Organic Fuel

Topics to be covered:
• Introduction
• Classification of Fuel
• Solid Fuel
 Coal
1. Calorific Value & its Determination
2. Proximate & Ultimate Analysis
 Coke
1. Carbonization
• Liquid Fuel
 Synthetic Petrol
 Knocking
 Octane Number
 Cetane Number
• Gaseous Fuel
• Combustion Based Numerical
Introduction
Organic Fuel
 Organic Fuels
Definition:
Substance, which by oxidation is made a source of heat that can be used for any desired purpose.
or
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as main constituent, which on proper burning gives large amount
of heat which can be used economically for domestic and industrial purpose.
or
Fuel + Oxygen Combustion Products + Heat
(C, H, N, S) (CO2, H2O, NO2, SO2)
or
Fuel is a fissionable material which produces energy that can be further used for different purpose.
or
Fuel is a material which stores energy that can be extracted to perform work in a controlled manner.
 Based on occurrence

Based on state
 Characteristics of good fuel
1.It should possess high calorific value.
2. It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should neither be too low
nor too high.
3. It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should not cause pollution on
combustion.
4. It should have moderate velocity of combustion.
5. Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop as and when
required.
6. It should not leave behind much ash on combustion.
7. It should be easily available in plenty.
8. It should have low moisture content and low volatile materials.
9. It should be cheap.
10. It should be easy to handle and transport.
11. It should be of uniform size so that combustion is regular.
S. No Characteristics Solid Fuels Liquid Fuels Gaseous Fuels

1. Storage They have large storage They have least storage They must be stored in
space space but not stored in leak proof container
open
2. Transportation Transported easily without Transported through Transported through
any risk of explosion pipelines with safety pipelines with safety
measures. measures.

3. Cost Cheap and easily available Costly than solid fuels Costly except natural gas
4. Risk Least risk of fire accidents Greater Risk Very high risk
5. Use They can not be used in They can be used in They can be used in
internal combustion internal combustion internal combustion
engines. engines. engines.

6. Product of They produce ash and its No ash problem No ash problem
combustion disposal is a big problem

7. Combustion rate Combustion is slow Quickly combustible Combustion is fast

8. Thermal efficiency They have low Thermal They have higher Thermal They have highest Thermal
efficiency efficiency efficiency
 Solid Fuel
Solid fuel: Refers to various forms of solid material that can be burnt to
release energy, providing heat and light through the process of
combustion.

Common examples of solid fuels include wood, charcoal, peat, coal etc.

Wood: It is primary solid fuel, it is no longer used as a fuel except in

forest areas where it is available in abundance. The use of wood as a fuel
is however restricted due to its low calorific value & higher moisture
content. It burns with smoky flame which also restricts its use.
 Coal : It is a naturally occurring substance which is a product of complete decay
of accumulated plant debris for a considerable geographical time by the action of heat and pressure.

 The nature of coal depends upon the type of original deposits and the condition that prevailed at the different
stages during the process of conversion from wood to coal.

 It consist of C, H, N and O besides non-combustible inorganic matter

 The successive stages in the transformation of vegetable matter into coal are – wood, peat, lignite, bituminous
coal, steam coal and anthracite. Anthracite is probably the purest form of coal and contains 95% carbon.

 Coal is the most important fuel since it gives many products on carbonization. In
addition to it, it is used as a fuel in a large number of industries and reducing
agent in iron production plant

 Other Uses :
1. Coal yields metallurgical coke suitable for blast furnace.
2. Coal yields valuable byproducts on carbonization.
 Analysis of Coal

In order to evaluate the quality of fuel it is subjected to following two analysis

1. Proximate Analysis
2. Ultimate Analysis

Proximate Analysis

 The data varies with the procedure adopted and hence it is proximate analysis.
 It gives the information about the practical utility of coal
 Proximate Analysis involves the following determination:

 The moisture Content

 The ash Content

 The volatile matter

 The fixed carbon
1. Determination of Moisture Content
2. Determination of % of Volatile Matters
3. Determination of Percentage of Ash
 Significance of Proximate Analysis
 Moisture
 Excess of moisture is undesirable in coal.

 Moisture lowers the heating value of coal and takes away the appreciate amount of the liberated heat. Therefore lowers the effective calorific value.

 It increases the cost of coal as well as its transportation charges.

 Presence of excessive moisture quenches the fire in Furnace.

 Volatile Matters
 Higher percent of volatile matter indicates that a large proportion of fuel is burnt as a gas.

 Coal containing high volatile matters burns with long flame, high smoke and low calorific value.

 Ash
 Higher % of ash reduces the calorific value

 It increases the hindrance to the flow of air.

 It increases the cost of disposal

 Fixed Carbon
 Higher the % of fixed carbon greater is the calorific value and better is the quality of coal.

 % of fixed carbon determines the rank of coal.

 Higher the %of Carbon lower is the % of Moisture, % of Volatile Matter and % of Ash.
Proximate Analysis Numerical
 Ultimate Analysis
•Elemental Analysis
•Provides Information about C,H,N,S,P and O Contents
•It is analysis completely based on experiments
•Requires high degree skills.

•Determination of Carbon & Hydrogen

 Calculations
Let the weight of coal sample = a gm
Increased in the weight of KOH (Wt. of CO2) = c gm
Increased in the weight of CaCl2 (Wt. of H2O) = b gm

For % of Carbon C + O2 CO2

44 gms of CO2 contains 12 gms of C

1 gm of CO2 contains 12/44 gms of C
c gms of CO2 contains 12/44 * c gms
% of C = Weight of Carbon *100
Weight of Coal sample

= C*12*100
a*44
= Increased in weight of KOH *12*100
Weight of Coal sample*44
For % of Hydrogen
H2 + 1/2 O2 H2O

18 gms of H2O contains 2 gms of H

1 gms of H2O contains 2/18 gms of H
b gms of H2O contains 2/18*b gms of H

% of H = Weight of Hydrogen *100

Weight of Coal sample
= b*2*100
a*18
= Increased in weight of CaCl2 * 2 *100
Weight of Coal sample * 18
 Determination of Ash/Phosphorous
Its determination is carried out by heating a known weight of coal
sample in crucible and weighing the residue it is determined as in
proximate analysis.

Percentage of Oxygen
%O = 100 - % of (C + H + N + S + Ash)

Significance of Ultimate Analysis

 If percentage of C & H increases, the quality of coal also increases
 Nitrogen has no calorific value so it is undesirable. Thus nitrogen
content must be low for a good coal.
 Sulphur contributes heating value to coal but it produces SO2 after
combustion which corrodes equipment's and cause atmospheric
pollution
 Oxygen content decreases the calorific value because it is present
in the form of moisture and volatile matter.
 Coke
(Secondary Fuel)
• Coke is a grey, hard, and porous fuel with a high carbon content and few impurities, made by
heating coal or oil in the absence of air—a destructive distillation process. It is an important
industrial product, used mainly in iron ore smelting, but also as a fuel in stoves.

• The term "coke" usually refers to the product derived from low-ash and low-
sulphur bituminous coal.

• When Bituminous coal is heated strongly in the absence of air (destructive distillation), it
looses volatile matters and gets converted into lustrous, dense, strong, porous and coherent
mass known as coke.

• This process of converting coal into coke is known as carbonization of coal.

• The quality and yield depends mainly upon
• Rank and type of coal
• Temperature of carbonization
• Duration of carbonization
Carbonization : Carbonization is a process in which a fuel is heated without air to leave solid
porous carbon. Coke is produced commercially by carbonization of coal, either at high or low
temperatures. ... Carbonization is a process in which a fuel is heated without air to leave solid
porous carbon.

Types of Carbonization:
• Low – temperature carbonization

• High - temperature carbonization

Process of Carbonization
• Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke (Hard Coke)
• The coke required for metallurgical purpose can be prepared by the following two methods:
• Beehive’s coke oven process (High Temperature carbonization process is employed. It is the
earliest method and most economical method but time consuming process.)
• Otto – Hoffmann’s byproduct coke oven process.
 Fuel – Liquid Fuel
 These are used for domestic as well as industrial purpose.
 Better than solid fuel as more efficient, economical and more convenient to use.
 Petroleum is the main source of liquid fuel. It is rock oil also known as crude oil. It is dark
greenish brown viscous oil.
 Composed of many hydrocarbons (paraffins, cyclo – paraffins, olefins and aromatic) with
small amount of O2, N and S.
• Composition :–
C = 79.5 – 87.1%, H = 11.5 to 14.8 %, S = 0.1 – 3.5%, N and
O2 = 0.1 to 0.5%
• Origin :– Its origin based on following theories.

1. Mendeleef Theory – According to this theory Petroleum is of inorganic origin. It is

formed by the action of water on Metal Carbide.
CaC2+H2O= C2H2+Ca(OH)2

The lower hydrocarbons undergo hydrogenation and polymerization to give various types of
hydrocarbons (paraffins, cyclo – paraffins, olefins and aromatic)
C2H2 + H2 C2H4 C2H6
C2H2 C6H6
This theory fails as it did not explain
 Presence of Nitrogen and Sulphur compound
 Presence of chlorophyll and haemin.
 Presence of optically active compound.

2. Engler’s Theory

 According to him petroleum is of animal origin.

 He suggested that petroleum is formed by the decay and decomposition of fish oil.
 This theory fails to explain Presence of chlorophyll and haemin

3. Modern Theory

 According to this theory petroleum is formed by the decay and decomposition of plants as
well as dead animals.
 This modern theory explains satisfactorily the presence of N2 and sulphur, chlorophyll (from
plants) and presence of haemoglobin from animals.
• Mining of Petroleum
 Mining is the process of bringing petroleum from earth crust to refineries.
 It is taken out by digging wells in the petroleum regions by drilling machines.
 Then it is sent to refineries through pipes.
• Refining of Petroleum
 Petroleum coming out of well is thick dark colored liquid and a mixture of various
hydrocarbons containing sand and water as a suspension. The process of separation of
various fractions and conversion into desired products by removing impurities is known
as refining of petroleum. There are three steps in refining
Removal of water (Cottrell’s Process) – Crude oil/ petroleum pumped out from an earth
crust is an emulsion (mixture of oil + water). It is removed by passing it through the two
highly charged electrodes where colloidal water droplets coalesce to form large droplets
which are then separated out from the oil.
Removal of Sulphur – Sulphur compounds impart bad colour and odour. Hence crude oil is
treated with copper oxide to remove Sulphur by the formation of copper sulphide in solid
form which can be removed by filtration.
CuO + H2S CuS + H2O
 The gasoline obtained by fractional distillation is not of good quantity and is known as
straight run gasoline. Gasoline or Petrol is most important fuel derived from petroleum, it is
obtained between 40 – 120 0C and is a mixture of hydrocarbons such as C5H10 to C10H18. Its
calorific value is 11,250 kcal/kg. It is highly volatile, inflammable and used as fuel for internal
combustion engine of automobiles and aeroplanes.

 Various methods have been used to overcome the demand of gasoline. Following methods
are employed for the production of gasoline.

1. Cracking
2. Synthetic Petrol
3. Reforming
1. Cracking
 It is the process by which heavier fractions are converted into lighter fractions by the
application of heat with or without catalyst.
Eg. C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10

 Nearly 50%of gasoline is obtained by the cracking method.

Fixed Bed Catalytic Cracking
2. Synthetic Petrol – This is the another method to overcome the increased demand of
gasoline. For this following three methods are adopted to increase the production of gasoline.
A. Polymerization
• It forms superior gasoline and is complementary to cracking process.
• By combining smaller hydrocarbons to heavier hydrocarbons resembling gasoline we get,
known as polymer gasoline and the process is polymerization.
• The process is carried out at high Temperature and Pressure with or without catalyst.

CH3CH=CH2 + CH3CH2CH=CH2 CH2=CHCH2.CH2.CH(CH3)2

B. Fischer Tropsch Process
• This method was developed by Fischer and Tropsch in 1962 in Germany. It is a catalytic
reduction of CO with H2 to straight chain alkanes and olefins.
• In this method water gas (CO + H2) is formed by passing steam over heated coke.

Coke CO + H2
• C Bergius Process – It is a method of production of synthetic petrol by hydrogenation of high
volatile bituminous coal at high Temperature & Pressure.
Refining of Gasoline - Gasoline obtained from crude oil or by synthetic process contains some
undesirable unsaturated olefins and sulphur. Presence of these objectionable because.
1. The sulphur compounds can lead to corrosion of internal combustion engine. The
compounds of sulphur such as mercaptans and H2S have bad odour & said to make oil
sour.
2. The olefins can undergo oxidation & polymerization leading to gum and sludge formation
on storage which deposits on the wall of carburetor and stop the engine.
Hence the gasoline should be refined before reaching the customers. Refining of gasoline
involves following steps:-
a) Removal of sulphur compounds –
• Sulphur containing gasoline is called sour petrol.
• The sulphur compounds are removed by treating gasoline with sodium plumbite with
controlled addition of sulphur.
2RSH + Na2PbO2 Pb(SR)2 + NaOH
Sodium plumbite

Pb(SR)2 + S PBS + RSSR

Disulphide
(Removed by filtration)
• The process of converting sulphur to disulphide is known as sweetening (Doctor’s Process) .
b. Removal of olefins
• The unsaturated hydrocarbons or olefins can be removed by treating gasoline with cold 80%
H2SO4.
• H2SO4 reacts with olefins or unsaturated compounds forming alcohols and esters and
polymerize them to form tar like substances which are removed by filtration.
• Olefins are also removed by using Filler’s earth, which absorbs olefins and color.

3. Reforming :- This is the third method to overcome the increased demand of gasoline.
 In order to increase the anti knock properties of a straight chain gasoline, it is subjected to
special treatment called Reforming.
 Reforming is a process of bringing structural modification in the components of straight run
gasline with the primary object of improving its anti knock characteristics.
 The modifications are rearrangements of molecules.
 The main reactions of reforming are -
Reforming can be carried out either thermally or catalytically.

Thermal Reforming –

 Heating straight run gasoline at 500 – 600 0celcius at a pressure of 85 atm.

 The degree of reforming is controlled by rapid cooling the products by cold oil spray.
 The reformed products are then fractionated to remove residual gases.
 During thermal reforming the cracked alkanes and alkenes undergo hydrogenation and
cyclization to form naphthalenes.

Catalytic Reforming-

 It is carried out using catalyst at 460 – 530 0celcius at 35 – 50 atm.

 Product obtained have superior fuel characteristics compared to thermal reforming.
Knocking –

 It is a sharp metallic sound similar to rattling of hammer which is produced in internal

combustion engines due to immature ignition of air – gasoline.
 It decreases the efficiency of engine and causes huge loss of energy and damages piston and
cylinder.
 Knocking depends upon nature of fuel, design of engine and running conditions etc.

Chemical structure & Knocking

 The knocking tendency decreases with increase in the compactness of the molecules,
double bonds and cyclic structure.
 The tendency of constituents of a fuel to knock is in following order
 Straight Chain Paraffins > Branched Chain Paraffins > Olefins > Cycloparaffins > Aromatics
Octane Number
 In order to classify the fuels according to their knocking property, an arbitrary scale has been
established by Edge sin 1926, known as Octane Rating or Octane Number.
 It was observed that n – heptane knocks very badly and hence given octane number zero.
 Isooctane has high resistance to knocking and hence arbitrary assigned value 100.

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

 Octane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage of iso – octane present in a mixture of
iso – octane and n-heptane.
 Greater is the octane number greater is the antiknocking.
 The octane number of cracked gasoline is higher than the straight run gasoline, due to high
percentage of unsaturated hydrocarbon in cracked gasoline.
Antiknocking Agents

 An antiknock agent is a chemical that, when added to gasoline, raises the octane value of
the gasoline which, in turn, raises the temperature and pressure at which gasoline will auto-
ignite. It allows the gasoline/air mixture to wait until the spark plug ignites the fuel, reducing
pre-detonation which can be harmful to the engine.

 The first widely used antiknock agent was TETRAETHYL LEAD(TEL). It worked quite well and
had the side effect of being a good lubricant for valves and valve seats. But lead is dangerous
to humans and the environment when handled improperly, so it was phased out in the
1970’s in the US and elsewhere. Lead also destroys catalytic converters which take out more
impurities from the exhaust stream before they reach the atmosphere.

 Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) is a lead substitute. Ferrocene is

another compound that has antiknock properties when added to gasoline. Iron Carbonyl
,Iron Pentacarbonyl, toluene, Isooctane are commonly used as antiknock agents.
Cetane Rating
 The cetane number of diesel oil may be defined as the percentage of cetane in a
mixture of cetane and alpha-methylnaphthalene which will have the same ignition
characteristics as the fuel under test, under same set of conditions

 n-alkane > naphthalenes > alkenes > Branched alkanes > aromatics
Cetane Number ……………………> decreases
Unit - Fuel

By: Dr. Bindu Varshney

(Department of chemistry)

1
 Unit – Fuel
Topic – Calorific Value and It’s Type
 Calorific Value –
It is the amount of heat liberated on complete combustion of unit mass
or unit volume of fuel. Calorific value is essential to know the type of
fuel and its efficiency.

 Calorific Value is of two types -

1. Gross Calorific Value or Higher Calorific Value
(GCV or HCV)
2. Net Calorific Value or Lower Calorific Value
(NCV or LCV)
1 - Gross Calorific Value or Higher Calorific Value –
It is the total amount of heat liberated when unit mass or volume of
fuel is completely burnt and combustion products are cooled to Room
Temperature.

2 - Net Calorific Value or Lower Calorific Value -

It is the total amount of heat liberated when unit mass or volume of
fuel is completely burnt and combustion products are allowed to
escape out into the atmosphere.

 Determination of Calorific Value -

It is determined by the following methods
a) By Dulong’s Formula
b) By Bomb Calorimeter
c) By Junker’s Calorimeter 3
a) Determination of Calorific Value by Dulong’s
Formula
• According to this :-
HCV/GCV =
1/100 [8080%C + 34500(%H-%O/8) + 2240%S] cal/gm
LCV/NCV =
HCV - [0.09%H * 587] cal/gm

• For Example:-

Q. The ultimate analysis of coal sample gives –

C= 84.5%,N = 0.5%, H = 6%, O = 8.4%, S = 1%.
Calculate the HCV and LCV of given coal sample.
4
• Solution :-

HCV/GCV = 1/100 [8080%C + 34500(%H-%O/8) + 2240%S] cal/gm

HCV = 1/100 [8080*84.5 + 34500(6-8.4/8) + 2240*1]

= 8557cal/gm or kcal/kg

LCV/NCV = HCV – [0.09%H * 587] cal/gm

LCV = 8557 – [0.09 * 6 * 587]

= 8240.02 cal/gm or kcal/kg

5
b) Determination of Calorific Value by Bomb Calorimeter -

 Calorimeter –
It is a device used to calculate calorific value of solid, liquid and gaseous
fuel.
 Bomb Calorimeter –
It is a type of constant volume calorimeter (throughout the
reaction volume will be constant) use to measure the heat
of combustion of a solid or non – volatile liquid fuel.
 Principle –
 A known amount of the fuel is burnt in excess of oxygen
 Heat liberated is transferred to a known amount of water
 The calorific value of the fuel is then determined by applying the
principle of calorimeter.
i.e. Heat gained = Heat lost 6
 Overview -
Bomb calorimeter consist of –
• Small Stainless steel crucible – used to place known amount of sample.
• Oxygen – for the combustion of fuel.
• Stainless Steel Bomb – it is a strong cylindrical, stainless steel container.
This bomb is provided with screw tight lid covering two electrodes and
one oxygen inlet valve. To one of the electrode a small ring is attached to
support crucible , the electrodes are then connected with 6v battery.
• Water – it act as heat gaining body.
• Stirrer – to maintain homogenous temperature.
• Beckmann Thermometer – to measure initial and final temperature.
• Air and Water Jacket – prevent heat going towards the surroundings

7
BOMB CALORIMETER 8
 Procedure -
1. Vessel is fitted with tight screw cap.
2. Two electrodes are connected each other through platinum wire.
3. Small amount of substance whose calorific value is to be determined
is taken in crucible.
4. The bomb is filled with O2 at 25-30 atmospheric pressure.
5. Now bomb is dipped in a copper calorimeter containing known amount
of water and temperature.
6. It also have mechanical stirrer and a thermometer.
7. Electrodes are connected by 6v battery and then fuel is burnt by
passing electric current.
8. After burning heat produced is transferred to water which is stirred by
electric stirrer.
9. Change in temperature is noted by Beckmann’s thermometer.
10. The quantity of heat produced by burning a fuel is
calculated.
9
Calculations –
• Let the weight of fuel sample = x gm
• Weight of water in the calorimeter = W gm
• Water equivalent of calorimeter, stirrer, bomb, thermometer = w gm
• Initial Temperature of water = T1 o Celcius
• Final Temperature of water = T2 o Celcius
• Higher Gross Calorific value HCV = L cal/gm
• Heat gained by water = W (T2 – T1) ocal
• Heat gained by calorimeter = w (T2 – T1) o cal
• Heat gained by water and equivalent = (W + w)(T2 – T1) ocal
• Heat liberated by fuel (HCV) = xL cal/gm
• Apply the principle of calorimeter
Heat gained by calorimeter and water = heat liberated by fuel
xL = (W + w)(T2 – T1)
L (HCV) = (W + w)(T2 – T1) / x
LCV = HCV – 0.09 %H * 587 cal/gm
10
Corrections:
For accurate results following corrections are included in the calculation
of calorific value.
1. Fuse wire correction- fuse wire is used in ignition of fuel. Some heat is
liberated by burning of this, is included in the gross calorific value. This
amount of heat should be subtracted from the total amount.
2. Acid correction- fuel sample contain sulphur and nitrogen which convert
into H2SO4 and HNO3 respectively during combustion. Formation of acid
is an exothermic reaction and this heat should be subtracted from total
heat.
3. Cooling correction- it is the rate of cooling temperature. This quantity is
added in the total heat.

After including these corrections following formula is given for the

calculation of HCV.

HCV = (W + w){(T2 – T1) + Cooling corrections} – (Acid correction + Fuse

wire correction) / weight of coal sample 11
 Gaseous Fuel
 Gaseous fuels are hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide mixtures present in gaseous state which forms the
basis of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily disseminated by means of pipes from the origin to the
place of consumption.

 Advantages of Gaseous Fuel

Economy in fuel and extra efficiency of engine.
This is compressible, and therefore, storage will be easier.
A large amount less air is required for complete combustion.
Less Starting troubles and freezing problems are remove.
A gaseous fuel can simply carried through pipes.
Engine can be run with Lean mixture.

DisAdvantages of Gaseous Fuel

Fire hazards due to high inflammability of gases.
• Coal Gas (Coke Oven Gas)

 Coal gas is a flammable gaseous fuel made from coal.

 It is obtained, when coal is carbonized or heated in the absence of air at about 13000C in either coke ovens or gas
making retorts.
 Coal is fed in closed silica retorts, which are then heated to about 1,3000C .

Composition

 coal gas, gas obtained in the destructive distillation of soft coal, as a byproduct in the preparation of coke . Its
composition varies, but in general it is made up largely of hydrogen (40%) and methane (32%) with small
amounts of other hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide (a poisonous gas, 7%), carbon dioxide (1%), and nitrogen
(4%). Its calorific value is 4,900 kcal/m3.
• Diagram

Working
• The powdered coal is heated in the retort at the temperature of 1,3000C , coke and coal gas is produced.
• The gas is allowed to pass through hydraulic main , where some tar and ammonia get condensed.
• Now, the gas is passed through a large condenser where most of the tar and ammonia get removed and are
collected below in two separate layers in a tank.
• The gases are then passed through scrubbers and washing towers under pressure with the help of pump.
Here hot gases are rapidly chilled by spraying them with jets of high pressure water & Naphthelene is
removed.
• The coal gas are then allowed to pass through another scrubber where they are scrubbed with creosote oil which
dissolves benzole, toluene and other aromatic compounds.
• The gas is then purified with the removal of Sulphur and hydrogensulphide by passing it over moist ferric oxide
contained in a purifier.
Fe2O3 + 3H2S Fe2S3 + 3H2O
• The coal gas is then purified and stored in gas holders over water.
Properties
 Coal gas is colourless gas.
 Lighter than air
 It burns with smoky flame.
Uses
 It is used as a fuel, illuminate and in metallurgical operations.
Oil Gas
Oil gas consists of mixture of hydrocarbons and is prepared by thermal cracking of kerosene oil
C12H26 CH4 + C2H6 + C2H4 + C2H2 + C3H8 + C3H6 + C
Kerosene Oil (lower hydrocarbons mixture)

Diagram

Composition
CH4 = 25-30%; H2 = 50-55%; CO = 10-12%;
CO2 = 3%. Its calorific value is about 4,500
– 5,400 kcal/m3.
• Maufacturing
 The plant consists of a strong cast iron retort, which is enclosed in a coal – fired furnace.
 The bonnet is fitted at the mouth of the retort through a molten lead seal.
 The bonnet is connected to a hydraulic main through a water seal.
 A thin stream of kerosene oil is gradually introduced into the red hot iron retort, where it is heated strongly and gets
thermally cracked into a mixture of lower hydrocarbons.
 Tarry material is also produced and gets mixed up with the gaseous hydrocarbons.
 The gases so formed pass out through the bonnet cover to hydraulic main. Tar gets condensed and removed.
 The extent of completion of cracking process is tested by withdrawing some gas through the testing tap & examining its
color.
 A good oil gas should appear golden yellow.
 By adjusting the supply of kerosene & air, the required color can be obtained.
 The gas is stored over water in holders.
Uses
It is used as Laboratory Gas.
• Numerical Related to Combustion
• Some Basic Points to remember
1. Air contains 21% of oxygen by volume, and mass percent of oxygen is 23. This means that 1kg of oxygen is
supplied by
1 * 100 = 4.35 kg of air
23
Similarly, 1 m3 of oxygen is supplied by
1 * 100 = 4.76 m3 of air
21
2. Molecular mass of air is taken as 28.94 g mol-1

3. Minimum Oxygen required =

Theoretical O2 required – O2 present in the fuel
4. Minimum O2 required should be calculated on the basis of complete combustion.
• Combustion Equations

C + O2 CO2
CO + 1/2 O2 CO2
H2 + 1/2 O2 H20
S + O2 SO2
C3H8+5O2 3CO2+4H2O
Example 1. The percentage composition of a sample of bituminous coal was found to be as under C = 75.4%, H =
4.5%, O = 12.5%, N = 3.1%, S = 1.4% and ash = 3.1%. Calculate the minimum amount of O2 and air by weight
required for the complete combustion of 1 kg of coal.

Solution = Constituents Weight in 1 kg of fuel Wt. of O2 required in kg

C 0.754 0.754 * 32/12 = 2.010
H 0.045 0.045*16/2 = 0.36
O 0.125
N 0.031
S 0.014 0.014*32/32 = 0.014
Ash 0.031
Total O2 = 2.384
O2 in fuel = 0.125
Net O2 = 2.259

Minimum weight of O2 required for the combustion of 1kg of coal = 2.259 kg

Minimum weight of air required for the combustion of 1kg of fuel = 2.259 * 100/23 = 9.82 kg
Example 2 A gas used in an internal combustion engine has 50%H2, 30%CH4, 15%CO and 5%N2. Find the volume of
air needed for the combustion of 1m3 of the gas.

Solution
Constituents Volume in 1m3 of fuel O2 required in m3
H2 0.5 0.50*1/2 = 0.25
CH4 0.3 0.3*2 = 0.6
CO 0.15 0.15 *1/2 = 0.075
N2 0.05
Total O2 = 0.925
O2 in fuel = Nil
Net O2 = 0.925

Volume of air required for complete combustion of 1m3 of gas

= 0.925 * 100/21 = 4.40 m3
Junker’s Calorimeter