴ 𝑇 = 2𝜋 √ … (𝑖𝑖)
𝑔
If T’ be the time period of the pendulum, when l increases by Δl, then
(31)
11
∴ loss in time in one oscillation T’ – T
)
Hence loss in time in one day is given by
m
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
3. Answer: Here, KB = 1.7 W m-1 K-1

.d
KC = 2.9 W m-1 K-1

w
dB = 20 cm
w
dc = ?
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We know that the heat flow is given by

𝛥𝜃
Q = KA 𝑡
𝑑
For the same insulation by the brick and the cement, Q, A, Δθ and t don’t
change
𝐾
Thus should be a constant.
𝑑
(32)
11
4. Answer: Let T (°C) be the temperature of the interface =?

Here, K1 = 300 Wm-1 °C-1 for A
)
K2 = 200 Wm-1 °C-1 for B
m
∴ Δθ1 = 100 – T for A
.co
Δθ2 = T – 0 for B .
la
x = size of each cube A and B
a
∴ x1 = x2 = x
hs
Let a = area of cross-section of the faces between which there is the flow of
heat
at
Δ𝑄1 Δ𝑄
If ( ) and ( Δ𝑡2) be the rate of low of heat for A and B respectively, then in
lp
Δ𝑡 𝐴 𝐵
steady state,
ita
ig
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w
w
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5. Answer: Here
L = 2.25 × 106 JK-1
2.25
= × 106 cal°C-1
4.2
Q = Heat of Combustion
= 373 × 103 Cal/mole
C = 103 J Kg-1 °C-1
(33)
11
m = 50 kg
Δθ = 100- 10 = 90°C
V = 22.4 litres
If Q1 = Total heat energy required to convert 50 kg of water at 10°C to steam at
100°C
Q1 = mCΔθ + mL
2.25×106
= 5.0 × 1000 × 90 + 50 ×
4.2
= 4.5 × 106 + 26.79 × 106
)
m
= 31.29 × 106 cal
As 50% of heat is lost,
.co
100
∴ total heat produced = × 3.129 × 106
la
50
Let n = no. of moles of ethane to be burnt, then
a
hs
at
∴ Volume of ethane = nV
lp
2 × 31.29 × 106
= × 22.4 litres
ita
373 × 103
= 3758.2 litres.
ig

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the assertion.
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the assertion.
1. we can say that heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or
a system and its surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. The SI unit of heat
energy transferred is expressed in joule (J) while SI unit of temperature is Kelvin (K), and
degree Celsius (0C) is a commonly used unit of temperature. When an object is heated,
many changes may take place. Its temperature may rise; it may expand or change state. A
measure of temperature is obtained using a thermometer. Many physical properties of
materials change sufficiently with temperature. Some such properties are used as the
basis for constructing thermometers. The two familiar temperature scales are the
Fahrenheit temperature scale and the Celsius temperature scale. The ice and steam point
have values 32 °F and 212 °F, respectively, on the Fahrenheit scale and 0 °C and 100 °C on
(34)
11
the Celsius scale. On the Fahrenheit scale, there are 180 equal intervals between two
reference points, and on the Celsius scale, there are 100. A relationship for converting
between the two scales may be obtained from a graph of Fahrenheit temperature (tF)
versus Celsius temperature (tC) in a straight line. When temperature is held constant, the
pressure and volume of a quantity of gas are related as PV = constant. This relationship is
known as Boyle’s law. When the pressure is held constant, the volume of a quantity of the
gas is related to the temperature as V/T = constant. This relationship is known as Charles’
law. Low-density gases obey these laws, which may be combined into a single
relationship. PV = μRT where, μ is the number of moles in the sample of gas and R is called
universal gas constant: R = 8.31 J mol-1 K-1 we have learnt that the pressure and volume
are directly proportional to temperature: PVαT. This relationship allows a gas to be used
)
m
to measure temperature in a constant volume gas thermometer. The absolute minimum
temperature for an ideal gas at which pressure becomes zero is found to be –
.co
273.15°C and is designated as absolute zero. Absolute zero is the foundation of the Kelvin
temperature scale or absolute scale temperature. The size of unit in Kelvin and Celsius
la
temperature scales is the same. So, temperature on these scales are related by T = tc +
a
273.15
i.
hs
The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in
at
a. Joule (J)
lp
b. Kelvin (K)
ita
c. Newton (N)
d. None of these
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ii. Temperature is measured using

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a. Thermometer
w
b. Barometer
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c. Tachometer
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d. None of these
iii. Relation between Kelvin (T) and Celsius temperature (tc) scale is given by
a. T = tc + 273.15
b. T = tc – 273.15
c. T = tc
d. None of these
iv. What is heat energy
v. What is absolute zero temperature
(35)
11
2. A system is said to be isolated if no exchange or transfer of heat occurs between the

system and its surroundings. When different parts of an isolated system are at different
temperature a quantity of heat transfers from the part at higher temperature to the part
at lower temperature. The heat lost by the part at higher temperature is equal to the heat
gained by the part at lower temperature. Calorimetry means measurement of heat. When
a body at higher temperature is brought in contact with another body at lower
temperature, the heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat gained by the colder body,
provided no heat is allowed to escape to the surroundings. A device in which heat
measurement can be done is called a calorimeter. It consists of a metallic vessel and
stirrer of the same material, like copper or aluminium. The vessel is kept inside a wooden
jacket, which contains heat insulating material. Matter normally exists in three states:
)
m
solid, liquid and gas. A transition from one of these states to another is called a change of
state. Two common changes of states are solid to liquid and liquid to gas (and, vice versa).
.co
These changes can occur when the exchange of heat takes place between the substance
and its surroundings. The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting and from
la
liquid to solid is called fusion. It is observed that the temperature remains constant until
a
the entire amount of the solid substance melts. That is, both the solid and the liquid states
hs
of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium during the change of states from solid to
liquid. The temperature at which the solid and the liquid states of the substance is in
at
thermal equilibrium with each other is called its melting point. The change of state from
lp
liquid to vapour (or gas) is called vaporisation. It is observed that the temperature remains
constant until the entire amount of the liquid is converted into vapour. That is, both the
ita
liquid and vapour states of the substance coexist in thermal equilibrium, during the
change of state from liquid to vapour. The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour
ig
states of the substance coexist is called its boiling point. The change from solid state to
.d
vapour state without passing through the liquid state is called sublimation, and the
w
substance is said to sublime. Dry ice (solid CO2) sublimes, so also iodine. During
sublimation both the solid and vapour states of a substance coexist in thermal
w
equilibrium.
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i. Device used for measurement of heat is

a. Calorimeter
b. Thermometer
c. Both a and b
d. No one of these
ii. The change of state from solid to liquid is called
a. Melting
b. Vaporization
c. Sublimation
(36)
11
d. None of these
iii. Define melting point and boiling point
iv. What is sublimation?
v. Define fusion process
Case Study Answer-

1. Answer
i. (a) Joule (J)
)
m
ii. (a) Thermometer
.co
iii. (a) T = tc + 273.15
iv. Heat energy is the form of energy transferred between two or more systems or its
la
surroundings due to temperature difference from higher temperature to lower
a
temperature. The SI unit of heat energy transferred is expressed in joule (J).
v.
hs
The absolute minimum temperature for an ideal gas at which pressure becomes zero is
found to be – 273.15 °C and is designated as absolute zero temperature. This is lowest
at
temperature possible for ideal gas.
lp
2. Answer
ita
i. (a) Calorimeter
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ii. (a) Melting

iii. The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting process and temperature at
.d
which conversion of solid into liquid happens is called as melting point.

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The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance coexist is
w
called its boiling point.

(w
iv. The change from solid state directly into vapour state without passing through the
liquid state is called sublimation, and the substance is said to sublime.
v. The change of state from liquid state to solid state is called as fusion process.
(37)
PHYSICS
)
m
.co
a la
Chapter 12: Thermodynamics
hs
at
lp
ita
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w
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
Thermodynamics
Introduction
Thermodynamics is that branch of physics which deals with concepts of heat and temperature
and their relation to energy and work.
We can also consider it as a macroscopic science which deals with bulk systems and tells us
about system as a whole.
In this chapter we will learn about the laws of thermodynamics which describes the system in
terms of macroscopic variables, reversible and irreversible processes. Finally we will also learn
)
on what principle heat engines, refrigerators and Carnot engine work.
m
Examples: - Refrigerator, steam engine
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
Refrigerator
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w
w
(w
Steam Engine
Thermal Equilibrium
Two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium if the temperatures of the two systems are
equal.
In mechanics if the net force on a system is zero, the system is in equilibrium.
In Thermodynamics equilibrium means all the macroscopic variables (pressure, temperature
and volume) don’t change with time. They are constant throughout.
For Example:
Consider two bodies at different temperatures one is at 300C and another at 600C then the heat
(1)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
will flow from body at higher temperature to the body at lower temperature.
Heat will flow till both bodies acquire same temperature.
This state when there is no heat flow between two bodies when they acquire the same
temperature is known as thermal equilibrium.
)
m
.co
In the above case if consider a hot cup of coffee will become cold after sometime if it is kept on
la
the table as there will heat flow between the hot coffee and surroundings. When the cup of
coffee attains the same temperature as of room temperature then there will be no flow of
a
heat. hs
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
at
Zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two systems are in thermal equilibrium
lp
through a third system separately then they are in thermal equilibrium with each other also.
ita
Foreg: - Consider two systems A and B which are separated by an adiabatic wall. Heat flow
happens between systems A and C, and between B and C, due to which all 3 systems attain
ig
thermal equilibrium.
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w
w
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Systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with C. Then they will be in equilibrium with each
other also.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics suggested that there should be some physical quantity which
should have same value for the system to be in thermal equilibrium.
This physical quantity which determines whether system is in equilibrium or not is
Temperature.
Temperature is the quantity which determines whether the system is in thermal equilibrium
(2)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
with the neighbouring system.

When the temperature becomes equal then the flow of heat stops.
Heat, Internal Energy and Work
We already know what heat is. It is a form of energy but it always comes into the picture when
energy is being transferred from one system to another. Suppose we are at an initial state ‘a’
and want to go to a final state ‘b’. We can do that by various processes (as shown in the figure)
and the heat energy released or absorbed in all the processes is different. So we can see that
heat does not depend on the state of the system.
)
m
.co
la
So there was a need to define another term that was dependent on the state of the system.
a
This is termed as Internal Energy. hs
Internal Energy
at
Internal energy definition is given as:
lp
The energy contained within the system associated with random motions of the particles along
ita
with the potential energies of the molecules due to their orientation.

The energy due to random motion includes translational, rotational, and vibrational energy. It is
ig
represented as U. So now we can say, since internal energy is a state function and in all the
.d
processes shown above the change in internal energy from state, ‘a’ to state ‘b’ will be the
same.
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Internal Energy Formula

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The following is the formula for internal energy:

(w
ΔU = Q + W
Where,
ΔU is the internal energy
Q is the heat added to the system
W is the work done by the system
First Law of Thermodynamics
(3)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
)
m
.co
A thermodynamic system in an equilibrium state possesses a state variable known as the
la
internal energy(E). Between two systems the change in the internal energy is equal to the
difference of the heat transfer into the system and the work done by the system.
a
hs
The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of the universe remains the same.
Though it may be exchanged between the system and the surroundings, it can’t be created or
at
destroyed. The law basically relates to the changes in energy states due to work and heat
transfer. It redefines the conservation of energy concept.
lp
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic
ita
processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy. This means that heat
energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be transferred from one location to
ig
another and converted to and from other forms of energy.

.d
To help you understand the meaning of the First Law, we can take the common example of a
w
heat engine. In a Heat engine, the thermal energy is converted into mechanical energy and the
process also is vice versa. Heat engines are mostly categorized as an open system. The basic
w
working principle of a heat engine is that it makes use of the different relationships between
(w
heat, pressure and volume of a working fluid which is usually a gas. Sometimes phase changes
might also occur involving a gas to liquid and back to gas.
First Law of Thermodynamics Equation
The equation for the first law of thermodynamics is given as;
ΔU = q + W
Where,
ΔU = change in internal energy of the system.
q = algebraic sum of heat transfer between system and surroundings.
W = work interaction of the system with its surroundings.
(4)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
)
m
.co
a la
For an isolated system, energy (E) always remains constant.
hs
Internal Energy is a point function and property of the system. Internal energy is an extensive
at
property (mass-dependent) while specific energy is an intensive property (independent of
lp
mass).
For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of temperature only.
ita
Specific heat capacity

ig
Specific heat is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body per
.d
unit mass.
w
It depends on:
w
Nature of substance
Temperature
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Denoted by ‘s’
𝛥𝑄
𝑠= ( )
𝑚𝛥𝑇
where m= mass of the body
ΔQ = amount of heat absorbed or rejected by the substance
ΔT= temperature change
Unit - J kg-1 K-1
If we are heating up oil in a pan, more heat is needed when heating up one cup of oil compared
to just one tablespoon of oil. If the mass s is more the amount of heat required is more to
increase the temperature by one degree.
(5)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
Specific heat capacity of water

Calorie: - One calorie is defined to be the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1g of water from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C.
In SI units, the specific heat capacity of water is 4186 J kg-1 K-1e.
4.186 J g-1 K-1.
The specific heat capacity depends on the process or the conditions under which heat capacity
transfer takes place.
)
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a la
hs
Thermodynamic State Variables and Equation of State
A system is said to be in a thermodynamics state of equilibrium if the macroscopic variables
at
that change the state of the system do not change over time. These macroscopic variables
lp
include pressure, temperature, mass, and composition that does not change with time. For
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example, gas is stored inside a container that is completely insulated from its surroundings,
with fixed values of pressure, volume, temperature, mass, and composition that do not change
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with time, is in a state of equilibrium.

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The equilibrium of a gas can be described by its pressure, temperature, volume, and mass. It is
not necessary that a thermodynamic system is always in equilibrium. For example, if gas at
w
equilibrium is allowed to expand, it does not remain in thermodynamic equilibrium. The figure
w
below shows the expansion of gases when they are left to expand:
(w
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
Thermodynamics variables describe the state of the system at equilibrium. These various state
variables are not necessarily independent.
These variables can be divided into two types:
Extensive Variables
Intensive Variables
Extensive Variables: These variables are the state variables that indicate the size of the system.
For example, Volume can be considered an extensive variable because it gives us an idea about
the size of the system.
Intensive Variables: These variables are the state variables that do not give us any information
)
about the size of the system but indicate different information about the system. Examples of
m
such variables are pressure, temperature, etc.
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State Equation
State Equation describes the relationship between state variables of a thermodynamic system.
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The equation of state is completely defined in terms of pressure, temperature and volume. For
a
example, in the case of ideal gases. The state equation becomes,
hsPV = RT
at
Or
PV = Constant
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In the case of an isothermal process,

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P1V1 = P2V2
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These equations of state are for ideal gases.

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Thermodynamic Processes & Types

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We know that if we have to take a thermodynamic system from the initial to the final state, we
have several paths that can be taken. In this article, we will be discussing those thermodynamic
w
processes. Before that, we will see what a quasi-static process is. It has been discussed that
(w
state variables are defined only when the thermodynamic system is in equilibrium with the
surrounding. So a process in which the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with the
surrounding is known as a quasi-static process at each moment.
The Thermodynamic Processes
Isothermal Process:
It is a thermodynamic process in which temperature remains constant. We know,
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
)
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According to Gas law,
a la
hs
Using this value of P in work done, we get,
at
lp
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Adiabatic Process:
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It is a thermodynamic process in which no heat is exchanged between the system and the
surrounding. So, Q = 0. Mathematically this process is represented as
w
w
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Substituting P, we get,
For adiabatic process,
Isochoric Process:
In isochoric process the change in volume of thermodynamic system is zero. A volume change is
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
zero, so the work done is zero.

Volume of the system = Constant
Change in volume = 0
If, change in volume = 0, then work done is zero.
According to the 1st law of thermodynamic law
Q = W + dU
If W = 0
Q = dU
Isobaric Process:
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The pressure remains constant during this process. So,
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So if volume increases, work done is positive, else negative.
la
Cyclic Process:
a
hs
It is a process in which the final state of the system is equal to the initial state. As we know,
change in internal energy is a state function, so, in this case, ∆U = 0.
at
Quasi-static process:
lp
In thermodynamics, a quasi-static process is referred to as a slow process.

ita
It is a process that happens at an infinitesimally slow rate.

A quasi-static process has all of its states in equilibrium.
ig
A quasi-static process is one in which the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
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surroundings at all times.

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Second Law of Thermodynamics

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The second law of thermodynamics states that any spontaneously occurring process will always
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lead to an escalation in the entropy (S) of the universe. In simple words, the law explains that
an isolated system’s entropy will never decrease over time.
Nonetheless, in some cases where the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium or going
through a reversible process, the total entropy of a system and its surroundings remains
constant. The second law is also known as the Law of Increased Entropy.
The second law clearly explains that it is impossible to convert heat energy to mechanical
energy with 100 per cent efficiency. For example, if we look at the piston in an engine, the gas
is heated to increase its pressure and drive a piston. However, even as the piston moves, there
is always some leftover heat in the gas that cannot be used for carrying out any other work.
Heat is wasted and it has to de discarded. In this case, it is done by transferring it to a heat sink
or in the case of a car engine, waste heat is discarded by exhausting the used fuel and air
mixture to the atmosphere. Additionally, heat generated from friction that is generally
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
unusable should also be removed from the system.

Second Law of Thermodynamics Equation
Mathematically, the second law of thermodynamics is represented as:
ΔSuniv > 0
where ΔSuniv is the change in the entropy of the universe.
Entropy is a measure of the randomness of the system or it is the measure of energy or chaos
within an isolated system. It can be considered as a quantitative index that describes the quality
of energy.
Meanwhile, there are few factors that cause an increase in entropy of the closed system.
)
Firstly, in a closed system, while the mass remains constant there is an exchange of heat with
m
the surroundings. This change in the heat content creates a disturbance in the system thereby
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increasing the entropy of the system.
Secondly, internal changes may occur in the movements of the molecules of the system. This
la
leads to disturbances which further causes irreversibilities inside the system resulting in the
a
increment of its entropy.
Different Statements of The Law
hs
at
There are two statements on the second law of thermodynamics which are;
Kelvin- Plank Statement
lp
Clausius Statement
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Kelvin-Planck Statement
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It is impossible for a heat engine to produce a network in a complete cycle if it exchanges heat
only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.
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Exceptions:
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If Q2 =0 (i.e., Wnet = Q1, or efficiency=1.00), the heat engine produces work in a complete cycle
w
by exchanging heat with only one reservoir, thus violating the Kelvin-Planck statement.
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Clausius’s Statement
It is impossible to construct a device operating in a cycle that can transfer heat from a colder
body to a warmer one without consuming any work. Also, energy will not flow spontaneously
from a low-temperature object to a higher temperature object. It is important to note that we
are referring to the net transfer of energy. Energy transfer can take place from a cold object to
a hot object by transfer of energetic particles or electromagnetic radiation. However, the net
transfer will occur from the hot object to the cold object in any spontaneous process. And some
form of work is needed to transfer the net energy to the hot object. In other words, unless the
compressor is driven by an external source, the refrigerator won’t be able to operate. The heat
pump and refrigerator work on Clausius’s statement.
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
Both Clausius’s and Kelvin’s statements are equivalent i.e a device violating Clausius’s statement
)
will also violate Kelvin’s statement and vice versa.
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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w
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In addition to these statements, a French physicist named Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot also
known as the “father of thermodynamics,” basically introduced the Second Law of
Thermodynamics. However, as per his statement, he emphasized the use of caloric theory for
the description of the law. Caloric (self-repellent fluid) relates to heat and Carnot observed that
some caloric was lost in the motion cycle.
Reversible And Irreversible Processes
We see so many changes happening around us every day, such as boiling water, rusting of iron,
melting ice, burning of paper, etc. In all these processes, we observe that the system in
consideration goes from an initial state to a final state where some amount of heat is absorbed
from the surroundings and some amount of work W is done by the system on the surrounding.
Now, for how many such systems can the system and the surrounding be brought back to their
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
initial state? With common examples such as rusting and fermentation, we can say that it is not
possible in most cases. In this section, we shall learn about reversible and irreversible processes.
)
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A thermodynamic process (state i → state f) is said to be reversible if the process can be turned
a
back to such that both the system and the surroundings return to their original states, with no
hs
other change anywhere else in the universe. As we know, in reality, no such processes as
at
reversible processes can exist. Thus, the reversible processes can easily be defined as
idealizations or models of real processes on which the limits of the system or device are to be
lp
defined. They help us in incurring the maximum efficiency a system can provide in ideal working
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conditions and thus the target design that can be set.

Carnot Cycle
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A Carnot cycle is defined as an ideal reversible closed thermodynamic cycle. Four successive
.d
operations are involved: isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression,

w
and adiabatic compression. During these operations, the expansion and compression of the
substance can be done up to the desired point and back to the initial state.
w
(w
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
Following are the four processes of the Carnot cycle:

In (a), the process is reversible isothermal gas expansion. In this process, the amount of heat
absorbed by the ideal gas is qin from the heat source at a temperature of Th. The gas expands
and does work on the surroundings.
In (b), the process is reversible adiabatic gas expansion. Here, the system is thermally insulated,
and the gas continues to expand and work is done on the surroundings. Now the temperature is
lower, Tl.
In (c), the process is a reversible isothermal gas compression process. Here, the heat loss qout
occurs when the surroundings do the work at temperature Tl.
In (d), the process is reversible adiabatic gas compression. Again, the system is thermally
)
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insulated. The temperature again rises back to Th as the surrounding continue to do their work
on the gas.
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Carnot Engine
la
The Carnot engine is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Leonard Carnot. It
estimates the maximum possible efficiency that a heat engine during the conversion process of
a
heat into work and, conversely, working between two reservoirs can possess.
hs
Carnot Theorem
at
According to Carnot Theorem:
lp
Any system working between T1 (hot reservoir) and T2 (cold reservoir) can never have more
ita
efficiency than the Carnot engine operating between the same reservoirs.
Also, the efficiency of this type of engine is independent of the nature of the working substance
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and is only dependent on the temperature of the hot and cold reservoirs.
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Top Formulae
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• Equation of isothermal changes PV = constant or P2 V2 = P1 V1

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• Equation of adiabatic changes

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• Work done by the gas in isothermal expansion
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
• Work done in adiabatic expansion
• dQ = dU + dW
Here, dW = P (dV), small amount of work done
dQ = m L for change of state
dQ = mc T for rise in temperature
)
dU = change in internal energy
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•
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Where T1 = temperature of source, T2 = temperature of sink; Q1 is the amount of heat
a
absorbed/cycle from the source, Q2 is the amount of heat rejected/cycle to the sink.
hs
• Useful work done/cycle W = Q1 − Q2
at
lp
ita
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• Coefficient of performance of a refrigerator

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w
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where Q2 is the amount of heat drawn/cycle from the sink (at T2) and W is work
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done/cycle on the refrigerator. Q1 is the amount of heat rejected/cycle to the source

(air at room temperature T1).
(14)
12
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THERMODYNAMICS
w
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lp
at
hs
ala
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
Important Questions

1. A vessel contains a mixture of one mole of oxygen and two moles of nitrogen at
300 K. The ratio of the average rotational kinetic energy per O² to per N² molecule
is
(a) 1 : 1
(b) 1 : 2
)
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(c) 2 : 1
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(d) depends on the moment of inertia of the two molecules
2.For a diatomic gas change in internal energy for a unit change in temperature for
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constant pressure and constant volume is U1 and U2 respectively. What is the ratio
a
of U1 and U2?
(a) 5 : 3
hs
at
(b) 3 : 5
lp
(c) 1 : 1
ita
(d) 5 : 7
3. An ideal gas heat engine operates in Carnot cycle between 227°C and 127°C. It
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absorbs 6 × 104 cal of heat at higher temperature. Amount of heat converted to

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work is:
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(a) 2.4 × 104 cal

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(b) 6 × 104 cal

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(c) 1.2 × 104 cal

(d) 4.8 × 104 cal
4. Which of the following parameters dose not characterize the thermodynamic
state of matter?
(a) work
(b) volume
(c) pressure
(d) temperature
5. A Carnot engine whose sink is at 300 K has an efficiency of 40%. By how much
should the temperature of source be increased, so as to increase its efficiency by
50% of original efficiency?
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
(a) 275 K
(b) 325 K
(c) 250 K
(d) 380 K
6. The translational kinetic energy of gas molecules at temperature T for one mole
of a gas is
(a) (3/2) RT
(b) (9/2) RT
)
(c) (1/3) RT
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(d) (5/2) RT
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7. The temperature of reservoir of Carnots engine operating with an efficiency of
70% is 1000 kelvin. The temperature of its sink is
la
(a) 300 K
a
(b) 400 K hs
(c) 500 K
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(d) 700 K
lp
8. A gas is taken through a number of thermodynamic states. What happens to its

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specific heat?
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(a) It is always constant.

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(b) It increases.
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(c) It decreases.
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(d) It can have any value depending upon the process of heat absorbed or evolved.
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9. Directions: The following has four choices out of which ONLY ONE is correct. A
refrigerator with its power on, is kept in a closed room with its door open, then the
temperature of the room will _________.
(a) rise
(b) fall
(c) remain the same
(d) depend on the area of the room
10. Directions: The following has four choices out of which ONLY ONE is correct.
Which of the following is incorrect regarding the first law of thermodynamics? A. It
is not applicable to any cyclic process B. It is a restatement of the principle of
conservation of energy C. It introduces the concept of the internal energy D. It
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
introduces the concept of the entropy

(a) A and D
(b) B and C
(c) C and A
(d) A and B
Very Short:
1. What type of process is Carnot’s cycle?
2. Can the Carnot engine be realized in actual practice?
)
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3. A refrigerator transfers heat from a cold body to a hot body. Does this not
violate the second law of thermodynamics?
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4. What is a heat pump?
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5. What forbids the complete conversion of work into heat?
a
6. Does the internal energy of an ideal gas change in:
(a) an isothermal process?
hs
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(b) an adiabatic process?
lp
7. What is the specific heat of a gas in an isothermal process and in an adiabatic

process? Why?
ita
8. Can the temperature of an isolated system change?

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9. Can we increase the coefficient of performance of a refrigerator by increasing

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the amount of working substance?

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10.The door of an operating refrigerator is kept open in a closed room. Will it

make the room warm or cool?
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Short Questions:
1. Kelvin and Clausius’s statements of the Second law of thermodynamics are
equivalent. Explain?
2. Two identical samples of gas are expanded so that the volume is increased to
twice the initial volume. However, sample number 1 is expanded isothermally
while sample number 2 is expanded adiabatically. In which sample is the
pressure greater? Why?
3. No real engine can have an efficiency greater than that of a Carnot engine
working between the same two temperatures. Why?
4. Explain why two isothermal curves cannot intersect each other?
5. What is the source of energy when gas does work when expands adiabatically?
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
6. State and explain the zeroth law of thermodynamics?

7. State and explain the first law of thermodynamics. What are the sign
conventions?
8. Why cannot a ship use the internal energy of seawater to operate the engine?
9. A certain amount of work is done by the system in a process in which no heat is
transferred to or from the system. What happens to the internal energy and
the temperature of the system?
10.If an electric fan is switched on in a closed room, will the air of the room be
cooled? Why?
)
Long Questions:
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1. Discuss the Carnot cycle and give essential features of a Carnot engine.
2. Derive the expression for the work done during:
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(a) Isothermal process
a
(b) Adiabatic process hs
3. A gas is suddenly compressed to 1/3 of its original volume. Calculate the rise in
at
temperature, the original temperature being 300K and γ = 1.5.
lp
4. A perfect Qarjiotreiigifae utilizes an ideal gas. The source temperature is 500K

and since the temperature is 375 K. If the engine takes 600 Kcal per cycle from
ita
the source, compute:

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(a) the efficiency of The engine.

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(b) work done per cycle,

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(c) heat rejected to the sink per cycle.

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5. A refrigerator has, to transfer an average of 263 J of heat per second from

temperature – 10°C to 25°C. Calculate the average power consumed assuming
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ideal reversible cycle and no other losses.

of the assertion.
of the assertion.
(19)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
Assertion: When a bottle of cold carbonated drink is opened, a slight fog forms
around the opening.
Reason: Adiabatic expansion of the gas causes lowering of temperature and
condensation of water vapours.
of the assertion.
)
of the assertion.
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Assertion: In adiabatic compression, the internal energy and temperature of the
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system get decreased.
a
Reason: The adiabatic compression is a slow process
hs
✓ Answer Key:
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1. Answer: (a) 1 : 1
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2. Answer: (c) 1 : 1
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3. Answer: (c) 1.2 × 104 cal

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4. Answer: (a) work

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5. Answer: (c) 250 K

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6. Answer: (a) (3/2) RT

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7. Answer: (a) 300 K

8. Answer: (d) It can have any value depending upon the process of heat absorbed
or evolved.
9. Answer: (a) rise
10.Answer: (a) A and D
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: Cyclic process.
2. Answer: No. It is an ideal heat engine.
3. Answer: No. This is because external work is being performed.
4. Answer: A heat pump is a device that uses mechanical work to remove heat.
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
5. Answer: The second law of thermodynamics.

6. Answer: (a) No.
(b) Yes.
𝛥𝑄
7. Answer: It is infinite in isothermal process because 𝛥𝑇 = 0 (𝐶 = ) and zero in an
𝑚𝛥𝑇
adiabatic process as ΔQ = 0.
8. Yes, in an adiabatic process the temperature of an isolated system changes. It
increases when the gas is compressed adiabatically.
9. Answer: No.
)
10.Answer: The room will be slightly warmed.
m
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1. Answer: Suppose we have an engine that gives a continuous supply of work
la
when it is cooled below the temperature of its surroundings.
a
This is a violation of Kelvin’s statement. Now if the work done by the engine is
hs
used to drive a dynamo which produces current and this current produces heat
in a coil immersed in hot water, then we have produced a machine which
at
causes the flow of heat from a cold body to the hot body without the help of
lp
an external agent. This is a violation of Clausius’s statement. Hence both

statements are equivalent.
ita
2. Answer: Pressure is greater in sample number 1 as can be explained: For

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isothermal expansion.
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P1V1 = P2V2 for no. 1 sample

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Now V2 = 2V1
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∴ P1V1 = P22V1
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or
𝑃1
P2 = …(i)
2
Now for adiabatic expansion (for sample 2)
P1V1γ = P2V2γ
Or
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
∴ From (i) and (ii) we find that pressure is greater in sample 1 as γ > 1.
3. Answer: A Carnot engine is an ideal engine from the following points of view:
1. There is no friction between the walls of the cylinder and the piston.
2. The working substance is an ideal gas i.e. the gas molecules do not have
molecular attraction and they are points in size.
However these conditions cannot be fulfilled in a real engine and hence no heat engine
working between the same two temperatures can have an efficiency greater than that
of a Carnot, engine.
4. Answer: If they intersect, then at the point of intersection, the volume and
)
pressure of the gas will be the same at two different temperatures which is not
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possible.
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5. Answer: During adiabatic expansion, the temperature and hence the internal
energy of the gas decreases. Thus work is done by the gas at the cost of its
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internal energy.
a
6. Answer: It states that if two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third
hs
system C, then A and B must.be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
at
Explanation: The three systems are shown in the figure. Let T1, T2, T3 be the
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temperatures of A, B, and C respectively.

ita
ig
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Systems A and C, B and C will exchange heat and after a certain time, they will
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attain thermal equilibrium separately.

i.e. T1 = T3 ….(1)
and T2 = T3 …. (2)
Thus from (1) and (2),
T1 = T2
i.e. A and B are now in thermal equilibrium with each other.
7. Answer: It states that if an amount of heat dQ is added to a system then a part of it
may increase its internal energy by an amount dU and the remaining part may be used
up as the external work dW done by the system i.e. mathematically,
dQ = dU + dW
(22)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
= dU + PdV
Sign conventions:
1. Work done by a system is taken as positive while the work done on the
system is taken as -ve.
2. The increase in the internal energy of the system is taken as positive
while the decrease in the internal energy is taken as negative.
3. Heat added (gained) by a system is taken as positive and the heat lost by
the system is taken as negative.
8. Answer: The heat engine can convert the internal energy of seawater if there is a sink
)
at a temperature lower than the temperature of seawater. Since there is no such sink
m
and hence a ship can’t use the internal energy of seawater to operate the engine.
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9. Answer: The temperature of the system decreases as the system is doing work and no
heat transfer is allowed to or from the system. As the temperature of the system
la
decreases, the internal energy of the system also decreases.
a
10.Answer: No. It will not be cooled, rather it will get heated because the speed of the air
hs
molecules will increase due to the motion of the fan. We feel cooler because of the
at
evaporation of the sweat when the fan is switched on.
lp

ita
1. Answer: Carnot cycle: Heat engines essentially have

1. a source of heat,
ig
2. a W0fkthg substance
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3. a sink (at a temperature lower than that source) and

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4. mechanical parts.
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Carnot designed an idea engine that operated in the reversible cycle. The cycle
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consisted of two isotherms and two adiabatic. The heat was taken in or
rejected during isothermal expansion or contraction. The Carnot cycle thus
consists of four steps (see fig.) Carnot took a perfect gas as the working
substance enclosed in a cylinder with perfectly insulting walls fitted with an
insulating piston but the bases of the cylinder were conducting
(1) In the first step of the cycle let P1, V1, by the pressure of the gas. It is placed,
in contact with the. source of heat at temperature T1 i.e the cylinder is out on
the source. As the gas expands isothermally it absorbs some amount of heat to
keep the temperature constant (curve AB)
The heat absorbed from the source Q1 is equal to the work done W, in
expanding the gas volume from V1 to V2 at temperature T1 so that
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THERMODYNAMICS
12
In = Area ABMKA ….(1)

(2) The cylinder is put on insulating and gas is allowed to expand from V2 to V3
)
m
adiabatically. Its temperature falls from T1 to T2 and pressure becomes P3 and
P2. The work done W is then.
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a la
(3) In this part of the cycle the cylinder is put with its conducting base in
hs
contact with a sink as temperature T2 and gas is compressed isothermally. It
rejects Q2 heat at constant temperature T2, the work done on the gas is
at
[pressure volume change to (P4, V4) from (P3, V3)].
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(4) In the last step of the cycle, the cylinder’s base is again put on the insulating
ig
stand, and the gas is compressed adiabatically so that the system returns back
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to its original state at A i.e. from (P4, V4) to (P1, V1) at temperature T1 via
w
curve DA. Now the work done on the gas is.

w
(w
= Area DLKAD …. (4)

From equation (2) and (4), it is clear that W4 = W2
If W = net work done by the engine in one cycle, then
W = W1 + W2 + (- W3) + (- W4)
= W1 – W3 = Area ABCDA = Q1 – Q2 …..(5)
The efficiency of the Carnot engine (η): It is defined as the ratio of work done by the
engine to the energy supplied to the engine in a cycle.
(24)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
Using equations (1) and (3)
Since B and C lie on the same adiabatic so
)
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Also D and A lie on the same adiabatic so
a
hs
at
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ig
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w

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(25)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
1. The interesting aspect of η of Carnot engine is that it is independent of the

nature of the working substance. But Carnot used an ideal gas operation which is
not strictly followed by real gases or fuel
2. Theoretically, η can be 100%.
3. The efficiency of Carnot’s ideal engine depends only on the temperature of the
scarce and the sink.
4. The efficiency of any reversible engine working between the same two
temperatures is the same.
2. Answer: Consider one mole of a perfect gas contained in a cylinder having
)
conducting walls and fitted with a movable piston.
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a la
hs
at
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Let P, V be the pressure and volume of the gas corresponding to this state.
ita
Let dx = distance by which piston moves outward at constant pressure P so

that its volume increases by dV.
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Let a = area of cross-section of the piston.

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(a) If dW = work done in moving the piston by dx, then .

w
dW = force on piston × dx
w
= P a dx
(w
= PdV …(i)
Where dV = a dx = volume
Let the system goes from initial state A(P1, V1) to final state B(P2, V2)
If W = total work done from A to B, then
(26)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
)
m
= RT (logeV2 – logeV1)
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𝑉2
= RT log2
𝑉1
𝑉2
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= 2.303 RT log10
𝑉1
a
(b) From equation (ii) of case (a), we get
hs
at
lp
We know that an adiabatic process is represented mathematically by the

ita
equation:
PVγ = constant = K
ig
Or
.d
K
w
P = … (iii)
Vγ
w
∴ from (ii) and (iii), we get

(w
(27)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
)
3. Answer: Let V1 = Initial volume
m
𝑉1
V2 = Final volume =
.co
3
Or
la
𝑉1
= 3
𝑉2
a
T1 = 300K
hs
at
T2 – T1 = ?
γ = 1.5
lp
We know that for an adiabatic change,

ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
4. Answer: Here, T1 = 50.0 K

T2 = 375 k
Q1 = Heat absorbed per cycle
= 600 K cal
∴ (a) Using tig relation,
(28)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
η% = 0.25 × 100 = 25%

(b) Let W = work done per cycle
∴ Using relation
𝑊
𝜂 = , we get
𝑄1
)
m
W = ηQ1
.co
= 0.25 × 600 K cal
= 150 K cal
la
= 150 × 103 × 4.2 J
a
= 6.3 × 105 J. hs
(c) Let Q2 = heat rejected to the sink
at
∴ Using the relation
lp
W = Q1 – Q2, we get
ita
Q2 = Q1 – W = 600 – 150 = 450 K cal

5. Answer: Here, T1 = 25 + 273 = 298 K
ig
T2 = – 10 + 273 = 263 K
.d
Q2 = 263 Js-1
w
we know that
w
(w
= 298 Js-1
∴ Average power consumed = Q1 – Q2
= (298 – 263) Js-1
= 35W
1. If both assertion and reason are true and the reason is the correct explanation of the
(29)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
assertion.
Explanation:
When a bottle of cold carbonated drink is opened. A slight fog forms around the
opening. This is because of adiabatic expansion of gas causes lowering of temperature
and condensation of water vapours.
2. If the assertion and reason both are false.
Explanation:
Adiabatic compression is a rapid action and both the internal energy and the
temperature increases.
)
m
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1. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other. The Zeroth Law clearly
la
suggests that when two systems A and B, are in thermal equilibrium, there must be a
a
physical quantity that has the same value for both. This thermodynamic variable whose
hs
value is equal for two systems in thermal equilibrium is called temperature (T). Thus,
if A and B are separately in equilibrium with C, TA = TC and TB = TC. This implies
at
that TA = TB i.e. the systems A and B are also in thermal equilibrium. Zeroth Law of
Thermodynamics leads to the concept of internal energy of a system. We know that every
lp
bulk system consists of a large number of molecules. Internal energy is simply the sum of
ita
the kinetic energies and potential energies of these molecules. A certain amount of heat is
supplied to the system’ or ‘a certain amount of work was done by the system its energy
ig
changes.
.d
i. Three thermodynamic systems are at temperature of 500 c .what can we say about
w
them?
w
a. Heat flows between them

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b. It obeys Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

c. Temperature of one system will increase and temperature of remaining two will
decrease
d. None of these
ii. Zeroth law of thermodynamics helped in the creation of which scale?
a. Temperature
b. Heat energy
c. Pressure
d. Internal energy
iii. State Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
(30)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
iv. Define Internal energy of system

2. Kelvin-Planck statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the absorption of
heat from a reservoir and the complete conversion of the heat into work. Clausius
statement: No process is possible whose sole result is the transfer of heat from a colder
object to a hotter object. It can be proved that the two statements above are completely
equivalent. A thermodynamic process is reversible if the process can be turned back such
that both the system and the surroundings return to their original states, with no other
change anywhere else in the universe. a reversible process is an idealized motion. A
process is reversible only if it is quasi-static (system in equilibrium with the surroundings
at every stage) and there are no dissipative effects. For example, a quasi-static isothermal
)
expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with a frictionless movable piston is a
m
reversible process. The free expansion of a gas is irreversible. The combustion reaction of
.co
a mixture of petrol and air ignited by a spark cannot be reversed. Cooking gas leaking from
a gas cylinder in the kitchen diffuses to the entire room. The diffusion process will not
spontaneously reverse and bring the gas back to the cylinder. The stirring of a liquid in
la
thermal contact with a reservoir will convert the work done into heat, increasing the
a
internal energy of the reservoir. The process cannot be reversed exactly; otherwise it
hs
would amount to conversion of heat entirely into work, violating the Second Law of
at
Thermodynamics. Irreversibility is a rule rather an exception in nature.
i. The diffusion process is
lp
a. Reversible process
ita
b. Irreversible process
ig
ii. A quasi-static isothermal expansion of an ideal gas in a cylinder fitted with a

.d
frictionless movable piston is

w
a. Reversible process
w
b. Irreversible process
(w
iii. State Kelvin Planck statement.

iv. State Clausius statement.
v. Define reversible processes and irreversible processes of thermodynamics.
Case Study Answer-
1. Answer
i. (b) It obeys Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
ii. (a) Temperature
iii. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that two systems in thermal equilibrium with a
third system separately are in thermal equilibrium with each other. i.e. when two
(31)
THERMODYNAMICS
12
systems A and B, are in thermal equilibrium individually with system C then these two
systems are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
iv. Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic energies and potential energies of all the
molecules possesses by system.
2. Answer
i. (b) Irreversible process
ii. (a) Reversible process
iii. Kelvin-Planck statement states that We cannot construct any device like the heat
engine that operates on a cycle, absorbs the heat energy, and completely transforms
)
this energy into an equal amount of work. Some of the heat gets released into the
m
atmosphere. Practically no device bears 100% thermal efficiency.
.co
iv. According to clausius It is nearly impossible for heat to move by itself from a
temperature that is lower in temperature to a reservoir that is at a higher
la
temperature. That is we can say that the transfer of heat can only occur spontaneously
a
from high temperature to temperature. i.e No process is possible whose sole result is
hs
the transfer of heat from a colder object to a hotter object without any external work
provided to do it in short we cannot construct a refrigerator that can operate without
at
any input work.
lp
v. A thermodynamic process is said to be reversible if both the system and the

ita
surroundings return to their original states, with no other change anywhere else in the
universe. On the other hand an irreversible process can be defined as a process in
ig
which the system and surrounding will not return to their original condition once the
process is initiated.
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(32)
PHYSICS
)
m
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a la
Chapter 13: Kinetic Theory
hs
at
lp
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KINETIC THEORY
13
Kinetic Theory
Introduction
What is Kinetic Theory
Kinetic theory explains the behaviour of gases based on the idea that the gas consists of rapidly
moving atoms or molecules.
In solids the molecules are very tightly packed as inter molecular space is not present In liquids
inter molecular spaces are more as compared to solids and in gases the molecules are very
loosely packed as intermolecular spaces are very large.
)
m
The random movement of molecules in a gas is explained by kinetic theory of gases.
.co
We will also see that why kinetic theory is accepted as a success theory.
Kinetic theory explains the following:
la
Molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature can be explained.
a
It is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s hypothesis.
hs
Correctly explains specific heat capacities of many gases.
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
Assumptions of Kinetic Theory of Gases

w
All gas molecules constantly move in random directions.

w
The size of molecules is very less than the separation between the molecules
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The molecules of the sample do not exert any force on the walls of the container during the
collision when the gas sample is contained.
It has a very small time interval of collision between two molecules, and between a molecule and
the wall.
Collisions between molecules and wall and even between molecules are elastic in nature.
Newton’s laws of motion can be seen in all the molecules in a certain gas sample.
With due course of time, a gas sample comes to a steady state. The molecule’s distribution and
the density of molecules do not depend on the position, distance and time.
Kinetic Theory of Gases
(2)
KINETIC THEORY
13
The kinetic theory of gases relates the macroscopic property of the gas, like – Temperature,
Pressure, and Volume to the microscopic property of the gas, like – speed, momentum, and
position. In this model, the atoms and molecules are continually in random motion, constantly
colliding with one another and the walls of the container within which the gas is enclosed. It is
this motion that results in physical properties such as heat and pressure. In this article, let us
delve deeper into the kinetic theory of gases.
Molecular nature of matter
John Dalton
Atomic hypothesis was given by many scientists. According to which everything in this universe is
made up of atoms.
)
m
Atoms are little particles that move around in a perpetual order attracting each other when they
are little distance apart.
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But if they are forced very close to each other then they rebel.
la
For example: - Consider a block of gold. It consists of molecules which are constantly moving.
a
Dalton’s atomic theory is also referred as the molecular theory of matter. This theory proves that
hs
matter is made up of molecules which in turn are made up of atoms.
at
According to Gay Lussac’s law when gases combine chemically to yield another gas, their
volumes are in ratios of small integers.
lp
Avogadro’s law states that the equal volumes of all gases at equal temperature and pressure
ita
have the same number of molecules.

ig
Conclusion: - All these laws proved the molecular nature of gases.

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Dalton’s molecular theory forms the basis of Kinetic theory.

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Why was Dalton’s theory a success?

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Matter is made up of molecules, which in turn are made up of atoms.

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Atomic structure can be viewed by an electron microscope.

Solids, Liquids, Gases in terms of molecular structure
Basis of Difference Solids Liquids Gases
Molecules are very Molecules are not so Molecules are loosely

Inter Atomic Distance
tightly packed. Inter tightly packed. Inter packed. Free to
(distance between
atomic distance is atomic distance is move. Inter atomic
molecules).
minimum. more as compared to distance is maximum.
(3)
KINETIC THEORY
13
solids.
Mean Free Path is the

There is mean free
average distance a
No mean free path. Less mean free path. path followed by the
molecule can travel
molecules.
without colliding.
Behaviour of Gas Molecules

The behaviour of gas molecules is dependent on the properties and laws obeyed by the
)
m
molecules of the gas. The distribution of molecules in a gas is very different from the distribution
of molecules in liquids and solids. There are five properties and five gas laws that govern the
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behaviour of gas molecules.
Gas is defined as a homogeneous fluid which has low density and low viscosity and the volume of
la
the gas is assumed to have the volume equal to the volume of the vessel. The classification of
a
gases are: hs
Ideal gas
at
Non-ideal gas or real gas
lp
Following are the properties of gases:

ita
Property Symbol Common units

ig
Density d g.l-1
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Temperature T K
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Pressure P mm Hg
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Volume V cm
Amount of gas n mol
Kinetic Theory of Gases

The behaviour of gas molecules is explained with the help of the kinetic theory of gases. It is the
study of gas molecules at the macroscopic level. Following are the five postulates of the kinetic
theory of gases:
Gas is the composition of a large number of molecules that are constantly in a random
movement.
(4)
KINETIC THEORY
13
The volume of the molecules is negligible as the distance between the gas molecules is greater
than the size of the molecules.
The intermolecular interactions are also negligible.
The collision of molecules with each other and with the walls of the container is always elastic.
The average kinetic energy of all the molecules is dependent on the temperature.
Boyle’s Law
According to Boyle’s law, the volume of the gas is inversely related to pressure when the amount
of gas is fixed at a constant temperature.
)
m
PV = constant
.co
P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = constant
la
Where,
a
P is the pressure of a gas.
V is the volume of gas.
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Charles’s Law
According to Charles’s law, the volume of the gas with a fixed mass is directly proportional to the
temperature.
V∝T
Where,
T is the temperature of a gas.
V is the volume of gas.
(5)
KINETIC THEORY
13
)
m
.co
Gay-Lussac’s Law
la
According to Gay-Lussac’s law, when the volume of the gas is constant, the pressure of a given
mass of gas varies directly with the absolute temperature of the gas.
a
hs
at
Where,
lp
T1 is the initial temperature.

ita
P1 is the initial pressure.

ig
T2 is the final temperature.

.d
P2 is the final pressure.

w
w
(w
(6)
KINETIC THEORY
13
Avogadro’s Law
According to Avogadro’s law, when the pressure and temperature of the given gas are constant,
then the number of moles and the volume of the gas are in a direct relationship.
Where,
V is the volume of the gas.
n is the number of moles.
)
k is the proportionality constant.
m
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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Ideal Gas Law

w
According to ideal gas law, the product of pressure and volume of one gram molecule of an ideal
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gas is equal to the product of a number of moles of the gas, universal gas constant and the
absolute temperature.
PV = nRT = NkT
Where,
P is the pressure of the gas.
V is the volume of the gas.
n is the number of moles.
R is the universal gas constant = 8.3145 J.mol-1.K-1
(7)
KINETIC THEORY
13
T is the temperature of the gas

N is Avogadro’s number, NA = 6.0221×1023
Specific Heat
Specific heat, Csp, is the amount of heat required to change the heat content of exactly 1 gram
of a material by exactly 1°C.
Specific heat values can be determined in the following way: When two materials, each initially
at a different temperature, are placed in contact with one another, heat always flows from the
warmer material into the colder material until both the materials attain the same temperature.
From the law of conservation of energy, the heat gained by the initially colder material must
)
equal the heat lost by the initially warmer material.
m
We know that when heat energy is absorbed by a substance, its temperature increases. If the
.co
same quantity of heat is given to equal masses of different substances, it is observed that the
rise in temperature for each substance is different. This is due to the fact that different
la
substances have different heat capacities. So heat capacity of a substance is the quantity of the
heat required to raise the temperature of the whole substance by one degree. If the mass of the
a
hs
substance is unity then the heat capacity is called Specific heat capacity or the specific heat.
Specific Heat Capacity Formula
at
Q = C m ∆t
lp
Where,
ita
Q = quantity of heat absorbed by a body

ig
m = mass of the body

.d
∆t = Rise in temperature
w
C = Specific heat capacity of a substance depends on the nature of the material of the substance.
w
S.I unit of specific heat is J kg-1 K-1.

(w
Specific Heat Capacity Unit

Heat capacity = Specific heat x mass
Its S.I unit is J K-1.
Monatomic Gases
“Monatomic” is a combination of two words “mono”, and “atomic” means a single atom. This
term is used in both Physics and Chemistry and is applied to the gases as monatomic gases. In
the gaseous phase at sufficiently high temperatures, all the chemical elements are monatomic
gases.
Noble gases are monatomic gases as they are unreactive, which is a property of these gases.
(8)
KINETIC THEORY
13
They do find applications in daily life like

Helium is used in filling balloons as their density is lower than the air’s.
Neon is used for creating advertising signs as they glow when electricity flows through them.
Argon is used in a light bulb to prevent the burning of the filament as it is unreactive
Diatomic Molecules
Diatomic molecules are those molecules that are composed of only two atoms. If a diatomic
molecule is composed of the same element, it is known as a homonuclear, and if it is composed
of two different elements, it is known as heteronuclear.
Polyatomic Ion
)
m
A polyatomic ion is also known as a molecular ion that is composed of two or more covalently
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bonded atoms. It is also referred to as a radical.
Top Formulae
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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w
w
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(9)
13
KINETIC THEORY
(w
w
w
.d
ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
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m
)
(10)
13
KINETIC THEORY
(w
w
w
.d
ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
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m
)
(11)
KINETIC THEORY
13
Important Questions

Question 1. A room temperature the r.m.s. velocity of the molecules of a certain
diatomic gas is found to be 1930 m/sec. the gas is
(a) H²
(b) F²
(c) O²
)
m
(d) Cl²
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Question 2. Energy supplied to convert unit mass of substance from solid to liquid
state at its melting point is called
la
(a) Latent heat of fusion
a
(b) Evaporation hs
(c) Solidification
at
(d) Latent heat of fission
lp
Question 3. One any planet, the presence of atmosphere implies [nrms = root mean
ita
square velocity of molecules and ne = escape velocity]

(a) nrms << ne
ig
(b) nrms > ne

.d
(c) nrms = ne
w
(d) nrms = 0
w
Question 4. Calculate the RMS velocity of molecules of a gas of which the ratio of
(w
two specific heats is 1.42 and velocity of sound in the gas is 500 m/s
(a) 727 m/s
(b) 527 m/s
(c) 927 m/s
(d) 750 m/s
Question 5. The r.m.s. speed of the molecules of a gas in a vessel is 200 m/s. if 25%
of the gas leaks out of the vessel, at constant temperature, then the r.m.s. speed of
the remaining molecules will be
(a) 400 m/s
(12)
KINETIC THEORY
13
(b) 150 m/s

(c) 100 m/s
(d) 200 m/s
Question 6. A gas is taken in a sealed container at 300 K. it is heated at constant
volume to a temperature 600 K. the mean K.E. of its molecules is
(a) Halved
(b) Doubled
(c) Tripled
)
(d) Quadrupled
m
Question 7. Moon has no atmosphere because
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(a) It is far away form the surface of the earth
(b) Its surface temperature is 10°C
a la
(c) The r.m.s. velocity of all the gas molecules is more then the escape velocity of
the moons surface hs
(d) The escape velocity of the moons surface is more than the r.m.s velocity of all
at
molecules
lp
Question 8. A unit mass of solid converted to liquid at its melting point. Heat is
ita
required for this process is:

(a) Specific heat
ig
(b) Latent heat of vaporization

.d
(c) Latent heat of fusion

w
(d) External latent heat

w
Question 9. One mole of ideal gas required 207 J heat to rise the temperature by
(w
10°K when heated at constant pressure. If the same gas is heated at constant
volume to raise the temperature by the same 10°K the heat required is (R = 8/3
J/mole °K)
(a) 1987 J
(b) 29 J
(c) 215.3 J
(d) 124 J
Question 10. The r.m.s velocity of the molecules of an ideal gas is C at a
temperature of 100K. at what temperature is r.m.s. velocity will be doubted?
(13)
KINETIC THEORY
13
(a) 200 K
(b) 400 K
(c) 300 K
(d) 50 K
Very Short:
1. What does gas constant R signify? What is its value?
2. What is the nature of the curve obtained when:
(a) Pressure versus reciprocal volume is plotted for an ideal gas at a constant
)
temperature.
m
(b) Volume of an ideal gas is plotted against its absolute temperature at
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constant pressure.
3. The graph shows the variation of the product of PV with the pressure of the
la
constant mass of three gases A, B and C. If all the changes are at a constant
a
temperature, then which of the three gases is an ideal gas? Why?
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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4. On the basis of Charle’s law, what is the minimum possible temperature?

w
5. What would be the ratio of initial and final pressures if the masses of all the
w
molecules of a gas are halved and their speeds are doubled?

(w
6. Water solidifies into ice at 273 K. What happens to the K.E. of water
molecules?
7. Name three gas laws that can be obtained from the gas equation.
8. What is the average velocity of the molecules of a gas in equilibrium?
9. A vessel is filled with a mixture of two different gases. Will the mean kinetic
energies per molecule of both gases be equal? Why?
10.The density of a gas is doubled, keeping all other factors unchanged. What will
be the effect on the pressure of the gas?
Short Questions:
(14)
KINETIC THEORY
13
1. Why cooling is caused by evaporation?

2. On reducing the volume of the gas at a constant temperature, the pressure of
the gas increases. Explain on the basis of the kinetic theory of gases.
3. Why temperature less than absolute zero is not possible?
4. There are n molecules of a gas in a container. If the number of molecules is
increased to 2n, what will be:
(a) the pressure of the gas.
(b) the total energy of the gas.
(c) r.m.s. speed of the gas molecules.
)
m
5. Equal masses of O2 and He gases are supplied equal amounts of heat. Which
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gas will undergo a greater temperature rise and why?
6. Two bodies of specific heats S1 and S2 having the same heat capacities are
la
combined to form a single composite body. What is the specific heat of the
composite body?
a
7. Tell the degree of freedom of: hs
at
(a) Monoatomic gas moles.
(b) Diatomic gas moles.
lp
(c) Polyatomic gas moles.

ita
8. State law of equipartition of energy.

ig
9. Explain why it is not possible to increase the temperature of gas while keeping
.d
its volume and pressure constant?

w
10.A glass of water is stirred and then allowed to stand until the water stops
moving. What has happened to the K.E. of the moving water?
w
Long Questions:
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1. Calculate r.m.s. the velocity of hydrogen at N.T.P. Given the density of

hydrogen = 0.09 kg m4.
2. Calculate the temperature at which r.m.s. the velocity of the gas molecule is
double its value at 27°C, the pressure of the gas remaining the same.
3. Calculate the K.E./mole of a gas at N.T.P. Density of gas at N.T.P. = 0.178 g dm-3
and molecular weight = 4.
4. Calculate the diameter of a molecule if n = 2.79 × 1025 molecules per m3 and
mean free path = 2.2 × 10-8 m.
(15)
KINETIC THEORY
13
5. Calculate the number of molecules in 1 cm3 of a perfect gas at 27°C and at a

pressure of 10 mm of Hg. Mean K.E. of a molecule at 27°C = 4 × 1025 J. ρHg =
13.6 × 103 kg m-3.
1. Directions: Choose the correct option from the following:
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
(d) A is false and R is also false
)
Assertion (A): The number of degrees of freedom of a linear triatomic molecules is
m
7.
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Reason (R): The number of degrees of freedom depends on number of particles in
the system.
la
2. Directions: Choose the correct option from the following:
a
(a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
hs
(b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
(c) A is true but R is false
at
(d) A is false and R is also false
lp
Assertion (A): Absolute zero is not the temperature corresponding to zero energy.
ita
Reason (R): The temperature at which no molecular motion ceases is called absolute
zero
ig
temperature.
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✓ Answer Key:
w

w
1. Answer: (a) H²
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2. Answer: (a) Latent heat of fusion

3. Answer (a) nrms << ne
4. Answer: (a) 727 m/s
5. Answer: (d) 200 m/s
6. Answer: (b) Doubled
7. Answer: (c) The r.m.s. velocity of all the gas molecules is more then the escape
velocity of the moons surface
8. Answer: (c) Latent heat of fusion
(16)
KINETIC THEORY
13
9. Answer: (d) 124 J

10.Answer: (b) 400 K
Very Short Answers:
1. Answer: The universal gas constant (R) signifies the work done by (or on) a gas per
mole per kelvin. Its value is 8.31 J mol-1 K
2. Answer: (a)It is a straight line.
(b) It is a straight line.
3. Answer: A is an ideal gas because PV is constant at constant temperature for an ideal
)
gas.
m
4. Answer: – 273.15°C.
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13mn
5. Answer: 1: 2 (∵ P = C2)
V
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6. Answer: It is partly converted into the binding energy of ice.
a
7. Answer:
1. Boyle’s law
hs
at
2. Charle’s law
lp
3. Gay Lussac’s law.

ita
8. Answer: Zero.
3
9. Yes. This is because the mean K.E. per molecule i.e. kT depends only upon the
ig
2
temperature.
.d
10.It will be doubled. (∵ P ∝ ρ if other factors are constant).

w

w
1. Answer: Evaporation occurs on account of faster molecules escaping from the surface
(w
of the liquid. The liquid is therefore left with molecules having lower speeds. The
decrease in the average speed of molecules results in lowering the temperature and
hence cooling is caused.
2. Answer: On reducing the volume, the space for the given number of molecules of the
gas decreases i.e. no. of molecules per unit volume increases. As a result of which
more molecules collide with the walls of the vessel per second and hence a larger
momentum is transferred to the walls per second. Due to which the pressure of gas
increases.
3. Answer: According to the kinetic interpretation of temperature, absolute temperature
means the kinetic energy of molecules.
(17)
KINETIC THEORY
13
As heat is taken out, the temperature falls and hence velocity decreases. At
absolute zero, the velocity of the molecules becomes zero i.e. kinetic energy
becomes zero. So no more decrease in K.E. is possible, hence temperature
cannot fall further.
4. Answer: (a) We know that
1
P = mnC2.
3
where n = no. of molecules per unit volume.
Thus when no. of molecules is increased from n to 2n, no. of molecules per unit
volume (n) will increase from n 2n
)
m
𝑛 2𝑛
to , hence pressure will become double.
𝑉 𝑉
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(b) The K.E. of a gas molecule is,
1 3
mC2 = kT
la
2 2
a
If the no. of molecules is increased from n to 2n. There is no effect on the
hs
average K.E. of a gas molecule, but the total energy is doubled.
at
3𝑃 3𝑃
r.m.s speed of gas is Crms = √ =√
𝜌 𝑚𝑛
lp
P
When n is increased from n to 2n. both n and P become double and the ratio
ita
n
remains unchanged. So there will be no effect of increasing the number of
molecule from n to 2n on r.m.s. speed of gas molecule.
ig
5. Answer: Helium is monoatomic while O2 is diatomic. In the case of helium, the supplied
.d
heat has to increase only the translational K.E. of the gas molecules.
w
On the other hand, in the case of oxygen, the supplied heat has to increase the
w
translations, vibrational and rotational K.E. of gas molecules. Thus helium

(w
would undergo a greater temperature rise.

6. Answer: Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two bodies having heat capacities S1 and S1
respectively.
∴ (m1 + m2)S = m1S1 + m2S2 = m1S1 + m1S1 = 2m1S1
Also, m2S2 = m1S1

( ∵ Heat capacities of two bodies are same.)
Or
(18)
KINETIC THEORY
13
7. Answer: (a) A monoatomic gas possesses 3 translational degrees of freedom for each
molecule.
(b) A diatomic gas molecule has 5 degrees of freedom including 3 translational and 2
rotational degrees of freedom.
(c) The polyatomic gas molecule has 6 degrees of freedom (3 translational and 3
)
rotational).
m
8. Answer: It states that in equilibrium, the total energy of the system is divided equally in
.co
all possible energy modes with each mode i.e. degree of freedom having an average
1
energy equal to KBT.
la
2
a
9. Answer: It is not possible to increase the temperature of a gas keeping volume and
hs
pressure constant can be explained as follows:
According to the Kinetic Theory of gases,
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
( ∵ C2 = kT, when k is a constant)

w
T ∝ PV
w
Now as T is directly proportional to the product of P and V. If P and V are constant,

then T is also constant.
(w
10.Answer: The K.E. of moving water is dissipated into internal energy. The temperature
of water thus increases.
1. Answer:
(19)
KINETIC THEORY
13
)
m
.co
2. Answer: Let t be the required temperature = ? and Ct, C27 be the r.m.s.
la
velocities of the gas molecules at t°C and 27°C respectively.
a
𝐶𝑡
𝐶27
= 2 (given) hs
Also let M = molecular weight of the gas
at
Now T = t + 273
lp
and T27 = 27 + 273 = 300 K

ita
∴ Using the relation

ig
.d
w
w
(w
(20)
KINETIC THEORY
13
)
m
.co
3. Answer: Here, ρ = 0.178 g dm-3
= 0.178 × 10-3 g cm-3 (∵ 1 dm3 = 10-3 cm3)
la
= 178 × 10-6 g cm-3
a
Mass
hs
Volume of 1 mole of gas i.e. 4 g of gas =
Density
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
4. Answer: Here, n = 2.79 × 1025 molecules m-3

λ = 2.2 × 10-8 m
d=?
Using the relation.
(21)
KINETIC THEORY
13
)
m
5. Answer: Here, K..E. per molecule at 27°C = 4 × 10-11 J
.co
Let μ = number of molecules in 1 cm3 or 10-6 m3
la
∴ Mean K.E. per cm3 = μ × 4 × 1011 J ….(i)
a
3
Now K.E. per gram molecule = RT hs
2
for a perfect gas, PV = RT
at
3
∴ K.E, per gram molecule = PV
lp
2
or
ita
3
K.E. per cm3 of gas = PV
2
ig
P = 10 mm of Hg = 10-2 m of Hg
.d
= 10-2 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.8

w
= 136 × 9.8 Nm-2 V

w
= 1 cm3
(w
= 10-6 m3
3
∴ K.E per cm3 of gas = × 136 × 9.8 × 106
2
-3
= 1.969 × 10 J ….(ii)
∴ from (i) and (ii) we get
μ × 4 × 10-11 = 1.969 × 10-3
or
1.969 × 10−3
𝜇 =
4 × 1011
(22)
KINETIC THEORY
13
= 4.92 × 107 molecules.

1. (b) Both A and R are true, but R is NOT the correct explanation of A
2. (a) Both A and R are true, and R is the correct explanation of A
1. Boyle’s law is a gas law which states that the pressure exerted by a gas (of a given mass,
kept at a constant temperature) is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. In
other words, the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other as
)
long as the temperature and the quantity of gas are kept constant. For a gas, the
m
relationship between volume and pressure (at constant mass and temperature) can be
expressed mathematically as follows. P ∝ (1/V) Where P is the pressure exerted by the
.co
gas and V is the volume occupied by it. This proportionality can be converted into an
equation by adding a constant, k. Charles law states that the volume of an ideal gas is
la
directly proportional to the absolute temperature at constant pressure. The law also
a
states that the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion when the
hs
pressure exerted on a sample of a dry gas is held constant. Charles law and Boyle’s law
applied to low density gas only. The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of
at
partial pressures. This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
lp
i. Boyle’s law is obeyed by high as well as low density gases. True or False?
ita
a. True
ig
b. False
.d
ii. Charles law is states that volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to
temperature at constant
w
a. Temperature
w
b. Pressure
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c. Volume
d. None of these
iii. State Daltons law of partial pressures
iv. State Boyle’s law
v. State Charles law
2. Pressure of an Ideal Gas: according to kinetic theory of gases pressure is given by P = 1/3
nmv2 Where, n is number of molecules per unit volume, m is mass and v2 is mean
squared speed. Though we choose the container to be a cube, the shape of the vessel
really is immaterial. The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the
(23)
KINETIC THEORY
13
absolute temperature of the gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or the nature of

the ideal gas. This is a fundamental result relating temperature, a macroscopic
measurable parameter of a gas (a thermodynamic variable as it is called) to a molecular
quantity, namely the average kinetic energy of a molecule. The two domains are
connected by the Boltzmann constant and given by E = kbT. Where kb is Boltzmann
constant having value of 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin. We have seen that in thermal
equilibrium at absolute temperature T, for each translational mode of motion, the
average energy is ½ Kb T. The most elegant principle of classical statistical mechanics (first
proved by Maxwell) states that this is so for each mode of energy: translational, rotational
and vibrational. That is, in equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed in all possible
energy modes, with each mode having an average energy equal to ½ kB T. This is known
)
m
as the law of equipartition of energy. Accordingly, each translational and rotational
degree of freedom of a molecule contributes ½ kB T to the energy, while each vibrational
.co
frequency contributes 2 × ½ kB T = kB T, since a vibrational mode has both kinetic and
potential energy modes.
la
i. Boltzmann constant has value of
a
a. 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin. hs
b. 1.38*10-28 joule per Kelvin.
at
c. 1.38*10-30 joule per Kelvin.
lp
d. None of these
ita
ii. SI unit of Boltzmann constant is given by

ig
a. Joules per meter

.d
b. Joules per Kelvin

w
c. Joules per Newton

w
d. None of these
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iii. According to kinetic theory give formula for pressure of idea gas.
iv. According to kinetic theory what is average kinetic energy of molecules of ideal gas?
v. What is law of equipartition of energy?
Case Study Answer-
1. Answer
i. (a) True
ii. (b) Pressure
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KINETIC THEORY
13
iii. The total pressure of a mixture of ideal gases is the sum of partial pressures exerted by
all the molecules of gas. This is Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
iv. Boyle’s law is a gas law which states that at constant temperature the pressure exerted
by a gas is inversely proportional to the volume occupied by it. In other words, the
pressure and volume of a gas are inversely proportional to each other as long as the
temperature and the quantity of gas are kept constant. For a gas, the P ∝ (1/V)
Where P is the pressure exerted by the gas and V is the volume occupied by it. This
proportionality can be converted into an equation by adding a constant k.
v. Charles law states that the volume of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature at constant pressure.
)
m
2. Answer
i. (a) 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin.
.co
ii. (b) Joules per Kelvin
la
iii. According to kinetic theory of gases pressure is given by P = 1/3 nmv2 Where, n is
a
number of molecules per unit volume, m is mass and v2 is mean squared speed.
hs
Though we choose the container to be a cube, the shape of the vessel really is
immaterial.
at
iv. The average kinetic energy of a molecule is proportional to the absolute temperature
lp
of the gas; it is independent of pressure, volume or the nature of the ideal gas and
ita
given by E = 3/2 kbT.

Where kb is Boltzmann constant having value of 1.38*10-23 joule per Kelvin.
ig
v. We know that for each translational mode of motion, the average energy is ½ Kb
.d
T. classical statistical mechanics states that in equilibrium, the total energy is equally
distributed in all possible energy modes, with each mode having an average energy
w
equal to ½ kBT. This is known as the law of equipartition of energy. Accordingly, each
w
translational and rotational degree of freedom of a molecule contributes ½ kBT to the

(w
energy, while each vibrational frequency contributes 2 × ½ kB T = kBT, since a

vibrational mode has both kinetic and potential energy modes.
(25)
PHYSICS
)
m
.co
a la
Chapter 14: Oscillations
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
OSCILLATIONS
14
Oscillations
Introduction
In this chapter we will learn about oscillatory motion or oscillations. Any motion which repeats
itself at regular intervals of time is known as periodic motion. If a body moves back and forth
repeatedly about its mean position, then it is said to be in oscillatory motion.
For example: The to and fro movement of pendulum, jumping on a trampoline, a child swinging
on a swing.
Oscillations can be defined as Periodic to and fro motion which repeat itself at regular intervals
)
of time.
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
To and from motion of pendulum

.d
w
w
(w
Child on a swing
Kids jumping on the trampoline

Oscillatory Motion and Periodic Motion
(1)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Periodic motion is defined as the motion that repeats itself after fixed intervals of time. This
fixed interval of time is known as time period of the periodic motion. Examples of periodic
motion are motion of hands of the clock, motion of planets around the sun etc.
Oscillatory motion is defined as the to and from motion of the body about its fixed position.
Oscillatory motion is a type of periodic motion. Examples of oscillatory motion are vibrating
strings, swinging of the swing etc.
Oscillatory Motion
Oscillatory motion is defined as the to and from motion of an object from its mean position.
The ideal condition is that the object can be in oscillatory motion forever in the absence of
friction but in the real world, this is not possible and the object has to settle into equilibrium.
)
m
To describe mechanical oscillation, the term vibration is used which is found in a swinging
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pendulum. Likewise, the beating of the human heart is an example of oscillation in dynamic
systems.
la
Examples of Oscillatory Motion
a
Following are the examples of oscillatory motion:
Oscillation of simple pendulum
hs
at
Vibrating strings of musical instruments is a mechanical example of oscillatory motion
lp
Movement of spring
ita
Alternating current is an electrical example of oscillatory motion

Series of oscillations are seen in cosmological model
ig
Simple Harmonic Motion

.d
Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of oscillatory motion which is defined for the particle
w
moving along a straight line with an acceleration which is moving towards a fixed point on the
w
line such that the magnitude is proportional to the distance from the fixed point.
(w
For any simple mechanical harmonic system (system of the weight hung by the spring to the
wall) that is displaced from its equilibrium position, a restoring force which obeys the Hooke’s
law is required to restore the system back to equilibrium. Following is the mathematical
representation of restoring force:
Where,
F is the restoring elastic force exerted by the spring (N)
k is the spring constant (Nm-1)
x is the displacement from equilibrium position (m)
Periodic Motion
(2)
OSCILLATIONS
14
We can classify the motion of various bodies on the basis of the way they move. For example, a
car moving on a straight road is said to have linear motion. Similarly, the motion of the earth
around the sun is circular motion. In this session, we shall be discussing periodic motion along
with its formula.
A motion that repeats itself after equal intervals of time is known as periodic motion.
Examples of periodic motion: a tuning fork or motion of a pendulum if you analyze the motion
you will find that the pendulum passes through the mean position only after a definite interval
of time. We can also classify the above motion to be oscillatory. An oscillatory is a motion in
which the body moves to and from about a fixed position. So an oscillatory motion can be
periodic but it is not necessary.
)
m
So taking an example of a wave motion we will see some parameters related to periodic
motion. Let’s take the following figure:
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
Periodic Motion Formula

w
Time Period (T): It is the time taken by the motion to repeat itself. So the unit of a time period is
seconds.
w
Frequency (f): It is defined as a number of times the motion is repeated in one second. The unit
(w
of frequency is Hz (Hertz). Frequency is related to Time period as:
Frequency, Time Period and Angular Frequency

As we know, many forms of energy like light and sound travel in waves. A wave is defined
through various characteristics like frequency, amplitude and speed. In wave mechanics, any
given wave enfolds parameters like – frequency, time period, wavelength, amplitude etc. This
article lets us understand and learn in detail about frequency, time period, and angular
frequency.
Parameters of a Wave
Frequency definition states that it is the number of complete cycles of waves passing a point in
(3)
OSCILLATIONS
14
unit time. The time period is the time taken by a complete cycle of the wave to pass a point.
Angular frequency is angular displacement of any element of the wave per unit of time.
Consider the graph shown below. It represents the displacement y of any element for a
harmonic wave along a string moving in the positive x-direction with respect to time. Here, the
string element moves up and down in simple harmonic motion.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
The relation describing the displacement of the element with respect to time is given as:
at
y (0,t) = a sin (–ωt), here we have considered the inception of wavefrom x=0
lp
y (0,t) = -a sin (ωt)

ita
As we know, sinusoidal or harmonic motion is periodic in nature, i.e. the nature of the graph of
an element of the wave repeats itself at a fixed duration. To mark the duration of periodicity
ig
following terms are introduced for sinusoidal waves.

.d
Time Period
w
As shown above, the particles move about the mean equilibrium or mean position with time in
a sinusoidal wave motion. The particles rise until they reach the highest point, the crest, and
w
then continue to fall until they reach the lowest point, the trough. The cycle repeats itself in a
(w
uniform pattern. The time period of oscillation of a wave is defined as the time taken by any
string element to complete one such oscillation. For a sine wave represented by the equation:
y (0, t) = -a sin(ωt)
The time period formula is given as:
Frequency
We define the frequency of a sinusoidal wave as the number of complete oscillations made by
any wave element per unit of time. By the definition of frequency, we can understand that if a
body is in periodic motion, it has undergone one cycle after passing through a series of events
or positions and returning to its original state. Thus, frequency is a parameter that describes the
(4)
OSCILLATIONS
14
rate of oscillation and vibration.

The equation gives the relation between the frequency and the period:
The relation between the frequency and the period is given by the equation:
f=1/T
For a sinusoidal wave represented by the equation:
y (0,t) = -a sin (ωt)
The formula of the frequency with the SI unit is given as:
Formula
)
m
.co
SI unit
Hertz
la
Angular Frequency
a
hs
For a sinusoidal wave, the angular frequency refers to the angular displacement of any element
of the wave per unit of time or the rate of change of the phase of the waveform. It is
at
represented by ω. Angular frequency formula and SI unit are given as:
lp
Formula
ita
SI unit
ig
rads-1
.d
Where,
w
ω = angular frequency of the wave.

w
T = time period of the wave.

(w
f = ordinary frequency of the wave.

Displacement as a function of time and Periodic function
To understand this idea of displacement as a function of time, we will have to derive an
expression for displacement, assume a body traveling at an initial velocity of v1 at the time t1
and then the body accelerates at a constant acceleration of ‘a’ for some time and a final
velocity of v2 at the time t2, keeping these things in assumption let’s derive the following.
(5)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Let’s write displacement as
Where Δt is the change in time, assuming that the object is under constant acceleration.
Where V2 and V1 are final and initial velocities respectively, let’s rewrite final velocity in terms
of initial velocity for the sake of simplicity.
)
Where a is the constant acceleration the body is moving at, now if we rewrite the above as,
m
.co
The above expression is one of the most fundamental expressions in kinematics, it is also
la
sometimes given as
a
hs
at
Where Vi is the initial velocity, and t is actually the change in time, all the quantities in this
derivation, like Velocity, displacement and acceleration, are vector quantities.
lp
Velocity of a particle executing Simple Harmonic Motion

ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
this is an equation of an ellipse.
(6)
OSCILLATIONS
14
The curve between displacement and velocity of a particle executing the simple harmonic
motion is an ellipse.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
When ω = 1, then the curve between v and x will be circular.
Acceleration in SHM
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Hence the expression for displacement, velocity and acceleration in linear simple harmonic
motion are
(7)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

The system that executes SHM is called the harmonic oscillator.
Consider a particle of mass m, executing linear simple harmonic motion of angular frequency
(ω) and amplitude (A),
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
Kinetic Energy of a Particle in SHM
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
Potential Energy of SHM

(w
The total work done by the restoring force in displacing the particle from (x = 0) (mean position)
to x = x:
When the particle has been displaced from x to x + dx, the work done by restoring force is dw =
F dx = -kx dx
(8)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Total Mechanical Energy of the Particle Executing SHM

E = KE + PE
Hence, the particle’s total energy in SHM is constant, independent of the instantaneous
displacement.
⇒ Relationship between Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy and time in Simple Harmonic Motion
at t = 0, when x = ±A.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
⇒ Variation of Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion with
ig
displacement:
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w
w
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Simple Pendulum Definition

A simple pendulum is a mechanical arrangement that demonstrates periodic motion. The
simple pendulum comprises a small bob of mass ‘m’ suspended by a thin string secured to a
platform at its upper end of length L.
(9)
OSCILLATIONS
14
The simple pendulum is a mechanical system that sways or moves in an oscillatory motion. This
motion occurs in a vertical plane and is mainly driven by the gravitational force. Interestingly,
the bob that is suspended at the end of a thread very light somewhat we can say it is even
massless. The period of a simple pendulum can be made extended by increasing the length
string while taking the measurements from the point of suspension to the middle of the bob.
However, it should be noted that if the mass of the bob is changed it will the period remains
unchanged. Period is influenced mainly by the position of the pendulum in relation to Earth as
the strength of gravitational field is not uniform everywhere.
Meanwhile, pendulums are a common system whose usage is seen in various instances. Some
are used in clocks to keep track of the time while some are just used for fun in case of a child’s
)
swing. In some cases, it is used in an unconventional manner such as a sinker on a fishing line.
m
In any case, we will explore and learn more about the simple pendulum on this page. We will
.co
discover the conditions under which it performs simple harmonic motion as well as derive an
interesting expression for its period.
la
Important Terms
a
The oscillatory motion of a simple pendulum: Oscillatory motion is defined as the to and fro
hs
motion of the pendulum in a periodic fashion and the centre point of oscillation known as
equilibrium position.
at
The time period of a simple pendulum: It is defined as the time taken by the pendulum to finish
lp
one full oscillation and is denoted by “T”.

ita
The amplitude of simple pendulum: It is defined as the distance travelled by the pendulum from
the equilibrium position to one side.
ig
Length of a simple pendulum: It is defined as the distance between the point of suspension to
.d
the centre of the bob and is denoted by “l”.

w
Spring Mass System Arrangements

w
Spring mass systems can be arranged in two ways. These include;

(w
The parallel combination of springs

Series combination of springs
We will discuss them below;
Parallel Combination of Springs
(10)
OSCILLATIONS
14
)
m
.co
Fig (a), (b) and (c) – are the parallel combination of springs.
la
Displacement on each spring is the same.
a
But restoring force is different; hs
at
Since, F = -kx, the above equation can be written as
lp
ita
ig
Time Period of Simple Pendulum Derivation

.d
Using the equation of motion, T – mg cosθ = mv2L

w
The torque tending to bring the mass to its equilibrium position,

w
τ = mgL × sinθ = mgsinθ × L = I × α

(w
For small angles of oscillations sin θ ≈ θ,

Therefore, Iα = -mgLθ
Using I = ML2, [where I denote the moment of inertia of bob]
(11)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Therefore, the time period of a simple pendulum is given by,
Top Formulae
)
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
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(12)
14
OSCILLATIONS
(w
w
w
.d
ig
ita
lp
at
hs
ala
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m
)
(13)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Important Questions
Question 1. If an simple pendulum oscillates with an amplitude of 50 mm and time
period of 2s, then its maximum velocity is
(a) 0.10 m/s
(b) 0.16 m/s
(c) 0.25 m/s
(d) 0.5 m/s
)
m
Question 2. If the frequency of the particle executing S.H.M. is n, the frequency of
its kinetic energy becoming maximum is
.co
(a) n/2
la
(b) n
a
(c) 2n
(d) 4n
hs
at
Question 3. Spring is pulled down by 2 cm. What is amplitude of motion?
lp
(a) 0 cm
ita
(b) 6 cm
(c) 2 cm
ig
(d) cm
.d
Question 4. The period of thin magnet is 4 sec. if it is divided into two equal halves
w
then the time period of each part will be

w
(a) 4 sec
(w
(b) 1 sec
(c) 2 sec
(d) 8 sec
Question 5. The acceleration of particle executing S.H.M. when it is at mean
position is
(a) Infinite
(b) Varies
(c) Maximum
(d) Zero
(14)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Question 6. A spring of force constant k is cut into two pieces such that on piece is
double the length of the other. Then the long piece will have a force constant of
(a) 2 k/3
(b) 3 k/2
(c) 3 k
(d) 6 k
Question 7. Particle moves from extreme position to mean position, its
(a) Kinetic energy increases, potential increases decreases
)
(b) Kinetic energy decreases, potential increases
m
(c) Both remains constant
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(d) Potential energy becomes zero and kinetic energy remains constant
la
Question 8. Grap of potential energy vs. displacement of a S.H. Oscillator is
a
(a) parabolic
(b) hyperbolic
hs
at
(c) elliptical
lp
(d) linear
ita
Question 9. The time-period of S.H.O. is 16 sec. Starting from mean position, its
velocity is 0.4 m/s after 2 sec. Its amplitude is
ig
(a) 0.36 m
.d
(b) 0.72 m
w
(c) 1.44 m
w
(d) 2.88 m
(w
Question 10. A simple pendulum is made of a body which is a hollow sphere

containing mercury suspended by means of a wire. If a little mercury is drained
off, the period of pendulum will
(a) Remain unchanged
(b) Increase
(c) Decrease
(d) Become erratic
1. Directions:
(15)
OSCILLATIONS
14

(d) If the assertion and reason both are false
Assertion: Sine and cosine functions are periodic functions.
Reason: Sinusoidal functions repeats it values after a definite interval of time.
2. Directions:
)
m
.co
la
Assertion: Simple harmonic motion is a uniform motion.
a
Reason: Simple harmonic motion is not the projection of uniform circular motion.
hs
MCQ Answers-
at
1. Answer: (b) 0.16 m/s
lp
2. Answer: (c) 2n
ita
3. Answer: (c) 2 cm
ig
4. Answer: (c) 2 sec

.d
5. Answer: (d) Zero

w
6. Answer: (b) 3 k/2

w
7. Answer: (a) Kinetic energy increases, potential increases decreases

(w
8. Answer: (a) parabolic

9. Answer: (c) 1.44 m
10.Answer: (b) Increase
Very Short Questions-
1. How is the time period effected, if the amplitude of a simple pendulum is in
Creased?
2. Define force constant of a spring.
(16)
OSCILLATIONS
14
3. At what distance from the mean position, is the kinetic energy in simple
harmonic oscillator equal to potential energy?
4. How is the frequency of oscillation related with the frequency of change in the
of K. E and PE of the body in S.H.M.?
5. What is the frequency of total energy of a particle in S.H.M.?
6. How is the length of seconds pendulum related with acceleration due gravity of
any planet?
)
m
7. If the bob of a simple pendulum is made to oscillate in some fluid of density
.co
greater than the density of air (density of the bob density of the fluid), then
time period of the pendulum increased or decrease.
a la
8. How is the time period of the pendulum effected when pendulum is taken to
hills Or in mines? hs
at
9. Define angular frequency. Give its S.I. unit.
lp
ita
10.Does the direction of acceleration at various points during the oscillation of a

simple pendulum remain towards mean position?
ig
.d
Very Short Answers-

w
1. Ans. No effect on time period when amplitude of pendulum is increased or

w
decreased.
(w
2. Ans. The spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided
by the change in deflection of the spring.
3. Ans. Not at the mid-point, between mean and extreme position. it will be at
4. Ans. P.E. or K.E. completes two vibrations in a time during which S.H.M
completes one vibration or the frequency of P.E. or K.E. is double than that of
S.H.M
5. Ans. The frequency of total energy of particle is S.H.M is zero because it retain
constant.
6. Ans. Length of the seconds pendulum proportional to acceleration due to
gravity)
(17)
OSCILLATIONS
14
7. Ans. Increased
8. Ans. As T will increase.

9. Ans. It is the angle covered per unit time or it is the quantity obtained by
multiplying frequency by a factor of 2 .
= 2π v, S.I. unit is rads s-1
10.Ans. No, the resultant of Tension in the string and weight of bob is not always
towards the mean position.
Short Questions-
)
m
1.A mass = m suspend separately from two springs of spring constant k1 and
.co
k2 gives time period t1 and t2 respectively. If the same mass is connected to both
the springs as shown in figure. Calculate the time period ‘t’ of the combined
system?
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
2.Show that the total energy of a body executing SHN is independent of time?
ig
3.A particles moves such that its acceleration ‘a’ is given by a = -b x where x =
.d
displacement from equilibrium position and b is a constant. Find the period of

oscillation? 2
w
4.A particle is S.H.N. is described by the displacement function: →

w
(w
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is π cm | s,

What are its amplitude and phase angle?
5.Determine the time period of a simple pendulum of length = l when mass of bob
= m Kg? 3
6. Which of the following examples represent periodic motion?
(a) A swimmer completing one (return) trip from one bank of a river to the other
and back.
(b) A freely suspended bar magnet displaced from its N-S direction and released.
(c) A hydrogen molecule rotating about its center of mass.
(18)
OSCILLATIONS
14
(d) An arrow released from a bow.

7. Figure 14.27 depicts four x-t plots for linear motion of a particle. Which of the
plots represent periodic motion? What is the period of motion (in case of periodic
motion)?
(a)
)
(b)
m
.co
a la
(c)
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
(d)
.d
w
w
(w
8. Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the

displacement x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x
(b) a = -200
(c) a = -10x
(d) a = 100
9. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 . What is the
time period of a simple pendulum on the surface of moon if its time period on the
surface of earth is 3.5 s? (g on the surface of earth is 9.8 )
(19)
OSCILLATIONS
14
10. A simple pendulum of length l and having a bob of mass M is suspended in a

car. The car is moving on a circular track of radius R with a uniform speed v. If the
pendulum makes small oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium
position, what will be its time period?
Short Answers-
1. Ans. If T = Time Period of simple pendulum
m = Mass
k = Spring constant
)
m
then,
.co
a la
For first spring : hs
at
For second spring :
lp
When springs is connected in parallel, effective spring constant, k = k = k1 + k2

ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Or
2. Ans. Let y = displacement at any time‘t’
a = amplitude
w = Angular frequency
v = velocity,
y = a Sin wt
So,
(20)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Now, kinetic energy = K. E. =
Potential energy =
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
Thus total mechanical energy is always constant is equal to . The total energy
w
is independent to time. The potential energy oscillates with time and has a
w
(w
maximum value of . Similarly K. E. oscillates with time and has a maximum
value of . At any instant = constant = . The K. E or P.E. oscillates at double

the frequency of S.H.M.
3. Ans. Given that a = -b x, Since a x and is directed apposite to x, the particle do
moves in S. H. M.
a = b x (in magnitude)
(21)
OSCILLATIONS
14
4. Ans.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
Squaring and adding 1) & 2)

ig
.d
w
w
(w
5. Ans. It consist of a heavy point mass body suspended by a weightless

inextensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid support which is free to
oscillate.
(22)
OSCILLATIONS
14
The distance between point of suspension and point of oscillation is effective

length of pendulum.
M = Mass of B ob
x = Displacement = OB
l = length of simple pendulum
)
m
.co
Let the bob is displaced through a small angle θ the forces acting on it:-
la
1) weight = Mg acting vertically downwards.
a
2) Tension = T acting upwards. hs
Divide Mg into its components → Mg Cos θ & Mg Sin θ
at
T = Mg Cos θ
lp
F = Mg Sin θ
ita
- ve sign shows force is divested towards the ocean positions. If θ = Small,

ig
.d
Sin θ
w
w
(w
(23)
OSCILLATIONS
14
i.e.1.) Time period depends on length of pendulum and ‘g’ of place where
experiment is done.
2) T is independent of amplitude of vibration provided and it is small and also of
the mass of bob.
6. Ans. (b) and (c)
(a) The swimmer"s motion is not periodic. The motion of the swimmer between
the banks of a river is back and forth. However, it does not have a definite period.
)
This is because the time taken by the swimmer during his back and forth journey
m
may not be the same.
.co
(b) The motion of a freely-suspended magnet, if displaced from its N-S direction
and released, is periodic. This is because the magnet oscillates about its position
la
with a definite period of time.
a
(c) When a hydrogen molecule rotates about its centre of mass, it comes to the
hs
same position again and again after an equal interval of time. Such motion is
periodic.
at
(d) An arrow released from a bow moves only in the forward direction. It does not
lp
come backward. Hence, this motion is not a periodic.

ita
7. Ans. (b) and (d) are periodic

ig
(a) It is not a periodic motion. This represents a unidirectional, linear uniform

motion. There is no repetition of motion in this case.
.d
(b) In this case, the motion of the particle repeats itself after 2 s. Hence, it is a
w
periodic motion, having a period of 2 s.

w
(c) It is not a periodic motion. This is because the particle repeats the motion in
(w
one position only. For a periodic motion, the entire motion of the particle must be
repeated in equal intervals of time.
(d) In this case, the motion of the particle repeats itself after 2 s. Hence, it is a
8. Ans. (c) A motion represents simple harmonic motion if it is governed by the
force law:
F = –kx
ma = –k
Where,
(24)
OSCILLATIONS
14
F is the force
m is the mass (a constant for a body)
x is the displacement
a is the acceleration
k is a constant
Among the given equations, only equation a = –10 x is written in the above form
with Hence, this relation represents SHM.
)
9. Ans. Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon,
m
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth, g = 9.8 m
.co
Time period of a simple pendulum on earth, T = 3.5 s
a la
Where,
hs
at
l is the length of the pendulum
lp
ita
ig
.d
The length of the pendulum remains constant.

w
w
On moon"s surface, time period,

(w
Hence, the time period of the simple pendulum on the surface of moon is 8.4 s.
10. Ans. The bob of the simple pendulum will experience the acceleration due to
gravity and the centripetal acceleration provided by the circular motion of the car.
Acceleration due to gravity = g
Centripetal acceleration
Where,
(25)
OSCILLATIONS
14
v is the uniform speed of the car

R is the radius of the track
Effective acceleration ( ) is given as:
Time period,
Where,l is the length of the pendulum
)
m
.co
∴Time period, T
la
Long questions-
a
hs
1.What is Simple pendulum? Find an expression for the time period and frequency of a
simple pendulum?
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
2. A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm

apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
w
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is

w
(a) at the end A,

(w
(b) at the end B,

(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,
(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
3. The motion of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is described by the
displacement function,
x (t) = A cos ( t + ).
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is cm/s, what are
its amplitude and initial phase angle? The angular frequency of the particle is π s-1. If
(26)
OSCILLATIONS
14
instead of the cosine function, we choose the sine function to describe the SHM: x = B sin (
t + α), what are the amplitude and initial phase of the particle with the above initial
conditions.
4. In Exercise 14.9, let us take the position of mass when the spring is unstreched as x = 0,
and the direction from left to right as the positive direction of x-axis. Give x as a function
of time t for the oscillating mass if at the moment we start the stopwatch (t = 0), the mass
is
(a) at the mean position,
(b) at the maximum stretched position, and
)
(c) at the maximum compressed position.
m
In what way do these functions for SHM differ from each other, in frequency, in amplitude
.co
or the initial phase?
5. Plot the corresponding reference circle for each of the following simple harmonic
la
motions. Indicate the initial (t = 0) position of the particle, the radius of the circle, and the
a
angular speed of the rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation may be fixed to
hs
be anticlockwise in every case: (x is in cm and t is in s).
at
(a) x = -2 sin (3t + π/3)
lp
(b) x = cos (π/6 - t)

(c) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4)
ita
(d) x = 2 cos πt
ig
6. Figure 14.30 (a) shows a spring of force constant k clamped rigidly at one end and a
.d
mass m attached to its free end. A force F applied at the free end stretches the spring.
Figure 14.30 (b) shows the same spring with both ends free and attached to a mass m at
w
either end. Each end of the spring in Fig. 14.30(b) is stretched by the same force F.
w
(w
(a) What is the maximum extension of the spring in the two cases?
(b) If the mass in Fig. (a) and the two masses in Fig. (b) are released, what is the period of
oscillation in each case?
7. One end of a U-tube containing mercury is connected to a suction pump and the other
end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between the two columns.
Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury in the U-tube
executes simple harmonic motion.
(27)
OSCILLATIONS
14
8. An air chamber of volume V has a neck area of cross section a into which a ball of
mass m just fits and can move up and down without any friction (Fig.14.33). Show that
when the ball is pressed down a little and released, it executes SHM. Obtain an expression
for the time period of oscillations assuming pressure-volume variations of air to be
isothermal seeFig.14.33.
)
m
Long Answers-
.co
1. Ans.A simple pendulum is the most common example of the body executing S.H.M, it
la
consist of heavy point mass body suspended by a weightless inextensible and perfectly
flexible string from a rigid support, which is free to oscillate.
a
Let m = mass of bob hs
at
l = length of pendulum
Let O is the equilibrium position, OP = X
lp
Let θ = small angle through which the bob is displaced.

ita
The forces acting on the bob are:-

ig
1) The weight = M g acting vertically downwards.

.d
2) The tension = T in string acting along Ps.

w
Resolving Mg into 2 components as Mg Cos θ and Mg Sin θ,

w
Now, T = Mg Cos θ
(w
Restoring force F = - Mg Sin θ

- ve sign shows force is directed towards mean position.
Let θ = Small, so Sin θ ≈ θ =

Hence F = - mg θ
F = - mg
Now, In S.H.M, F = k x →4) k = Spring constant
Equating equation3) & 4) for F
(28)
OSCILLATIONS
14
-kx=-mg
Spring factor = k =
Inertia factor = Mass of bob = m
Now, Time period = T
)
m
=
.co
a la
2. Ans.(a) Zero, Positive, Positive hs
(b) Zero, Negative, Negative
at
(c) Negative, Zero, Zero
lp
(d) Negative, Negative, Negative

ita
(e) Zero, Positive, Positive

ig
(f) Negative, Negative, Negative

.d
Explanation:
The given situation is shown in the following figure. Points A and B are the two end points,
w
with AB = 10 cm. O is the midpoint of the path.

w
(w
A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between the end points

(a) At the extreme point A, the particle is at rest momentarily. Hence, its velocity is zero at
this point.
Its acceleration is positive as it is directed along AO.
Force is also positive in this case as the particle is directed rightward.
(b) At the extreme point B, the particle is at rest momentarily. Hence, its velocity is zero at
this point.
Its acceleration is negative as it is directed along B.
Force is also negative in this case as the particle is directed leftward.
(29)
OSCILLATIONS
14
(c)
The particle is executing a simple harmonic motion. O is the mean position of the particle.
Its velocity at the mean position O is the maximum. The value for velocity is negative as
the particle is directed leftward. The acceleration and force of a particle executing SHM is
zero at the mean position.
(d)
)
m
The particle is moving toward point O from the end B. This direction of motion is opposite
to the conventional positive direction, which is from A to B. Hence, the particle"s velocity
.co
and acceleration, and the force on it are all negative.
la
(e)
a
hs
The particle is moving toward point O from the end A. This direction of motion is from A
at
to B, which is the conventional positive direction. Hence, the values for velocity,
lp
acceleration, and force are all positive.

ita
(f)
ig
.d
This case is similar to the one given in (d).

w
3. Ans.Initially, at t = 0:
w
Displacement, x = 1 cm
(w
Initial velocity, v = cm/sec.

Angular frequency, = π rad/
It is given that:
…..(i)
Velocity,
(30)
OSCILLATIONS
14
……..(ii)
Squaring and adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:
)
m
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we get:
.co
a la
SHM is given as:
hs
at
Putting the given values in this equation, we get:
lp
ita
….(iii)
ig
Velocity,
.d
Substituting the given values, we get:

w
w
……..(iv)
(w
Squaring and adding equations (iii) and (iv), we get:
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv), we get:
(31)
OSCILLATIONS
14
4. Ans. (a) x = 2sin 20t

(b) x = 2cos 20t
(c) x = –2cos 20t
The functions have the same frequency and amplitude, but different initial phases.
Distance travelled by the mass sideways, A = 2.0 cm
Force constant of the spring, k = 1200 N
)
m
Mass, m = 3 kg
.co
Angular frequency of oscillation:
a la
hs
at
(a) When the mass is at the mean position, initial phase is 0.
lp
Displacement, x = Asin t
ita
= 2sin 20t
(b) At the maximum stretched position, the mass is toward the extreme right. Hence, the
ig
.d
initial phase is .
w
w
Displacement,
(w
= 2cos 20t
(c) At the maximum compressed position, the mass is toward the extreme left. Hence, the
initial phase is .
Displacement,
= –2cos 20t
(32)
OSCILLATIONS
14
The functions have the same frequency and amplitude (2 cm), but different initial
phases .
5. Ans.(a)
)
m
If this equation is compared with the standard SHM equation , then we
.co
get:
Amplitude, A = 2 cm
a la
Phase angle, hs
at
Angular velocity,
lp
The motion of the particle can be plotted as shown in the following figure.
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
(b)

get:
Amplitude, A=2
Phase angle,
(33)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Angular velocity,
)
m
.co
(c)
a la
hs
at
get:
lp
Amplitude, A = 3 cm
ita
Phase angle, = 135°

ig
.d
Angular velocity,
w
w
(w
(d) x = 2 cos πt

get:
(34)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Amplitude, A = 2 cm
Phase angle, = 0
Angular velocity, = π rad/s
)
m
.co
a la
6. Ans.(a) For the one block system:
hs
When a force F, is applied to the free end of the spring, an extension l, is produced. For
the maximum extension, it can be written as:
at
F = kl
lp
Where, k is the spring constant

ita
ig
Hence, the maximum extension produced in the spring,

.d
For the two block system:

w
The displacement (x) produced in this case is:

w
(w
Net force, F = +2 kx
(b) For the one block system:

For mass (m) of the block, force is written as:
Where, x is the displacement of the block in time t
(35)
OSCILLATIONS
14
It is negative because the direction of elastic force is opposite to the direction of

displacement.
Where,
)
m
Where,
.co
is angular frequency of the oscillation
la
∴Time period of the oscillation,
a
hs
at
lp

ita
ig
.d
w

w
displacement.
(w
Where,
Angular frequency,
∴Time period,
7. Ans. Area of cross-section of the U-tube = A

Density of the mercury column =
(36)
OSCILLATIONS
14

Restoring force, F = Weight of the mercury column of a certain height
F = –(Volume Density g)
F = –(A 2h g) = –2 gh = –k Displacement in one of the arms (h)
Where,
2h is the height of the mercury column in the two arms
k is a constant, given by
)
m
Time period,
.co
Where,
la
m is the mass of the mercury column
a
Let l be the length of the total mercury in the U-tube.
Mass of mercury, m = Volume of mercury
hs Density of mercury
at
= Al
lp
ita
∴
ig
Hence, the mercury column executes simple harmonic motion with time period .
.d
w
8. Ans.Volume of the air chamber = V

w
Area of cross-section of the neck = a

(w
Mass of the ball = m

The pressure inside the chamber is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Let the ball be depressed by x units. As a result of this depression, there would be a
decrease in the volume and an increase in the pressure inside the chamber.
Decrease in the volume of the air chamber, ΔV = ax
Volumetric strain
(37)
OSCILLATIONS
14
Bulk Modulus of air,

In this case, stress is the increase in pressure. The negative sign indicates that pressure
increases with a decrease in volume.
The restoring force acting on the ball, F = p a
)
m
.co
In simple harmonic motion, the equation for restoring force is:
la
F = –kx … (ii)
a
Where, k is the spring constant hs
Comparing equations (i) and (ii), we get:
at
lp
ita
Time period,
ig
.d
w

w
1. (a) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation
(w
of the assertion.
1. A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion. Very
often, the body undergoing periodic motion has an equilibrium position somewhere inside
its path. When the body is at this position no net external force acts on it. Therefore, if it is
left there at rest, it remains there forever. If the body is given a small displacement from
the position, a force comes into play which tries to bring the body periodic motion need
not be oscillatory. Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is not oscillatory. The
smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its period. Let us
denote the period by the symbol T. Its SI unit is second. The reciprocal of T gives the
(38)
OSCILLATIONS
14
number of repetitions that occur per unit time. This quantity is called the frequency of the
periodic motion. It is represented by the symbol n. The waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
(1857–1894), a special name has been given to the unit of frequency. It is called hertz
(abbreviated as Hz). Answer the following.a)
i. Every oscillatory motion is periodic motion true or false?
a. True
b. False
ii. Circular motion is
a. Oscillatory motion
)
m
b. Periodic motion
.co
c. Rotational motion
d. None of these
la
iii. Define period. Give its SI unit and dimensions
a
iv. Define frequency of periodic motion. How it is related to time period
hs
v. What is oscillatory motion
at
2. When a system (such as a simple pendulum or a block attached to a spring) is displaced
lp
from its equilibrium position and released, it oscillates with its natural frequency ω, and
the oscillations are called free oscillations. All free oscillations eventually die out because
ita
of the ever present damping forces. However, an external agency can maintain these
ig
oscillations. These are called forced or driven oscillations. We consider the case when the
external force is itself fact of forced periodic oscillations is that the system oscillates not
.d
with its natural frequency ω, but at familiar example of forced oscillation is when a child in
w
a garden swing periodically presses his feet against the ground (or someone else
periodically gives the child a push) to maintain the oscillations. The maximum possible
w
amplitude for a given driving frequency is governed by the driving frequency and the
(w
damping, and is never infinity. The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the
driving force is close to the natural frequency of the oscillator is experience with swings is
a good example of resonance. You might have realized that the skill in swinging to greater
heights lies in the synchronization of the rhythm of pushing against the ground with the
natural frequency of the swing.
i. When a system oscillates with its natural frequency ω, and the oscillations are called
a. Free oscillations
b. Forced oscillations
ii. All free oscillations eventually die out because of
a. Damping force
(39)
OSCILLATIONS
14
b. electromagnetic force
c. None of these
iii. What is free oscillation?
iv. What is forced oscillations?
v. What is resonance?
Case Study Answer-
1. Answer
i. (a) True
)
m
ii. (b) Periodic motion
.co
iii. The smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its period. Its
SI unit is second and dimensions are [T1].
la
iv. Reciprocal of Time period (T) gives the number of repetitions that occur per unit time.
a
This quantity is called the frequency of the periodic motion. It is represented by the
hs
symbol n. The relation between n and T is n = 1/T i.e. they are inversely proportional to
each other. The unit of n is thus s-1 or hertz.
at
v. Oscillatory motion is type of periodic motion in which body performs periodic to and
lp
fro motion about some mean position. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every
periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
ita
2. Answer
ig
i. (a) Free oscillations

.d
ii. (b) Damping force

w
iii. When a system (such as a simple pendulum or a block attached to a spring) is displaced
w
from its equilibrium position and released, it oscillates with its natural frequency ω,
and the oscillations are called free oscillations.
(w
iv. Forced oscillations are oscillations where external force drives the oscillations with
frequency given by external force.
v. The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the driving force is close to encounter
phenomena which involve resonance. Your experience with swings is a good example
of resonance. You might have realized that the skill in swinging to greater heights lies
in the synchronization of the rhythm of pushing against the ground with the natural
frequency of the swing.
(40)
(w
w
w
.d
ig
ita
lp
at
hs
Chapter 15: Waves
a la
.co
m
)
PHYSICS
WAVES
15
Waves
Introduction
In this chapter we will see the importance of waves in our life.
We will also study about the different properties of waves, some terms related to waves and
also about different types of waves.We will also learn how waves propagate.
For example: -
)
m
1. Medium required by the waves to travel from one point to another:-
o Consider a boy holding a thread and one end of thread is tied to the wall.
.co
o When a boy moves the thread, the thread moves in the form of a wave.
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
• Similarly a boat sailing over the sea,the boat is able to move because of waves.
• The ripples formed in a lake when we drop a stone in the lake.They are also waves.
ig
• Earthquakes are caused due to the waves under the surface of the earth.
.d
• The strings of the guitar when we play them are also waves again.
w
• Music system which we use to hear songs.This is due to sound waves.

• When 2 people talk they are able to hear each other because of the sound waves.
w
(w
In the below Picture we can see waves need a medium to propagate.
2. Medium not required by some type of waves to move from one point to another:-
(1)
WAVES
15
• TV remote waves play important part.

• Satelliteshelp ustouseTV, mobile phones, music system, the sun, the traffic lights,
microwave,x-rays.
)
m
.co
la
Some type of waves can propagate from one point to another without any medium.
a
3. Waves which are related to matter:-
hs
at
• There are some set of waves which are inside the matter.
lp
• For example: - whole of universe.

ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Waves propagating inside the matter
What is a wave?
A wave is s disturbance that propagates through spaceand time,usually with transference of
energy.
For example: -
• Consider the sound of the horn; this sound reaches our ear because of sound waves.
• There is transfer of energy from one point to another with the help of particles in the
medium.
(2)
WAVES
15
• These particles don’t move they just move around their mean position,but the energy is
getting transferred from one particle to another and it keeps on transferring till it reaches
the destination.
• The movement of a particle is initiated by the disturbance.And this disturbance is
transferred from one point to another through space and time.
Note:- Energy and not the matter is transferred from one point to another.
1. When a source of energy causes vibration to travel through the medium a wave is created.
)
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a la
Types of Waves hs
1. Mechanical waves
at
2. Electromagnetic waves
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3. Matter waves
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Mechanical waves:-
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1. The mechanical waves are governed by all the Newton’s laws of motion.
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2. Medium is needed for propagation of the wave.

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For Example:- Water Waves, Sound Waves

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Water waves: They are mechanical waves for which a medium is required to propagate.
(w
Sound waves: A guitar or music system. Sound waves need a medium to propagate.They cannot
travel in vacuum.
(3)
WAVES
15
Electromagnetic waves:-
• Electromagnetic waves are related to electric and magnetic fields.

• An electromagnetic wave, does not need a medium to propagate, it carries no mass,does
carry energy.
)
m
Examples:- Satellite system, mobile phones,radio, music player, x-rays and microwave.
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
Matter waves:-
ig
• Waves related to matter. Matter consists of small particles.

• Matter waves are associated with moving electrons,protons,neutrons & other
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fundamental particlesetc.
w
• It is an abstract concept.
w
Examples:- pencil, sun, moon, earth, ball, atoms.

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Transverse Waves
(4)
WAVES
15
• The transverse waves are those in which direction of disturbance or displacement in the
medium is perpendicular to that of the propagation of wave.
• The direction in which a wave propagates is perpendicular to the direction of disturbance.
)
m
For example:-
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• Consider a manholding one end of a thread and other end of the threadis fixed to wall.
• When a little jerk is given to the thread in the upward direction.The entire thread moves
la
in a wavy manner.
a
• The jerk propagated along the entire length of the thread.
•
hs
The small disturbance which came from the source at one end, that disturbance getting
propagatedand that is known as direction of propagation.
at
• Disturbance is vertically upward and wave is horizontal.They are perpendicular to each
lp
other.
• This type of wave is known as transverse wave.
ita
ig
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w
w
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A single pulse is sent along a stretchedstring. A typical element of the string (suchas that marked
with a dot) moves up andthen down as the pulse passes through.
The element’s motion is perpendicular to thedirection in which the wave travels.
How are transverse waves caused?
• When we pull a thread in upward direction the formation and propagation of the waves
are possible because entire thread is under tension.
(5)
WAVES
15
• This tension is the small disturbance which is given at one end and it gets transferred to its
neighbouring molecules.
• This will keep on continuing.So this small pulse will get propagated along the length of the
thread.
• The movement of the particles is perpendicular to the propagation of the wave and the
wave will propagate horizontally.
)
m
.co
a la
hs
It is a transverse wave.
at
A sinusoidal wave is sent along the string.A typical element of the string moves up and down
lp
continuously as the wave passes.

ita
ig
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Conclusion:-
1. Transverse waves are those waves which propagates perpendicular to the direction of the
disturbance.
2. Direction of disturbance is the direction of motion of particles of the medium.
(6)
WAVES
15
)
m
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a la
Longitudinal Waves
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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w
• Longitudinal means something related to length.

•
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In longitudinal waves direction of disturbance or displacement in the medium is along the propagation of
the wave.
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(7)
WAVES
15
• For example: - Sound waves. Particles and wave moving along the horizontal direction. So both are in the
same direction.
• In a Longitudinal wave there are regions where particles are very close to each other.These regions are
known as compressions.
• In some regions the particles are far apart.Those regions are known as rarefactions.
Differentiate between transverse and longitudinal waves
Transverse Longitudinal
Constituents of the medium oscillate Constituents of the medium oscillate

perpendicular to the direction of the parallel to the direction of wave
)
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wave propagation. propagation.
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a la
Displacement in a progressive wave
hs
at
• Amplitude and phase together describe the complete displacement of the wave.
lp
• Displacement function is a periodic in space and time.

ita
• Displacement of the particles in a medium takes place along the y-axis.

• Generally displacement is denoted as a function of X and T, but here it is denoted by y.
ig
• In case of transverse wave displacement is given as:

• y(x,t) where x=propagation of the wave along x-axis, and particles oscillates along y-axis.
.d
• Therefore y(x,t)= A sin(kx – ωt + φ).This is the expression for displacement.

w
• This expression is same as displacement equation which is used in oscillatory motion.

w
• As cosine function;y(x,t)= B cos(kx – ωt + φ),As both sine and cosine function)y (x, t) = A
sin (kx – ωt + φ) + B cos(kx – ωt + φ)
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Mathematically:
• Wave travelling along +X-axis: y(x, t) = a sin (kx – ωt + φ).

• Consider y=asin(kx – ωt + φ)=> y/a=sin(kx – ωt + φ)
• sin-1(y/a) = kx-ωt =>kx=sin-1(y/a) +ωt
• x=(1/k)sin-1(y/a)+ (ωt/k)
• Wave travelling along –X-axis: x=(1/k)sin-1(y/a)-(ωt/k)(only change in the sign of ωt)
• Conclusion:-
• As time t increases the value of x increases. This implies the x moves along x-axis.
• As time t decreases the value of x decrease. This implies the x moves along (-)ive x-axis.
(8)
WAVES
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Amplitude and Phase of a wave

• Amplitude and phase together describes the position of the particle.
• Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the elements of the medium from their
equilibrium positions as wave passes through them.
)
m
• It is denoted by A.
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In case of transverse wave,
la
• The distance between the point P and Q (in the Figure) is maximum displacement. This
maximum displacement of the particles is known as amplitude.
a
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
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In case of longitudinal wave,

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• There are regions of compressions (particles are closely packed) and rarefactions
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(particles are far apart).

• In compressions density of the wave medium is highest and in rarefactions density of the
wave is lowest.
• Consider when the particle is at rarefaction, in that region as particle gets more space as a
result the particles oscillates to the maximum displacement.
• Whereas in compressed region the particles oscillates very less as the space is not very
much.
• The peak or the maximum amplitude is the centre of two compressed regions. Because at
the center of the two compressed region the particle is most free to displace to maximum
displaced position.
Conclusion:-
(9)
WAVES
15
• In case of longitudinal wave the particles will not oscillate to a very large distance. This
displacement won’t represent the amplitude as it is not maximum possible displacement.
Amplitude is represented basically by the centre of the rarefaction region where the particle is
most free to oscillate to its maximum displacement.
)
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a la
Phase
hs
at
Phase of a wave describes the state of motion as the wave sweeps through an element at a
lp
particular position.
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In-phase– Two points are said to be in-phase with each other when these two points are at the
same position and they both are doing the same thing i.e. both the two points are exhibiting the
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same behaviour.
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Points C and F are in phase with each other.
Out-of-phase –
• Two points are said to be out of phase even though they are at the same points but they
are doing opposite thing i.e. both the points are exhibiting the different behaviour.
• Out of phase means which is not in phase.
(10)
WAVES
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Points B and D,E and G are out of phase by 1800
• Two waves can be completely in-phase or out of phase with each other. They can be
partially in phase or out of phase with each other.
• Observations made from the figure (1).
)
m
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
• Consider two points A and B on a wave. Their positions as well as their behaviour are
ita
same. Therefore points A and B are in phase.

• Consider points A and C on a wave. They are not in phase with each other as their position
ig
is not same.
• Similarly the points C and D are not in phase with each other as their positions are same
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but the behaviour is different. Therefore they are not in phase with each other.
w
• Consider the points F and G their positions are same but the behaviour is totally opposite.
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So F and G are out of phase.

• Consider the points F and H; they are in phase with each other as their position is same as
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well as their behaviour.
Wave Number
Wave number describes the number of wavelengths per unit distance.
Denoted by ‘k’.
y(x,t)= a sin(kx – ωt + φ) assuming φ=0.
• At initial time t=0:-

o y(x,0)=asin kx (i)
o When x=x+λ then y(x+λ,0)=a sink(x+λ) (ii)
(11)
WAVES
15
o When x=x+2λ then y(x+2λ,0)=a sink(x+2λ)
Value of y is equal at all points because all the points’ λ, 2λ are in phase with each other.
Therefore,
From(i) and (ii) asin kx= a sink(x+λ) =asin(kx+k λ)
This is true if and only if: -k λ =2 πn, where n=1, 2, 3…
k=(2 π n)/ λ. This is the expression for wave number.
k is also known as propagation constant because it tells about the propagation of the wave.
)
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Wave number is an indirect way of describing the propagation of wave.
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Travelling Waves
la
• Travelling waves are those waves which travel from one medium to another.
a
• They are also known as progressive wave. Because they progress from one point to
another.
hs
• Both longitudinal and transverse waves can be travelling wave.
at
• Wave as a whole moves along one direction.
lp
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Standing (Stationary) Waves
• A stationary wave is a wave which is not moving, i.e. it is at rest.

• When two waves with the same frequency, wavelength and amplitude travelling in
opposite directions will interfere they produce a standing wave.
(12)
WAVES
15
• Conditions to have a standing wave:- Two travelling waves can produce a standing wave, if
the waves are moving in opposite directions and they have the same amplitude and
frequency.
• At certain instances when the peaks of both the waves will overlap. Then both the peaks
will add up to form the resultant wave.
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• At certain instances when the peak of the one wave combine with the negative of the
m
second wave .Then the net amplitude will become 0.
.co
• As a result a standing wave is produced. In case of stationary wave the wave form does
not move.
Explanation:-
la
•
o Consider Its wave in the figure and suppose we have a rigid wall which does not
a
move. When an incident wave hits the rigid wall it reflects back with a phase
hs
difference of π.
at
o Consider IInd wave in the figure, when the reflected wave travels towards the left
there is another incident wave which is coming towards right.
lp
o The incident wave is continuously coming come from left to right and the reflected
ita
wave will keep continuing from right to left.

o At some instant of time there will be two waves one going towards right and one
ig
going towards left as a result these two waves will overlap and form a standing
wave.
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• Mathematically:
w
• Wave travelling towards left yl(x,t) =a sin(kx– ωt) and towards right yr(x,t) =a sin (kx + ωt)
w
• The principle of superposition gives, for the combined wave

• y (x, t) = yl(x, t) + yr(x, t)= a sin (kx – ωt) + a sin (kx + ωt)
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• y(x,t)= (2a sin kx) cos ωt (By calculating and simplifying)

• The above equation represents the standing wave expression.
• Amplitude = 2a sin kx.
o The amplitude is dependent on the position of the particle.
o The cos ωt represents the time dependent variation or the phase of the standing
wave.
Difference between the travelling wave and stationary wave
Travelling Wave(Progressive
Stationary Wave (Standing wave)
Wave)
(13)
WAVES
15
Waveform moves. Movement

of the waveform is always Waveform doesn’t move.
indicated by the movement of Peaks don’t move.
the peaks of the wave.
Wave amplitude is same for all Wave amplitude is different for

the elements in the medium. different elements.
Denoted by ‘A’. Denoted by asinkx.
Amplitude is not dependent on Amplitude is dependent on the
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the position of the elements of position of the elements of the
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the medium. medium.
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y(x,t)=asin(kx– ωt + φ ) y(x,t)=2asin(kx)cos(ωt)
a la
hs
at
lp
Nodes and Antinodes: system closed at both ends

ita
• System closed at both ends means both the ends are rigid boundaries.
ig
• Whenever there is rigid body there is no displacement at the boundary. This implies at
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boundary amplitude is always 0. Nodes are formed at boundary.

• Standing waves on a string of length L fixed at both ends have restricted wavelength.
w
• This means wave will vibrate for certain specific values of wavelength.
w
• At both ends, nodes will be formed.=>Amplitude=0.

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• Expression for node x =(nλ)/2.This value is true when x is 0 and L.

• When x=L:- L=(nλ)/2 =>λ=(2L)/n ; n=1,2,3,4,…..
• λ cannot take any value but it can take values which satisfy λ=(2L)/n this expression.
• That is why we can say that the standing wave on a string which is tied on both ends has
the restricted wavelength.
• As wavelength is restricted therefore wavenumber is also restricted.
• ν =v/λ (relation between wavelength and frequency)
• Corresponding frequencies which a standing wave can have is given as: -ν= (vn)/2Lwhere
v= speed of the travelling wave.
• These frequencies are known as natural frequency or modes of oscillations.
Modes of Oscillations:-
(14)
WAVES
15
• ν= (vn)/2L where v=speed of the travelling wave, L=length of the string, n=any natural
number.
• First Harmonic:-
o For n=1, mode of oscillation is known as Fundamental mode.
o Therefore ν1=v/(2L).This is the lowest possible value of frequency.
o Therefore ν1is the lowest possible mode of the frequency.
o 2 nodes at the ends and 1 antinode.
• Second Harmonic:-
o For n=2, ν2=(2v)/ (2L) =v/L
o This is second harmonic mode of oscillation.
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o 3 nodes at the ends and 2 antinodes.
m
• Third Harmonic:-
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o For n=3,ν3 = (3v)/ (2L).
o This is third harmonic mode of oscillation.
la
o 4 nodes and 3 antinodes.
a
hs
Problem:- Find the frequency of note emitted (fundamental note) by a string 1m long and
stretched by a load of 20 kg, if this string weighs 4.9 g. Given, g = 980 cm s–2?
at
Answer:-
lp
L = 100 cm T = 20 kg = 20 × 1000 × 980 dyne

ita
m= 4.9/100 = 0.049 g cm-1

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Now the frequency of fundamental note produced,

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ν= (1/2L) √ (T/m)
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ν = 1/ (2x100) √(20x1000x980)/(0.049)
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=100Hz
Problem:- A pipe 20 cm long is closed at one end, which harmonic mode of the pipe is
resonantly excited by a 430 Hz source? Will this same source can be in resonance with the pipe,
if both ends are open? Speed of sound = 340ms–1?
Answer:-
The frequency of nth mode of vibration of a pipe closed at one end is given by
νn=(2n 1)ν/4L
ν=340ms-1; L=20cm=0.2m;νn=430Hz.
(15)
WAVES
15
Therefore 430= ((2n-1) x 340)/ (4x0.2)
=>n=1
Therefore, first mode of vibration of the pipe is excited, for open pipe since n must be an
integer, the same source cannot be in resonance with the pipe with both ends open.
)
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a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
Stationary waves in a stretched string fixed at both ends. Various modes of vibration are shown.
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Beats
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Beats is the phenomenon caused by two sound waves of nearly same frequencies and
w
amplitudes travelling in the same direction.

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For example:-
• Tuning of musical instruments like piano, harmonium etc. Before we start playing on these
musical instruments they are set against the standard frequency. If it is not set a striking
noise will keep on coming till it is set.
Mathematically
• Consider only the time dependent and not the position dependent part of the wave.
• s1=a cos ω1t and s2=a cos ω2t; where amplitude and phase of the waves are same, but
the frequencies are varying. Also considering ω1> ω2.
• When these 2 waves superimpose s= s1+ s2=a[cos ω1t + cos ω2t]
(16)
WAVES
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• By simplifying , 2a (cos(ω1 - ω2)/2)t cos(ω1 + ω2)/2)t)

• =>ω1 - ω2 is very small as ω1> ω2.Let (ω1 - ω2 )=ωb
• =>ω1 + ω2 is very large. Let (ω1 + ω2 )=ωa
• s= 2a cos ωbt cos ωat
• cosωat will vary rapidly with time and 2acosωbt will change slowly with time.
• Therefore we can say 2acosωbt = constant. As a result 2acosωbt = amplitude as it has
small angular variation.
)
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hs
at
lp
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ig
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Beat Frequency
w
• Beat frequency can be defined as the difference in the frequencies of two waves.
(w
• Consider if there is a wave of frequency ω1 and another wave of frequency ω2.Then the
beat frequency will be ω1- ω2.
• It is denoted by ω
• Also ω = 2πν
• Therefore ν beat = ν1 – ν2
(17)
WAVES
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Problem:- Two sitar strings A and B playing the note ‘Dha’ are slightly out of tune and produce
beats of frequency 5 Hz. The tension of the string B is slightly increased and the beat frequency
is found to decrease to 3 Hz. What is the original frequency of B if the frequency of A is 427 Hz?
)
m
Answer:- Increase in the tension of a string increases its frequency. If the original frequency of B
.co
(νB) were greater than that of A (νA), furtherincrease in νB should have resulted in an increase in
the beat frequency. But the beat frequency is found to decrease. This shows thatνB< νA. Since
la
νA – νB = 5 Hz, and νA = 427 Hz, weget νB = 422 Hz.
a
Doppler’s Effect hs
• Doppler Effect is the phenomenon of motion-related frequency change.
at
• Consider if a truck is coming from very far off location as it approaches near our house,
lp
the sound increases and when it passes our house the sound will be maximum. And when
ita
it goes away from our house sound decreases.

• This effect is known as Doppler Effect.
ig
• A person who is observing is known as Observer and object from where the sound wave is
getting generated it is known as Source.
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• When the observer and source come nearer to each other as a result waves get
w
compressed. Therefore wavelength decreases and frequency increases.

Case 1:- stationary observer and moving source
w
•
• Let the source is located at a distance L from the observer.
(w
• At any time t1, the source is at position P1.

• Time taken by the wave to reach observer =L/v where v=speed of the sound wave.
• After some time source moves to position P0 in time T0.
• Distance between P1 and P0 =vsTo where vs is the velocity of the source.
• Let t2be the time taken by the second wave to reach the observer
o Total time taken by the for the second wave to be sent to the observer = To +(
L+vsTo)/v
o Total time taken by the for the third wave to be sent to the observer=2To +(
L+2vsTo)/v
o Therefore for nth point tn+1 =nTo +( L+nvsTo)/v
o =>In time tn+1the observer captures n waves.
• Total time taken by the waves to travel Time period T= (tn+1 - t1)/n
(18)
WAVES
15
• =To +(vsTo)/v =>T=To(1+vs/v)

• Or v= 1/T
• =>v = v0(1+vs/v)-1
• By using binomial Theorem, v= v0 (1- vs/v)
• If the source is moving towards the observer the expression will become v= v0 (1+ vs/v)
• Case 2:- moving observer and stationary source
• As the source is not moving therefore vs is replaced by -v0.
• Therefore v= v0 (1+ v0/v)
)
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a la
hs
at
lp
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The observer O and the source S, both moving respectively with velocities v0 and vs . They are at
position O1 and P1 at time t = 0, when the source emits the first crest of a sound, whose velocity
ig
is v with respect to the medium. After one period, t = T0, they have moved to O2 and
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P2,respectively through distances v0 T0 and vs T0, when the source emits the next crest.
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Problem:- A metre-long tube opens at one end, with a movable piston at the other end,
w
shows resonance with a fixed frequency source (a tuning fork of frequency 340 Hz) when the
tube length is 25.5 cm or 79.3 cm. Estimate the speed of sound in air at the temperature of the
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experiment. The edge effects may be neglected.
Answer:-
Frequency of the turning fork, ν = 340 Hz
Since the given pipe is attached with a piston at one end, it will behave as a pipe with one end
closed and the other end open, as shown in the given figure.
(19)
WAVES
15
Such a system produces odd harmonics. The fundamental note in a closed pipe is given by the
relation
)
l1=λ/4 Where,
m
Length of the pipe,l1=25.5cm=0.255m
.co
Therefore, λ=4l1 =4x0.255 = 1.02m
la
The speed of sound is given by the relation:
a
ν=vλ =340x1.02 =346.8m/s hs
at
lp
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(20)
15
WAVES
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hs
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m
)
(21)
WAVES
15
Important Questions
Q.1) Which of the following are mechanical waves
a) Water waves
b) Sound waves
c) Seismic waves
d) All
)
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Q.2) Which of the following are electromagnetic waves
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a) Light
b) Radio waves
la
c) X rays
a
d) All
hs
at
Q.3) Electromagnetic waves
lp
a) Requires material medium for their propagation

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b) Do not require material medium for their propagation

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c) Both a and b
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d) None
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Q.4) ______ waves can travel through vacuum.

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a) Sound waves
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b) Light waves
c) Radio waves
d) Both b and c
Q.5) The speed of electromagnetic waves is
a) 299,792,458 m/s
b) 299, 792, 458 km/s
c) 299, 792, 458 cm/s
d) None
(22)
WAVES
15
Q.6) Pressure is given by

a) F/m
b) F/V
c) F/A
d) FA
Q.7) Sound waves are the
a) Transverse waves
)
b) Longitudinal waves
m
c) Both a and b
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d) None
la
Q.8) Which of the following are progressive waves
a
a) Transverse waves hs
b) Longitudinal waves
at
lp
c) Both a and b
ita
d) None
Q.9) In case of transvers waves, the direction of motion of particles is
ig
a) Parallel to the direction of propagation

.d
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b) Perpendicular to the direction of propagation

w
c) Normal to the direction of propagation

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d) Both b and c
Q.10) In case of longitudinal waves, the direction of motion of particles is
a) Parallel to direction of propagation
b) Perpendicular to direction of propagation
c) Normal to direction of propagation
d) None
Q.11) The waves in an ocean are the combination of
a) Longitudinal waves
(23)
WAVES
15
b) Transverse waves
c) Both a and b
d) None
Q.12) The maximum displacement of the particle of the wave from its mean or
equilibrium position is called as
a) Phase
b) Epoch
c) Distance
)
m
d) Amplitude
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Q.13) The minimum distance between two points having the same phase is called as
la
a) Frequency of the wave
a
b) Amplitude hs
c) Wavelength of the wave
at
d) None
lp
Q.14) K = 2π/ wavelength, then k is called as

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a) Wave number
ig
b) Propagation constant
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c) Force constant
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d) Both a and b
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Q.15) The SI unit of propagation constant is given by

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a) rad/m
b) rad
c) m/rad
d) rad m

1. Directions:
(24)
WAVES
15

Assertion: Sine and cosine functions are periodic functions.
Reason: Sinusoidal functions repeats it values after a definite interval of time.
2. Directions:
)
m
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Assertion: Simple harmonic motion is a uniform motion.
la
Reason: Simple harmonic motion is not the projection of uniform circular motion.
a
MCQ Answers-
1. Ans: d) all
hs
at
2. Ans: d) all
lp
3. Ans: b) do not require material medium for their propagation

ita
4. Ans: d) both b and c

ig
5. Ans: a) 299, 792, 458 m/s

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6. Ans: c) F/A
w
7. Ans: b) longitudinal waves

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8. Ans: c) both a and b

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9. Ans: d) both b and c

10.Ans: a) parallel to direction of propagation
11.Ans: c) both a and b
12.Ans: d) amplitude
13.Ans: c) wavelength of the wave
14.Ans: d) both a and b
15.Ans: a) rad/m
Very Short Questions-

(25)
WAVES
15
1. How is the time period effected, if the amplitude of a simple pendulum is in

Creased?
2. Define force constant of a spring.
3. At what distance from the mean position, is the kinetic energy in simple
harmonic oscillator equal to potential energy?
4. How is the frequency of oscillation related with the frequency of change in the
of K. E and PE of the body in S.H.M.?
)
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5. What is the frequency of total energy of a particle in S.H.M.?
.co
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6. How is the length of seconds pendulum related with acceleration due gravity of
any planet?
a
hs
7. If the bob of a simple pendulum is made to oscillate in some fluid of density
greater than the density of air (density of the bob density of the fluid), then
at
time period of the pendulum increased or decrease.
lp
8. How is the time period of the pendulum effected when pendulum is taken to
ita
hills Or in mines?
ig
9. Define angular frequency. Give its S.I. unit.

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10.Does the direction of acceleration at various points during the oscillation of a

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simple pendulum remain towards mean position?

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Very Short Answers-

1. Ans. No effect on time period when amplitude of pendulum is increased or
decreased.
2. Ans. The spring constant of a spring is the change in the force it exerts, divided
by the change in deflection of the spring.
3. Ans. Not at the mid-point, between mean and extreme position. it will be at
4. Ans. P.E. or K.E. completes two vibrations in a time during which S.H.M
completes one vibration or the frequency of P.E. or K.E. is double than that of
(26)
WAVES
15
S.H.M
5. Ans. The frequency of total energy of particle is S.H.M is zero because it retain
constant.
6. Ans. Length of the seconds pendulum proportional to acceleration due to
gravity)
7. Ans. Increased
8. Ans. As T will increase.

9. Ans. It is the angle covered per unit time or it is the quantity obtained by
)
m
multiplying frequency by a factor of 2 .
= 2π v, S.I. unit is rads s-1
.co
10.Ans. No, the resultant of Tension in the string and weight of bob is not always
la
towards the mean position.
a
Short Questions-
hs
1.A mass = m suspend separately from two springs of spring constant k1 and
at
k2 gives time period t1 and t2 respectively. If the same mass is connected to both
the springs as shown in figure. Calculate the time period ‘t’ of the combined
lp
system?
ita
ig
.d
w
w
2.Show that the total energy of a body executing SHN is independent of time?
(w
3.A particles moves such that its acceleration ‘a’ is given by a = -b x where x =
displacement from equilibrium position and b is a constant. Find the period of
oscillation? 2
4.A particle is S.H.N. is described by the displacement function: →
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is π cm | s,

What are its amplitude and phase angle?
5.Determine the time period of a simple pendulum of length = l when mass of bob
= m Kg? 3
(27)
WAVES
15
6. Which of the following examples represent periodic motion?

(a) A swimmer completing one (return) trip from one bank of a river to the other
and back.
(b) A freely suspended bar magnet displaced from its N-S direction and released.
(c) A hydrogen molecule rotating about its center of mass.
(d) An arrow released from a bow.
7. Figure 14.27 depicts four x-t plots for linear motion of a particle. Which of the
plots represent periodic motion? What is the period of motion (in case of periodic
motion)?
)
m
(a)
.co
a la
(b)
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
(c)
.d
w
w
(w
(d)
8. Which of the following relationships between the acceleration a and the

displacement x of a particle involve simple harmonic motion?
(a) a = 0.7x
(b) a = -200
(28)
WAVES
15
(c) a = -10x
(d) a = 100
9. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon is 1.7 . What is the
time period of a simple pendulum on the surface of moon if its time period on the
surface of earth is 3.5 s? (g on the surface of earth is 9.8 )
10. A simple pendulum of length l and having a bob of mass M is suspended in a
car. The car is moving on a circular track of radius R with a uniform speed v. If the
pendulum makes small oscillations in a radial direction about its equilibrium
position, what will be its time period?
)
m
Short Answers-
.co
1. Ans. If T = Time Period of simple pendulum
m = Mass
la
k = Spring constant
a
hs
then,
at
lp
ita
For first spring :

ig
.d
For second spring :

w
When springs is connected in parallel, effective spring constant, k = k = k1 + k2

w
(w
Or
2. Ans. Let y = displacement at any time‘t’
a = amplitude
(29)
WAVES
15
w = Angular frequency
v = velocity,
y = a Sin wt
So,
Now, kinetic energy = K. E. =
)
m
.co
Potential energy =
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Thus total mechanical energy is always constant is equal to . The total energy
is independent to time. The potential energy oscillates with time and has a
maximum value of . Similarly K. E. oscillates with time and has a maximum
value of . At any instant = constant = . The K. E or P.E. oscillates at double

the frequency of S.H.M.
(30)
WAVES
15
3. Ans. Given that a = -b x, Since a x and is directed apposite to x, the particle do

moves in S. H. M.
a = b x (in magnitude)
)
m
.co
4. Ans.
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
Squaring and adding 1) & 2)
(31)
WAVES
15
5. Ans. It consist of a heavy point mass body suspended by a weightless

inextensible and perfectly flexible string from a rigid support which is free to
oscillate.
The distance between point of suspension and point of oscillation is effective
length of pendulum.
M = Mass of B ob
)
x = Displacement = OB
m
l = length of simple pendulum
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
Let the bob is displaced through a small angle θ the forces acting on it:-
ita
1) weight = Mg acting vertically downwards.

ig
2) Tension = T acting upwards.

.d
Divide Mg into its components → Mg Cos θ & Mg Sin θ

w
T = Mg Cos θ
w
F = Mg Sin θ
(w
- ve sign shows force is divested towards the ocean positions. If θ = Small,
Sin θ
(32)
WAVES
15
i.e.1.) Time period depends on length of pendulum and ‘g’ of place where
)
experiment is done.
m
2) T is independent of amplitude of vibration provided and it is small and also of
.co
the mass of bob.
6. Ans. (b) and (c)
la
(a) The swimmer"s motion is not periodic. The motion of the swimmer between
a
the banks of a river is back and forth. However, it does not have a definite period.
hs
This is because the time taken by the swimmer during his back and forth journey
at
may not be the same.
lp
(b) The motion of a freely-suspended magnet, if displaced from its N-S direction
and released, is periodic. This is because the magnet oscillates about its position
ita
with a definite period of time.

ig
(c) When a hydrogen molecule rotates about its centre of mass, it comes to the
same position again and again after an equal interval of time. Such motion is
.d
periodic.
w
(d) An arrow released from a bow moves only in the forward direction. It does not
w
come backward. Hence, this motion is not a periodic.

(w
7. Ans. (b) and (d) are periodic

(a) It is not a periodic motion. This represents a unidirectional, linear uniform
motion. There is no repetition of motion in this case.
(b) In this case, the motion of the particle repeats itself after 2 s. Hence, it is a
(c) It is not a periodic motion. This is because the particle repeats the motion in
one position only. For a periodic motion, the entire motion of the particle must be
repeated in equal intervals of time.
(d) In this case, the motion of the particle repeats itself after 2 s. Hence, it is a
(33)
WAVES
15
8. Ans. (c) A motion represents simple harmonic motion if it is governed by the

force law:
F = –kx
ma = –k
Where,
F is the force
m is the mass (a constant for a body)
)
m
x is the displacement
.co
a is the acceleration
k is a constant
la
Among the given equations, only equation a = –10 x is written in the above form
a
with
hs
Hence, this relation represents SHM.
at
9. Ans. Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of moon,
lp
Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth, g = 9.8 m

ita
Time period of a simple pendulum on earth, T = 3.5 s

ig
.d
Where,
w
l is the length of the pendulum

w
(w
The length of the pendulum remains constant.
On moon"s surface, time period,
(34)
WAVES
15
Hence, the time period of the simple pendulum on the surface of moon is 8.4 s.
10. Ans. The bob of the simple pendulum will experience the acceleration due to
gravity and the centripetal acceleration provided by the circular motion of the car.
Centripetal acceleration
Where,
v is the uniform speed of the car
)
R is the radius of the track
m
Effective acceleration ( ) is given as:
.co
a la
Time period,
hs
at
Where,l is the length of the pendulum
lp
ita
∴Time period, T
ig
Long questions-
.d
1.What is Simple pendulum? Find an expression for the time period and frequency of a
w
simple pendulum?
w
(w
2. A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between two points, A and B, 10 cm

apart. Take the direction from A to B as the positive direction and give the signs of
velocity, acceleration and force on the particle when it is
(a) at the end A,
(b) at the end B,
(c) at the mid-point of AB going towards A,
(35)
WAVES
15
(d) at 2 cm away from B going towards A,

(e) at 3 cm away from A going towards B, and
(f) at 4 cm away from B going towards A.
3. The motion of a particle executing simple harmonic motion is described by the
displacement function,
x (t) = A cos ( t + ).
If the initial (t = 0) position of the particle is 1 cm and its initial velocity is cm/s, what are
its amplitude and initial phase angle? The angular frequency of the particle is π s-1. If
instead of the cosine function, we choose the sine function to describe the SHM: x = B sin (
)
t + α), what are the amplitude and initial phase of the particle with the above initial
m
conditions.
.co
4. In Exercise 14.9, let us take the position of mass when the spring is unstreched as x = 0,
and the direction from left to right as the positive direction of x-axis. Give x as a function
la
of time t for the oscillating mass if at the moment we start the stopwatch (t = 0), the mass
a
is
(a) at the mean position,
hs
at
(b) at the maximum stretched position, and
lp
(c) at the maximum compressed position.

ita
In what way do these functions for SHM differ from each other, in frequency, in amplitude
or the initial phase?
ig
5. Plot the corresponding reference circle for each of the following simple harmonic
.d
motions. Indicate the initial (t = 0) position of the particle, the radius of the circle, and the
angular speed of the rotating particle. For simplicity, the sense of rotation may be fixed to
w
be anticlockwise in every case: (x is in cm and t is in s).

w
(a) x = -2 sin (3t + π/3)

(w
(b) x = cos (π/6 - t)

(c) x = 3 sin (2πt + π/4)
(d) x = 2 cos πt
6. Figure 14.30 (a) shows a spring of force constant k clamped rigidly at one end and a
mass m attached to its free end. A force F applied at the free end stretches the spring.
Figure 14.30 (b) shows the same spring with both ends free and attached to a mass m at
either end. Each end of the spring in Fig. 14.30(b) is stretched by the same force F.
(36)
WAVES
15
(a) What is the maximum extension of the spring in the two cases?
(b) If the mass in Fig. (a) and the two masses in Fig. (b) are released, what is the period of
oscillation in each case?
7. One end of a U-tube containing mercury is connected to a suction pump and the other
end to atmosphere. A small pressure difference is maintained between the two columns.
)
m
Show that, when the suction pump is removed, the column of mercury in the U-tube
executes simple harmonic motion.
.co
8. An air chamber of volume V has a neck area of cross section a into which a ball of
la
mass m just fits and can move up and down without any friction (Fig.14.33). Show that
when the ball is pressed down a little and released, it executes SHM. Obtain an expression
a
for the time period of oscillations assuming pressure-volume variations of air to be
hs
isothermal seeFig.14.33.
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
Long Answers-
w
1. Ans.A simple pendulum is the most common example of the body executing S.H.M, it
w
consist of heavy point mass body suspended by a weightless inextensible and perfectly
(w
flexible string from a rigid support, which is free to oscillate.

Let m = mass of bob
l = length of pendulum
Let O is the equilibrium position, OP = X
Let θ = small angle through which the bob is displaced.
The forces acting on the bob are:-
1) The weight = M g acting vertically downwards.
2) The tension = T in string acting along Ps.
Resolving Mg into 2 components as Mg Cos θ and Mg Sin θ,
(37)
WAVES
15
Now, T = Mg Cos θ
Restoring force F = - Mg Sin θ
- ve sign shows force is directed towards mean position.
Let θ = Small, so Sin θ ≈ θ =

Hence F = - mg θ
F = - mg
)
Now, In S.H.M, F = k x →4) k = Spring constant
m
Equating equation3) & 4) for F
.co
-kx=-mg
a la
Spring factor = k = hs
Inertia factor = Mass of bob = m
at
Now, Time period = T
lp
ita
=
ig
.d
=
w
w
(w
2. Ans.(a) Zero, Positive, Positive

(b) Zero, Negative, Negative
(c) Negative, Zero, Zero
(d) Negative, Negative, Negative
(e) Zero, Positive, Positive
(f) Negative, Negative, Negative
Explanation:
The given situation is shown in the following figure. Points A and B are the two end points,
with AB = 10 cm. O is the midpoint of the path.
(38)
WAVES
15
A particle is in linear simple harmonic motion between the end points

(a) At the extreme point A, the particle is at rest momentarily. Hence, its velocity is zero at
this point.
Its acceleration is positive as it is directed along AO.
Force is also positive in this case as the particle is directed rightward.
(b) At the extreme point B, the particle is at rest momentarily. Hence, its velocity is zero at
this point.
)
Its acceleration is negative as it is directed along B.
m
Force is also negative in this case as the particle is directed leftward.
.co
(c)
a la
hs
The particle is executing a simple harmonic motion. O is the mean position of the particle.
Its velocity at the mean position O is the maximum. The value for velocity is negative as
at
the particle is directed leftward. The acceleration and force of a particle executing SHM is
zero at the mean position.
lp
(d)
ita
ig
The particle is moving toward point O from the end B. This direction of motion is opposite
.d
to the conventional positive direction, which is from A to B. Hence, the particle"s velocity
w
and acceleration, and the force on it are all negative.

w
(e)
(w
The particle is moving toward point O from the end A. This direction of motion is from A
to B, which is the conventional positive direction. Hence, the values for velocity,
acceleration, and force are all positive.
(f)
This case is similar to the one given in (d).
3. Ans.Initially, at t = 0:
(39)
WAVES
15
Displacement, x = 1 cm
Initial velocity, v = cm/sec.
Angular frequency, = π rad/
It is given that:
…..(i)
)
m
Velocity,
.co
a la
……..(ii) hs
Squaring and adding equations (i) and (ii), we get:
at
lp
ita
ig
Dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we get:

.d
w
w
(w
SHM is given as:
Putting the given values in this equation, we get:
….(iii)
Velocity,
Substituting the given values, we get:
……..(iv)
(40)
WAVES
15
Squaring and adding equations (iii) and (iv), we get:
Dividing equation (iii) by equation (iv), we get:
)
m
.co
la
4. Ans. (a) x = 2sin 20t
a
(b) x = 2cos 20t
(c) x = –2cos 20t
hs
at
The functions have the same frequency and amplitude, but different initial phases.
lp
Distance travelled by the mass sideways, A = 2.0 cm

ita
Force constant of the spring, k = 1200 N

Mass, m = 3 kg
ig
Angular frequency of oscillation:

.d
w
w
(w
(a) When the mass is at the mean position, initial phase is 0.

Displacement, x = Asin t
= 2sin 20t
(b) At the maximum stretched position, the mass is toward the extreme right. Hence, the
initial phase is .
Displacement,
(41)
WAVES
15
= 2cos 20t
(c) At the maximum compressed position, the mass is toward the extreme left. Hence, the
initial phase is .
Displacement,
)
m
= –2cos 20t
.co
The functions have the same frequency and amplitude (2 cm), but different initial
a la
phases . hs
at
lp
5. Ans.(a)
ita
ig
.d

get:
w
Amplitude, A = 2 cm
w
(w
Phase angle,
Angular velocity,
(42)
WAVES
15
)
(b)
m
.co
get:
la
Amplitude, A=2
a
Phase angle,
hs
at
lp
Angular velocity,
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
(c)

get:
Amplitude, A = 3 cm
(43)
WAVES
15
Phase angle, = 135°
Angular velocity,
)
m
.co
la
(d) x = 2 cos πt
a
hs
at
get:
lp
Amplitude, A = 2 cm
ita
Phase angle, = 0
Angular velocity, = π rad/s
ig
.d
w
w
(w
6. Ans.(a) For the one block system:

When a force F, is applied to the free end of the spring, an extension l, is produced. For
the maximum extension, it can be written as:
F = kl
(44)
WAVES
15
Hence, the maximum extension produced in the spring,

The displacement (x) produced in this case is:
Net force, F = +2 kx
)
m
(b) For the one block system:
.co
For mass (m) of the block, force is written as:
a la
hs
Where, x is the displacement of the block in time t
at
lp

ita
displacement.
ig
.d
w
Where,
w
(w
Where,
is angular frequency of the oscillation
∴Time period of the oscillation,
(45)
WAVES
15

displacement.
Where,
Angular frequency,
)
m
.co
∴Time period,
la
7. Ans. Area of cross-section of the U-tube = A
a
Density of the mercury column =
hs
at
Restoring force, F = Weight of the mercury column of a certain height
lp
F = –(Volume Density g)
ita
F = –(A 2h g) = –2 gh = –k Displacement in one of the arms (h)

Where,
ig
2h is the height of the mercury column in the two arms

.d
w
k is a constant, given by
w
(w
Time period,
Where,
m is the mass of the mercury column
Let l be the length of the total mercury in the U-tube.
Mass of mercury, m = Volume of mercury Density of mercury
= Al
(46)
WAVES
15
Hence, the mercury column executes simple harmonic motion with time period .
8. Ans.Volume of the air chamber = V

Area of cross-section of the neck = a
Mass of the ball = m
The pressure inside the chamber is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
Let the ball be depressed by x units. As a result of this depression, there would be a
decrease in the volume and an increase in the pressure inside the chamber.
)
m
Decrease in the volume of the air chamber, ΔV = ax
.co
Volumetric strain
a la
hs
at
Bulk Modulus of air,
lp
In this case, stress is the increase in pressure. The negative sign indicates that pressure
ita
increases with a decrease in volume.

ig
.d
The restoring force acting on the ball, F = p a

w
w
(w
In simple harmonic motion, the equation for restoring force is:

F = –kx … (ii)
Comparing equations (i) and (ii), we get:
Time period,
(47)
WAVES
15

1. (a) If both assertion and reason are true but reason is not the correct explanation
of the assertion.
1. A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion. Very
)
often, the body undergoing periodic motion has an equilibrium position somewhere inside
m
its path. When the body is at this position no net external force acts on it. Therefore, if it is
.co
left there at rest, it remains there forever. If the body is given a small displacement from
the position, a force comes into play which tries to bring the body periodic motion need
not be oscillatory. Circular motion is a periodic motion, but it is not oscillatory. The
la
smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its period. Let us
a
denote the period by the symbol T. Its SI unit is second. The reciprocal of T gives the
hs
number of repetitions that occur per unit time. This quantity is called the frequency of the
at
periodic motion. It is represented by the symbol n. The waves, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz
(1857–1894), a special name has been given to the unit of frequency. It is called hertz
lp
(abbreviated as Hz). Answer the following.a)

ita
i. Every oscillatory motion is periodic motion true or false?

a. True
ig
b. False
.d
ii. Circular motion is

w
a. Oscillatory motion
w
b. Periodic motion
(w
c. Rotational motion
d. None of these
iii. Define period. Give its SI unit and dimensions
iv. Define frequency of periodic motion. How it is related to time period
v. What is oscillatory motion
2. When a system (such as a simple pendulum or a block attached to a spring) is displaced
from its equilibrium position and released, it oscillates with its natural frequency ω, and
the oscillations are called free oscillations. All free oscillations eventually die out because
of the ever present damping forces. However, an external agency can maintain these
oscillations. These are called forced or driven oscillations. We consider the case when the
(48)
WAVES
15
external force is itself fact of forced periodic oscillations is that the system oscillates not
with its natural frequency ω, but at familiar example of forced oscillation is when a child in
a garden swing periodically presses his feet against the ground (or someone else
periodically gives the child a push) to maintain the oscillations. The maximum possible
amplitude for a given driving frequency is governed by the driving frequency and the
damping, and is never infinity. The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the
driving force is close to the natural frequency of the oscillator is experience with swings is
a good example of resonance. You might have realized that the skill in swinging to greater
heights lies in the synchronization of the rhythm of pushing against the ground with the
natural frequency of the swing.
)
i. When a system oscillates with its natural frequency ω, and the oscillations are called
m
a. Free oscillations
.co
b. Forced oscillations
la
ii. All free oscillations eventually die out because of
a
a. Damping force
b. electromagnetic force
hs
at
c. None of these
lp
iii. What is free oscillation?

iv. What is forced oscillations?
ita
v. What is resonance?
ig
Case Study Answer-

.d
1. Answer
w
i. (a) True
w
ii. (b) Periodic motion

(w
iii. The smallest interval of time after which the motion is repeated is called its period. Its
SI unit is second and dimensions are [T1].
iv. Reciprocal of Time period (T) gives the number of repetitions that occur per unit time.
This quantity is called the frequency of the periodic motion. It is represented by the
symbol n. The relation between n and T is n = 1/T i.e. they are inversely proportional to
each other. The unit of n is thus s-1 or hertz.
v. Oscillatory motion is type of periodic motion in which body performs periodic to and
fro motion about some mean position. Every oscillatory motion is periodic, but every
periodic motion need not be oscillatory.
2. Answer
i. (a) Free oscillations
(49)
WAVES
15
ii. (b) Damping force

iii. When a system (such as a simple pendulum or a block attached to a spring) is displaced
from its equilibrium position and released, it oscillates with its natural frequency ω,
and the oscillations are called free oscillations.
iv. Forced oscillations are oscillations where external force drives the oscillations with
frequency given by external force.
v. The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when the driving force is close to encounter
phenomena which involve resonance. Your experience with swings is a good example
of resonance. You might have realized that the skill in swinging to greater heights lies
in the synchronization of the rhythm of pushing against the ground with the natural
)
m
frequency of the swing.
.co
a la
hs
at
lp
ita
ig
.d
w
w
(w
(50)

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PHYSICS

Dirac by Carl Anderson.

The gravitational force has the following properties:

1. It obeys the inverse square law.

2. It may be attractive or repulsive in nature.

fundamental forces and is charge-independent acting between proton-proton, proton-neutron,

3. It is a short-range force and is operative only over the size of nucleus.

4. A strong nuclear force is responsible for the stability of nuclei.

Name of force Relative strength (w.r.t. Rane Operates

Gravitational 10-39 Infinite All objects in

Weak nuclear 10-13 Sub-nuclear size (10−16 Electron and

the goal of understanding how the forces can be combined

Conserved Quantities: In any physical phenomenon governed by different forces, several

• Law of conservation of angular momentum: It states that if no external torque acts on a

• Simple in terms of representation

Physics in Relation to Other Sciences

the concept of interactions between various particles.

Multiple Choice questions-

(b) Formulating a hypothesis

(c) Formulation of a question

(d) Building a theory

(a) cannot be changed but can be reformulated

(b) is fixed once and for all because it is logical

(c) is changed to suit new fashion among scientists

(b) Some of the most basic features of atomic phenomena.

10. Just as a new experiment may suggest an alternative theoretical model, a

Which of the following experiments can be considered to support this claim?

(a) Davisson and Germier Experiment

(b) experimental discovery of positron

5. What is the relation between Physics and Technology?

6. Is Physics more of a philosophy or more of a mathematical science?

1. How Physics is related to other sciences?

2. Write a short note on origin and Fundamental forces in nature.

(d) A is false and R is also false.

2. Answer: (c) Analysis of test results

3. Answer: (c) Formulation of a question

4. Answer: (d) can be revised if required to fit new phenomenon or data

5. Answer: (c) a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new

6. Answer: (b) Some of the most basic features of atomic phenomena.

7. Answer: (b) replaced by elliptical orbits to fit the data better

5. Answer: The name of the Latin verb is ‘Scientia’.

2. Answer: Broadly speaking, physics and technology both constitute science.

Physics is the heart and technology is the body of science.

• Airplanes fly on the basis of Bernoulli’s theorem.

• Rockets propulsion is based on Newton’s second and third laws of motion.

• The generation of power from the nuclear reactor is based on the

phenomenon of controlled nuclear fission.

• The development of T.V., radio, satellites, telephone, the telegraph has

provided the backbone to Physics.

7. Answer: It is defined as the understanding of biological processes based upon

study the constitution of biological molecules and disorders in them. Laws of

and also the activities of molecules.

8. Answer: It is defined as the study of newer techniques of producing machines,

gadgets, etc. by using scientific discoveries and advancements. It is largely

(b) Physics in nation to Chemistry: The concept of interaction between various

expansion of the universe. Kepler’s laws are responsible to understand the

(f) Physics in the relation to Meteorology: The variation of pressure with

temperature leads to the forecast of the weather.

2. Answer: These are the following four basic forces in nature: