ATME COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

13th KM Stone, Bannur Road, Mysore - 560 028

DEPARTMENT OF CSE-(Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning)

(ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-25)
ODD SEM

NOTES OF LESSON

SUBJECT: INTERNET OF THINGS

SUB CODE: 21CS735
SEMESTER: 7TH
 INSTITUTIONAL MISSION AND VISION

Objectives
 To provide quality education and groom top-notch professionals, entrepreneurs and
leaders for different fields of engineering, technology and management.
 To open a Training-R & D-Design-Consultancy cell in each department, gradually
introduce doctoral and postdoctoral programs, encourage basic & applied research in
areas of social relevance, and develop the institute as a center of excellence.
 To develop academic, professional and financial alliances with the industry as
well as the academia at national and transnational levels.
 To cultivate strong community relationships and involve the students and the staff in
local community service.
 To constantly enhance the value of the educational inputs with the participation of
students, faculty, parents and industry.

Vision
 Development of academically excellent, culturally vibrant, socially
responsible and globally competent human resources.

Mission
 To keep pace with advancements in knowledge and make the students competitive and
capable at the global level.
 To create an environment for the students to acquire the right physical, intellectual,
emotional and moral foundations and shine as torch bearers of tomorrow’s society.
 To strive to attain ever-higher benchmarks of educational excellence.
Department of Computer Science & Engineering-AI & ML

Vision of the Department

 To develop highly talented individuals in Computer Science and Engineering to deal with

real world challenges in industry, education, research and society.

Mission of the Department

 To inculcate professional behavior, strong ethical values, innovative research capabilities
and leadership abilities in the young minds & to provide a teaching environment that
emphasizes depth, originality and critical thinking.

 Motivate students to put their thoughts and ideas adoptable by industry or to pursue
higher studies leading to research.

Program outcomes (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

PO1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.

PO2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.

PO3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems

and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.

PO4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and

research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
PO5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering
activities with an understanding of the limitations.

PO6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
 PO7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professionalengineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.

PO8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.

PO9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

PO10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.

PO11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.

PO12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1: Ability to apply skills in the field of algorithms, database design, web design,
cloud computing and data analytics.

PSO2: Apply knowledge in the field of computer networks for building network and internet
based applications
Program Educational Objectives (PEOs):

1. Empower students with a strong basis in the mathematical, scientific and engineering
fundamentals to solve computational problems and to prepare them for employment,
higher learning and R&D.

2. Gain technical knowledge, skills and awareness of current technologies of computer

science engineering and to develop an ability to design and provide novel engineering
solutions for software/hardware problems through entrepreneurial skills.

3. Exposure to emerging technologies and work in teams on interdisciplinary projects with

effective communication skills and leadership qualities.

4. Ability to function ethically and responsibly in a rapidly changing environment by

applying innovative ideas in the latest technology, to become effective professionals in
Computer Science to bear a life-long career in relate dare as.
 Faculty Name : Dr. Hussana Johar R .B Academic Year: 2024- 2025
Department: CSE(Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning)
Contact
Hours Total Hrs/
Course Code Course Title Core/Elective
Sessions
L T P
Internet of Things
21CS735 Core 3 - - 40
Topics Covered as per Syllabus
Module-1
Emergence of IoT: Introduction, Evolution of IoT, Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of
Technologies, IoT Networking Components, Addressing Strategies in IoT
Module-2
IoT Sensing and Actuation: Introduction, Sensors, Sensor Characteristics, Sensorial Deviations, Sensing Types,
Sensing Considerations, Actuators, Actuator Types, Actuator Characteristics.
Module-3

IoT Processing Topologies and Types: Data Format, Importance of Processing in IoT, Processing Topologies, IoT
Device Design and Selection Considerations, Processing Offloading.
Module-4
IoT Connectivity Technologies: Introduction, IEEE 802.15.4, Zigbee, Thread, ISA100.11A, WirelessHART,
RFID, NFC, DASH7, Z-Wave, Weightless, Sigfox, LoRa, NB-IoT, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth

Module-5
IoT Communication Technologies: Introduction, Infrastructure Protocols, Discovery Protocols, Data Protocols,
Identification Protocols, Device Management, Semantic Protocols IoT Interoperability: Introduction, Taxonomy
of interoperability, Standards, Frameworks.

List of Text Books

1. Sudip Misra, Anandarup Mukherjee, Arijit Roy, “Introduction to IoT”, Cambridge University Press 2021.
2. S. Misra, C. Roy, and A. Mukherjee, 2020. Introduction to Industrial Internet of Things and Industry 4.0. CRC
Press.
3. Vijay Madisetti and Arshdeep Bahga, “Internet of Things (A Hands-on-Approach)”,1st Edition, VPT, 2014.
4. Francis daCosta, “Rethinking the Internet of Things: A Scalable Approach to Connecting Everything”, 1st
Edition, Apress Publications, 2013.
List of URLs, Text Books, Notes, Multimedia Content, etc

.1. https://nptel.ac.in/noc/courses/noc19/SEM1/noc19-cs31/
Text Books :
1. Sudip Misra, Anandarup Mukherjee, Arijit Roy, “Introduction to IoT”, Cambridge University Press 2021.
Reference:
1. S. Misra, C. Roy, and A. Mukherjee, 2020. Introduction to Industrial Internet of Things and Industry 4.0.
CRC Press.
2. Vijay Madisetti and Arshdeep Bahga, “Internet of Things (A Hands-on-Approach)”,1st Edition, VPT, 2014.
3. Francis daCosta, “Rethinking the Internet of Things: A Scalable Approach to Connecting Everything”, 1st
Edition, Apress Publications, 2013.
After studying this course, students will be able to

Course
CO 1. Understand the evolution of IoT, IoT networking components, and addressing strategies in
Outcomes
IoT.
CO 2. Analyze various sensing devices and actuator types.
CO 3. Demonstrate the processing in IoT.
CO 4. Apply different connectivity technologies.
CO 5. Understand the communication technologies , protocols and interoperability in IoT
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Chapter 4
Emergence of IoT

Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• Explain the chronology for the evolution of Internet of Things (IoT)
• Relate new concepts with concepts learned earlier to make a smooth transition to
IoT
• List the reasons for a prevailing universal networked paradigm, which is IoT
• Compare and correlate IoT with its precursors such as WSN, M2M, and CPS
• List the various enablers of IoT
• Understand IoT networking components and various networking topologies
• Recognize the unique features of IoT which set it apart from other similar
paradigms

4.1 Introduction
The modern-day advent of network-connected devices has given rise to the popular
paradigm of the Internet of Things (IoT). Each second, the present-day Internet allows
massively heterogeneous traffic through it. This network traffic consists of images,
videos, music, speech, text, numbers, binary codes, machine status, banking messages,
data from sensors and actuators, healthcare data, data from vehicles, home automation
system status and control messages, military communications, and many more. This
huge variety of data is generated from a massive number of connected devices, which
may be directly connected to the Internet or connected through gateway devices.
According to statistics from the Information Handling Services [7], the total number of
connected devices globally is estimated to be around 25 billion. This figure is projected

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76 Introduction to Internet of Things

to triple within a short span of 5 years by the year 2025. Figure 4.1 shows the global
trend and projection for connected devices worldwide.

Global connected IoT device trend

2025 2024 2023 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Billion devices installed

Figure 4.1 10-year global trend and projection of connected devices (statistics sourced from
the Information Handling Services [7])

The traffic flowing through the Internet can be attributed to legacy systems as well
as modern-day systems. The miniaturization of electronics and the cheap affordability
of technology is resulting in a surge of connected devices, which in turn is leading to
an explosion of traffic flowing through the Internet.

Points to ponder

“The Internet of Things (IoT) is the network of physical objects that contain
embedded technology to communicate and sense or interact with their internal
states or the external environment.”
—Gartner Research [5]

One of the best examples of this explosion is the evolution of smartphones. In the
late 1990’s, cellular technology was still expensive and which could be afforded only
by a select few. Moreover, these particular devices had only the basic features of voice
calling, text messaging, and sharing of low-quality multimedia. Within the next 10
years, cellular technology had become common and easily affordable. With time, the
features of these devices evolved, and the dependence of various applications and
services on these gadgets on packet-based Internet accesses started rapidly increasing.
The present-day mobile phones (commonly referred to as smartphones) are more or
less Internet-based. The range of applications on these gadgets such as messaging,
video calling, e-mails, games, music streaming, video streaming, and others are
solely dependent on network provider allocated Internet access or WiFi. Most of

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Emergence of IoT 77

the present-day consumers of smartphone technology tend to carry more than one of
these units. In line with this trend, other connected devices have rapidly increased
in numbers resulting in the number of devices exceeding the number of humans
on Earth by multiple times. Now imagine that as all technologies and domains are
moving toward smart management of systems, the number of sensor/actuator-based
systems is rapidly increasing. With time, the need for location-independent access
to monitored and controlled systems keep on rising. This rise in number leads to a
further rise in the number of Internet-connected devices.
The original Internet intended for sending simple messages is now connected with
all sorts of “Things”. These things can be legacy devices, modern-day computers,
sensors, actuators, household appliances, toys, clothes, shoes, vehicles, cameras, and
anything which may benefit a product by increasing its scientific value, accuracy, or
even its cosmetic value.

Internet of Things

“In the 2000s, we are heading into a new era of ubiquity, where the ‘users’
of the Internet will be counted in billions and where humans may become the
minority as generators and receivers of traffic. Instead, most of the traffic will
flow between devices and all kinds of“Things”, thereby creating a much wider
and more complex Internet of Things.”
—ITU Internet Report 2005 [6]

IoT is an anytime, anywhere, and anything (as shown in Figure 4.2) network of
Internet-connected physical devices or systems capable of sensing an environment
and affecting the sensed environment intelligently. This is generally achieved
using low-power and low-form-factor embedded processors on-board the “things”
connected to the Internet. In other words, IoT may be considered to be made
up of connecting devices, machines, and tools; these things are made up of
sensors/actuators and processors, which connect to the Internet through wireless
technologies. Another school of thought also considers wired Internet access to be
inherent to the IoT paradigm. For the sake of harmony, in this book, we will consider
any technology enabling access to the Internet—be it wired or wireless—to be an
IoT enabling technology. However, most of the focus on the discussion of various
IoT enablers will be restricted to wireless IoT systems due to the much more severe
operating constraints and challenges faced by wireless devices as compared to wired
systems. Typically, IoT systems can be characterized by the following features [2]:
• Associated architectures, which are also efficient and scalable.
• No ambiguity in naming and addressing.
• Massive number of constrained devices, sleeping nodes, mobile devices, and
non-IP devices.
• Intermittent and often unstable connectivity.

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78 Introduction to Internet of Things

An
yw
he

ing
re
yth
An

IoT

Figure 4.2 The three characteristic features—anytime, anywhere, and anything—highlight the
robustness and dynamic nature of IoT

IoT is speculated to have achieved faster and higher technology acceptance as

compared to electricity and telephony. These speculations are not ill placed as evident
from the various statistics shown in Figures 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5.

Worldwide IoT spending

1200

1000

800
Billion USD

600

400

200

0
2017 2018 2020 2021

Figure 4.3 The global IoT spending across various organizations and industries and its
subsequent projection until the year 2021 (sourced from International Data
Corporation [1])

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Emergence of IoT 79

Figure 4.4 The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the IoT market (statistics sourced
from [1])

IoT market share

13.10%

7.40%

63.20% 6.70%

5.60%
5.10%

Manufacturing Logistics
Asset management Smart grid
Smart building Others

Figure 4.5 The IoT market share across various industries (statistics sourced from International
Data Corporation [8])

According to an International Data Corporation (IDC) report, worldwide spending

on IoT is reported to have crossed USD 700 billion. The projected spending on IoT-
based technologies worldwide is estimated to be about USD 1.1 trillion [1]. Similarly,

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80 Introduction to Internet of Things

the compounded annual growth rate of IoT between the years 2016 and 2021, as
depicted in Figure 4.4, shows that the majority of the market share is captured by
consumer goods, which is closely followed by insurance and healthcare industries.
However, the combined industrial share of IoT growth (both cross and resource)
is 32% of the collective market, which is again more than that of the consumer
market. In continuation, Figure 4.5 shows the IoT market share of various sectors. The
manufacturing, logistics, and asset management sectors were purported to be the
largest receivers of IoT-linked investments in 2017 [8].

4.2 Evolution of IoT

The IoT, as we see it today, is a result of a series of technological paradigm shifts
over a few decades. The technologies that laid the foundation of connected systems
by achieving easy integration to daily lives, popular public acceptance, and massive
benefits by using connected solutions can be considered as the founding solutions for
the development of IoT. Figure 4.6 shows the sequence of technological advancements
for shaping the IoT as it is today. These sequence of technical developments toward
the emergence of IoT are described in brief:
Web Smart lock Connected vehicles Smart dust UAVs

ATM Smart meters Connected healthcare Smart cities Smart factories

Figure 4.6 The sequence of technological developments leading to the shaping of the modern-
day IoT

• ATM: ATMs or automated teller machines are cash distribution machines, which
are linked to a user’s bank account. ATMs dispense cash upon verification of
the identity of a user and their account through a specially coded card. The
central concept behind ATMs was the availability of financial transactions even
when banks were closed beyond their regular work hours. These ATMs were
ubiquitous money dispensers. The first ATM became operational and connected
online for the first time in 1974.
• Web: World Wide Web is a global information sharing and communication
platform. The Web became operational for the first time in 1991. Since then, it has
been massively responsible for the many revolutions in the field of computing
and communication.
• Smart Meters: The earliest smart meter was a power meter, which became
operational in early 2000. These power meters were capable of communicating
remotely with the power grid. They enabled remote monitoring of subscribers’
power usage and eased the process of billing and power allocation from grids.

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Emergence of IoT 81

• Digital Locks: Digital locks can be considered as one of the earlier attempts at
connected home-automation systems. Present-day digital locks are so robust
that smartphones can be used to control them. Operations such as locking and
unlocking doors, changing key codes, including new members in the access lists,
can be easily performed, and that too remotely using smartphones.
• Connected Healthcare: Here, healthcare devices connect to hospitals, doctors,
and relatives to alert them of medical emergencies and take preventive measures.
The devices may be simple wearable appliances, monitoring just the heart
rate and pulse of the wearer, as well as regular medical devices and monitors
in hospitals. The connected nature of these systems makes the availability of
medical records and test results much faster, cheaper, and convenient for both
patients as well as hospital authorities.
• Connected Vehicles: Connected vehicles may communicate to the Internet or
with other vehicles, or even with sensors and actuators contained within it.
These vehicles self-diagnose themselves and alert owners about system failures.
• Smart Cities: This is a city-wide implementation of smart sensing, monitoring,
and actuation systems. The city-wide infrastructure communicating amongst
themselves enables unified and synchronized operations and information
dissemination. Some of the facilities which may benefit are parking,
transportation, and others.
• Smart Dust: These are microscopic computers. Smaller than a grain of sand each,
they can be used in numerous beneficial ways, where regular computers cannot
operate. For example, smart dust can be sprayed to measure chemicals in the soil
or even to diagnose problems in the human body.
• Smart Factories: These factories can monitor plant processes, assembly lines,
distribution lines, and manage factory floors all on their own. The reduction
in mishaps due to human errors in judgment or unoptimized processes is
drastically reduced.
• UAVs: UAVs or unmanned aerial vehicles have emerged as robust public-
domain solutions tasked with applications ranging from agriculture, surveys,
surveillance, deliveries, stock maintenance, asset management, and other tasks.
The present-day IoT spans across various domains and applications. The major
highlight of this paradigm is its ability to function as a cross-domain technology
enabler. Multiple domains can be supported and operated upon simultaneously over
IoT-based platforms. Support for legacy technologies and standalone paradigms,
along with modern developments, makes IoT quite robust and economical for
commercial, industrial, as well as consumer applications. IoT is being used in
vivid and diverse areas such as smart parking, smartphone detection, traffic
congestion, smart lighting, waste management, smart roads, structural health,
urban noise maps, river floods, water flow, silos stock calculation, water leakages,
radiation levels, explosive and hazardous gases, perimeter access control, snow

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82 Introduction to Internet of Things

level monitoring, liquid presence, forest fire detection, air pollution, smart grid,
tank level, photovoltaic installations, NFC (near-field communications) payments,
intelligent shopping applications, landslide and avalanche prevention, early detection
of earthquakes, supply chain control, smart product management, and others.
Figure 4.7 shows the various technological interdependencies of IoT with other
domains and networking paradigms such as M2M, CPS, the Internet of environment
(IoE), the Internet of people (IoP), and Industry 4.0. Each of these networking
paradigms is a massive domain on its own, but the omnipresent nature of IoT implies
that these domains act as subsets of IoT. The paradigms are briefly discussed here:

Scale People

M2M IoP

IoP
CPS Industry 4.0
Au s
ton si
om nthe
y IoE Sy

Environment

Figure 4.7 The interdependence and reach of IoT over various application domains and
networking paradigms

(i) M2M: The M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm signifies a system

of connected machines and devices, which can talk amongst themselves
without human intervention. The communication between the machines can
be for updates on machine status (stocks, health, power status, and others),
collaborative task completion, overall knowledge of the systems and the
environment, and others.
(ii) CPS: The CPS or the cyber physical system paradigm insinuates a closed control
loop—from sensing, processing, and finally to actuation—using a feedback
mechanism. CPS helps in maintaining the state of an environment through the
feedback control loop, which ensures that until the desired state is attained, the
system keeps on actuating and sensing. Humans have a simple supervisory role
in CPS-based systems; most of the ground-level operations are automated.

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Emergence of IoT 83

(iii) IoE: The IoE paradigm is mainly concerned with minimizing and even
reversing the ill-effects of the permeation of Internet-based technologies on the
environment [3]. The major focus areas of this paradigm include smart and
sustainable farming, sustainable and energy-efficient habitats, enhancing the
energy efficiency of systems and processes, and others. In brief, we can safely
assume that any aspect of IoT that concerns and affects the environment, falls
under the purview of IoE.
(iv) Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 is commonly referred to as the fourth industrial
revolution pertaining to digitization in the manufacturing industry. The previous
revolutions chronologically dealt with mechanization, mass production, and the
industrial revolution, respectively. This paradigm strongly puts forward the
concept of smart factories, where machines talk to one another without much
human involvement based on a framework of CPS and IoT. The digitization
and connectedness in Industry 4.0 translate to better resource and workforce
management, optimization of production time and resources, and better upkeep
and lifetimes of industrial systems.
(v) IoP: IoP is a new technological movement on the Internet which aims to
decentralize online social interactions, payments, transactions, and other tasks
while maintaining confidentiality and privacy of its user’s data. A famous site
for IoP states that as the introduction of the Bitcoin has severely limited the
power of banks and governments, the acceptance of IoP will limit the power
of corporations, governments, and their spy agencies [4].

4.2.1 IoT versus M2M

M2M or the machine-to-machine paradigm refers to communications and interactions
between various machines and devices. These interactions can be enabled through a
cloud computing infrastructure, a server, or simply a local network hub. M2M collects
data from machinery and sensors, while also enabling device management and device
interaction. Telecommunication services providers introduced the term M2M, and
technically emphasized on machine interactions via one or more communication
networks (e.g., 3G, 4G, 5G, satellite, public networks). M2M is part of the IoT and is
considered as one of its sub-domains, as shown in Figure 4.7. M2M standards occupy
a core place in the IoT landscape. However, in terms of operational and functional
scope, IoT is vaster than M2M and comprises a broader range of interactions
such as the interactions between devices/things, things, and people, things and
applications, and people with applications; M2M enables the amalgamation of
workflows comprising such interactions within IoT. Internet connectivity is central
to the IoT theme but is not necessarily focused on the use of telecom networks.

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84 Introduction to Internet of Things

4.2.2 IoT versus CPS

Cyber physical systems (CPS) encompasses sensing, control, actuation, and feedback
as a complete package. In other words, a digital twin is attached to a CPS-based
system. As mentioned earlier, a digital twin is a virtual system–model relation, in
which the system signifies a physical system or equipment or a piece of machinery,
while the model represents the mathematical model or representation of the physical
system’s behavior or operation. Many a time, a digital twin is used parallel to a
physical system, especially in CPS as it allows for the comparison of the physical
system’s output, performance, and health. Based on feedback from the digital twin,
a physical system can be easily given corrective directions/commands to obtain
desirable outputs. In contrast, the IoT paradigm does not compulsorily need feedback
or a digital twin system. IoT is more focused on networking than controls. Some of the
constituent sub-systems in an IoT environment (such as those formed by CPS-based
instruments and networks) may include feedback and controls too. In this light, CPS
may be considered as one of the sub-domains of IoT, as shown in Figure 4.7.

4.2.3 IoT versus WoT

From a developer’s perspective, the Web of Things (WoT) paradigm enables access
and control over IoT resources and applications. These resources and applications
are generally built using technologies such as HTML 5.0, JavaScript, Ajax, PHP, and
others. REST (representational state transfer) is one of the key enablers of WoT. The use
of RESTful principles and RESTful APIs (application program interface) enables both
developers and deployers to benefit from the recognition, acceptance, and maturity of
existing web technologies without having to redesign and redeploy solutions from
scratch. Still, designing and building the WoT paradigm has various adaptability
and security challenges, especially when trying to build a globally uniform WoT. As
IoT is focused on creating networks comprising objects, things, people, systems, and
applications, which often do not consider the unification aspect and the limitations of
the Internet, the need for WoT, which aims to integrate the various focus areas of IoT
into the existing Web is really invaluable. Technically, WoT can be thought of as an
application layer-based hat added over the network layer. However, the scope of IoT
applications is much broader; IoT also which includes non-IP-based systems that are
not accessible through the web.

4.3 Enabling IoT and the Complex Interdependence of Technologies

IoT is a paradigm built upon complex interdependencies of technologies (both legacy
and modern), which occur at various planes of this paradigm. Regarding Figure 4.8,
we can divide the IoT paradigm into four planes: services, local connectivity, global
connectivity, and processing. If we consider a bottom-up view, the services offered fall

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Emergence of IoT 85

under the control and purview of service providers. The service plane is composed of
two parts: 1) things or devices and 2) low-power connectivity.
Processing

IoT tools
Conversion Learning Algorithm Visualization
connectivity
Global

IoT management
Remote
Data-centers Web Cloud
server
connectivity
Local

Gateway Proxy Router Switch

Zigbee Rfid Bluetooth 6LoWPAN Insteon

Service provider

Ethernet WiFi LoRA Dash Cellular

Services

Figure 4.8 The IoT planes, various enablers of IoT, and the complex interdependencies among
them

Typically, the services offered in this layer are a combination of things and low-
power connectivity. For example, any IoT application requires the basic setup of
sensing, followed by rudimentary processing (often), and a low-power, low-range
network, which is mainly built upon the IEEE 802.15.4 protocol. The things may
be wearables, computers, smartphones, household appliances, smart glasses, factory

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86 Introduction to Internet of Things

machinery, vending machines, vehicles, UAVs, robots, and other such contraptions
(which may even be just a sensor). The immediate low-power connectivity, which is
responsible for connecting the things in local implementation, may be legacy protocols
such as WiFi, Ethernet, or cellular. In contrast, modern-day technologies are mainly
wireless and often programmable such as Zigbee, RFID, Bluetooth, 6LoWPAN, LoRA,
DASH, Insteon, and others. The range of these connectivity technologies is severely
restricted; they are responsible for the connectivity between the things of the IoT and
the nearest hub or gateway to access the Internet.
The local connectivity is responsible for distributing Internet access to multiple
local IoT deployments. This distribution may be on the basis of the physical placement
of the things, on the basis of the application domains, or even on the basis of providers
of services. Services such as address management, device management, security,
sleep scheduling, and others fall within the scope of this plane. For example, in a
smart home environment, the first floor and the ground floor may have local IoT
implementations, which have various things connected to the network via low-power,
low-range connectivity technologies. The traffic from these two floors merges into a
single router or a gateway. The total traffic intended for the Internet from a smart home
leaves through a single gateway or router, which may be assigned a single global IP
address (for the whole house). This helps in the significant conservation of already
limited global IP addresses. The local connectivity plane falls under the purview of
IoT management as it directly deals with strategies to use/reuse addresses based on
things and applications. The modern-day “edge computing” paradigm is deployed in
conjunction with these first two planes: services and local connectivity.
In continuation, the penultimate plane of global connectivity plays a significant
role in enabling IoT in the real sense by allowing for worldwide implementations and
connectivity between things, users, controllers, and applications. This plane also falls
under the purview of IoT management as it decides how and when to store data,
when to process it, when to forward it, and in which form to forward it. The Web,
data-centers, remote servers, Cloud, and others make up this plane. The paradigm of
“fog computing” lies between the planes of local connectivity and global connectivity.
It often serves to manage the load of global connectivity infrastructure by offloading
the computation nearer to the source of the data itself, which reduces the traffic load
on the global Internet.
The final plane of processing can be considered as a top-up of the basic IoT
networking framework. The continuous rise in the usefulness and penetration of
IoT in various application areas such as industries, transportation, healthcare, and
others is the result of this plane. The members in this plane may be termed as
IoT tools, simply because they wring-out useful and human-readable information
from all the raw data that flows from various IoT devices and deployments. The
various sub-domains of this plane include intelligence, conversion (data and format
conversion, and data cleaning), learning (making sense of temporal and spatial data
patterns), cognition (recognizing patterns and mapping it to already known patterns),
algorithms (various control and monitoring algorithms), visualization (rendering

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numbers and strings in the form of collective trends, graphs, charts, and projections),
and analysis (estimating the usefulness of the generated information, making sense
of the information with respect to the application and place of data generation, and
estimating future trends based on past and present patterns of information obtained).
Various computing paradigms such as “big data”, “machine Learning”, and others,
fall within the scope of this domain.

4.4 IoT Networking Components

An IoT implementation is composed of several components, which may vary with
their application domains. Various established works such as that by Savolainen et al.
[2] generally outline five broad categories of IoT networking components. However,
we outline the broad components that come into play during the establishment of
any IoT network, into six types: 1) IoT node, 2) IoT router, 3) IoT LAN, 4) IoT WAN,
5) IoT gateway, and 6) IoT proxy. A typical IoT implementation from a networking
perspective is shown in Figure 4.9. The individual components are briefly described
here:

LG-3 LG-4

LG-2
IoT Firewall
wan
IoT
LG-1 Internet
proxy

IoT
router IoT
gateway IoT IoT
router router
IoT IoT IoT
lan-1 LU-1 lan-2 LU-1 lan-3 LU-1

LU-5 LU-2 LU-5 LU-2 LU-5 LU-2

LU-4 LU-3 LU-4 LU-3 LU-4 LU-3

Figure 4.9 A typical IoT network ecosystem highlighting the various networking components—
from IoT nodes to the Internet

(i) IoT Node: These are the networking devices within an IoT LAN. Each of
these devices is typically made up of a sensor, a processor, and a radio, which
communicates with the network infrastructure (either within the LAN or outside
it). The nodes may be connected to other nodes inside a LAN directly or by

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means of a common gateway for that LAN. Connections outside the LAN are
through gateways and proxies.
(ii) IoT Router: An I oT router is a piece of networking equipment that is primarily
tasked with the routing of packets between various entities in the IoT network;
it keeps the traffic flowing correctly within the network. A router can be
repurposed as a gateway by enhancing its functionalities.
(iii) IoT LAN: The local area network (LAN) enables local connectivity within the
purview of a single gateway. Typically, they consist of short-range connectivity
technologies. IoT LANs may or may not be connected to the Internet. Generally,
they are localized within a building or an organization.
(iv) IoT WAN: The wide area network (WAN) connects various network segments
such as LANs. They are typically organizationally and geographically wide,
with their operational range lying between a few kilometers to hundreds of
kilometers. IoT WANs connect to the Internet and enable Internet access to the
segments they are connecting.
(v) IoT Gateway: An IoT gateway is simply a router connecting the IoT LAN to a
WAN or the Internet. Gateways can implement several LANs and WANs. Their
primary task is to forward packets between LANs and WANs, and the IP layer
using only layer 3.
(vi) IoT Proxy: Proxies actively lie on the application layer and performs application
layer functions between IoT nodes and other entities. Typically, application layer
proxies are a means of providing security to the network entities under it ; it
helps to extend the addressing range of its network.

In Figure 4.9, various IoT nodes within an IoT LAN are configured to to one another
as well as talk to the IoT router whenever they are in the range of it. The devices
have locally unique (LU-x) device identifiers. These identifiers are unique only within
a LAN. There is a high chance that these identifiers may be repeated in a new LAN.
Each IoT LAN has its own unique identifier, which is denoted by IoT LAN-x in Figure
4.9. A router acts as a connecting link between various LANs by forwarding messages
from the LANs to the IoT gateway or the IoT proxy. As the proxy is an application
layer device, it is additionally possible to include features such as firewalls, packet
filters, and other security measures besides the regular routing operations. Various
gateways connect to an IoT WAN, which links these devices to the Internet. There
may be cases where the gateway or the proxy may directly connect to the Internet.
This network may be wired or wireless; however, IoT deployments heavily rely on
wireless solutions. This is mainly attributed to the large number of devices that are
integrated into the network; wireless technology is the only feasible and neat-enough
solution to avoid the hassles of laying wires and dealing with the restricted mobility
rising out of wired connections.

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4.5 Addressing Strategies in IoT

Table 4.1 lists the differences in features of IPv4 and IPv6. The most interesting point
to note is that as compared to IPv4, which relies more on reliable delivery of packets
between source and destination, an IPv6 packet is more address-oriented. Due to the
increasing rate of devices being connected to the Internet, the early developers of IPv6
felt the need for accommodating addresses as more crucial than the need for reliable
transmission of packets (which was the main feature of IPv4-based routing of packets).

Table 4.1 Feature-wise difference between IPv4 and IPv6 capabilities

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Developed IETF 1974 IETF 1998
Address length (bits) 32 128
No. of addresses 232 2128
Notation Dotted decimal Hexadecimal
Dynamic allocation of addresses DHCP DHCPv6, SLAAC
IPSec Optional Compulsary
Header size Variable Fixed
Header checksum Yes No
Header options Yes No
Broadcast addresses Yes No
Multicast addresses No Yes
Feature Focus on reliable transmission Focus on addressing

In the context of IoT, we will consider and center our discussions on addressing
schemes primarily focused on IPv6. The IPv4 and IPv6 header packet formats are
shown in Chapter 1 of this book. In continuation, Figure 4.10 shows the address format
of IPv6, which is 128 bits long.
The first three blocks are designated as the global prefix, which is globally unique.
The next block is designated as the subnet prefix, which identifies the subnet of an
interface/gateway through which LANs may be connected to the Internet. Finally,
the last four blocks (64 bits) of hexadecimal addresses are collectively known as the
interface identifier (IID). IIDs may be generated based on MAC (media access control)
identifiers of devices/nodes or using pseudo-random number generator algorithms
[2]. The IPv6 addresses can be divided into seven separate address types, which is
generally based on how these addresses are used or where they are deployed.

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90 Introduction to Internet of Things

2032 8A6F 3456 4F55 3342 AA43 3434 2267

2032 8A6F 3456 4F55 3342 AA43 3434 2267

Global prefix Subnet Interface identifier

16-bits
64-bits 64-bits

Figure 4.10 The IPv6 address format

(i) Global Unicast (GUA): These addresses are assigned to single IoT entities/
interfaces; they enable the entities to transmit traffic to and from the Internet.
In regular IoT deployments, these addresses are assigned to gateways, proxies,
or WANs.
(ii) Multicast: These addresses enable transmission of messages from a single
networked entity to multiple destination entities simultaneously.
(iii) Link Local (LL): The operational domain of these addresses are valid only within
a network segment such as LAN. These addresses may be repeated in other
network segments/LANs, but are unique within that single network segment.
(iv) Unique Local (ULA): Similar to LL addresses, ULA cannot be routed over the
Internet. These addresses may be repeated in other network segments/LANs,
but are unique within that single network segment.
(v) Loopback: It is also known as the localhost address. Typically, these addresses
are used by developers and network testers for diagnostics and system checks.
(vi) Unspecified: Here, all the bits in the IPv6 address are set to zero and the
destination address is not specified.
(vii) Solicited-node Multicast: It is a multicast address based on the IPv6 address of
an IoT node or entity.

Points to ponder

Multihoming in IoT networks: It is a network configuration in which

a node/network connects to multiple networks simultaneously for improved
reliability. Network proxies are used to manage multiple IP addresses and map
them to LL addresses of IoT nodes in small deployments, where the allotment
of address prefixes is not possible. Other approaches for multihoming include
the use of gateways for assigning LL addresses to IoT nodes under the gateway’s
operational purview.

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4.5.1 Address management classes

As discussed previously, the IoT deployment and network topology are largely
dependent on where it is deployed. Unlike traditional IPv4 networked devices, the
newer IoT devices largely depend on IPv6 for address allocation and management of
addresses, which again is dictated by the application and the place of deployment
of the IoT solution. Keeping these requirements in consideration, the addressing
strategies in IoT may be broadly differentiated into seven classes, as shown in Figure
4.11. These classes are as follows:

(i) Class 1: The IoT nodes are not connected to any other interface or the Internet
except with themselves. This class can be considered as an isolated class, where
the communication between IoT nodes is restricted within a LAN only. The IoT
nodes in this class are identified only by their link local (LL) addresses, as shown
in Figure 4.11(a). These LL addresses may be repeated for other devices outside
the purview of this network class. The communication among the nodes may be
direct or through other nodes (as in a mesh configuration).
(ii) Class 2: The class 1 configuration is mainly utilized for enabling communication
between two or more IoT LANs or WANs. The IoT nodes within the LANs
cannot directly communicate to nodes in the other LANs using their LL
addresses, but through their LAN gateways (which have a unique address
assigned to them). Generally, ULA is used for addressing; however, in certain
scenarios, GUA may also be used. Figure 4.11(b) shows a class 2 IoT network
topology. L1–L5 are the LL addresses of the locally unique IoT nodes within
the LAN; whereas U1 and U2 are the unique addresses of the two gateways
extending communication to their LANs with the WAN. The WAN may or may
not connect to the Internet.
(iii) Class 3: Figure 4.11(c) shows a class 3 IoT network configuration, where the
IoT LAN is connected to an IoT proxy. The proxy performs a host of functions
ranging from address allocation, address management to providing security to
the network underneath it. In this class, the IoT proxy only uses ULA (denoted
as Lx-Ux in the figure).
(iv) Class 4: In this class, the IoT proxy acts as a gateway between the LAN and
the Internet, and provides GUA to the IoT nodes within the LAN. A globally
unique prefix is allotted to this gateway, which it uses with the individual device
identifiers to extend global Internet connectivity to the IoT nodes themselves.
This configuration is shown in Figure 4.11(d). An important point to note in this
class is that the gateway also enables local communication between the nodes
without the need for the packets to be routed through the Internet. Additionally,
the IoT nodes within the gateway can talk to one another directly without
always involving the gateway. A proxy beyond the gateway enables global
communication through the Internet.

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92 Introduction to Internet of Things

(v) Class 5: This class is functionally similar to class 4. However, the main difference
with class 4 is that this class follows a star topology with the gateway as the
center of the star. All the communication from the IoT nodes under the gateway
has to go through the gateway, as shown in Figure 4.11(e). A proxy beyond
the gateway enables global communication through the Internet. The IoT nodes
within a gateway’s operational purview have the same GUA.
(vi) Class 6: The configuration of this class is again similar to class 5. However,
the IoT nodes are all assigned unique global addresses (GUA), which enables a
point-to-point communication network with an Internet gateway. A class 6 IoT
network configuration is shown in Figure 4.11(f). Typically, this class is very
selectively used for special purposes.
(vii) Class 7: The class 7 configuration is shown in Figure 4.11(g). Multiple gateways
may be present; the configuration is such that the nodes should be reachable
through any of the gateways. Typically, organizational IoT deployments follow
this class of configuration. The concept of multihoming is important and inherent
to this class.

Points to ponder

Tunneling: It is a networking protocol in which data from private networks can

be seamlessly streamed over a public network in the form of encapsulated packets.
This is mainly used for ensuring connectivity and security of data generated from
various technologies and protocols that may not be supported over the public
communication channel. Some of the best examples of tunneling are virtual
private networks (VPNs), secure shell (SSH), and others.

4.5.2 Addressing during node mobility

Traditional networks, mainly computer networks, and even paradigms such as
M2M and CPS seldom take into account the need for addressing strategies when
the IoT nodes are mobile. However, in a realistic scenario, especially in modern-
day IoT systems (which are low-power and have low form-factor), the need for
addressing of mobile nodes is extremely crucial to avoid address clashes of addresses
accommodating a large number of IoT nodes. One of the following three strategies
may be to for ensure portability of addresses in the event of node mobility in IoT
deployments [2] as shown in Figure 4.12:

(i) Global Prefix Changes: Figure 4.12(a) abstracts the addressing strategy using
global prefix changes. A node from the left LAN moves to the LAN on the right.
The node undergoing movement is highlighted in the figure. The nodes in the
first LAN have the prefix A, which changes to B under the domain of the new
gateway overseeing the operation of nodes in the new LAN. However, it may

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Emergence of IoT 93

IoT Lan

IoT
Wan
IoT IoT IoT
Node Proxy Proxy
LL-1
IoT IoT
Lan Lan

L1-U1 L1-U2 L2-U2

LL-2

L2-U1

LL-5
L5-U1 L5-U5

LL-4 LL-3 L3-U1 L3-U2

L4-U1 L4-U2

(a) Class 1 (b) Class 2

IoT IoT
Proxy Proxy
IoT IoT
Lan Lan

IoT L1-U1 IoT L1-G1

Node Node

L2-U1 L2-G1

L5-U1 L5-G1

L3-U1 L3-G1
L4-U1 L4-G1

(c) Class 3 (d) Class 4

IoT IoT
Proxy Proxy

L1-G1 L-G1

IoT IoT
Node Node

L5-G1 L-G5
L2-G1 L-G2
L4-G1 L-G4

L3-G1 L-G3

(e) Class 5 (f) Class 6

G1 G2

L1-U1-G1

L1-U2-G2
L2-U2-G3

IoT
Node L3-U2-G2
L2-U1-G1

(g) Class 7

Figure 4.11 Various IoT topology configurations. LL/L denotes the link local addresses, LU
denotes the locally unique link addresses (ULA), and LG denotes the globally
unique link addresses (GUA)

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94 Introduction to Internet of Things

IoT wan IoT wan

IoT gateway IoT gateway IoT gateway IoT gateway

Prefix-A Prefix-B Prefix-A Prefix-B

Movement Movement
ID-A ID-B ID-k ID-k
ID-A ID-k

ID-A ID-B ID-B ID-k ID-k ID-k

ID-A ID-A ID-B ID-B ID-k ID-k ID-k ID-k

(a) Global prefix change (b) WAN prefix change

IoT wan Prefix-R

el

IoT gateway IoT gateway

nn
Tu

Prefix-A Prefix-B

Movement
ID-R ID-R
ID-R

ID-R ID-R ID-R

ID-R ID-R ID-R ID-R

(c) Remote anchoring

Figure 4.12 Various scenarios during mobility of IoT nodes and their addressing strategies.
ID-prefix denotes the point to which the IoT node is attached to for address
allocation

happen that due to movement, the device identifier may face clashes. Recall
the structure of the IPv6 address (Figure 4.10). The device identifier, if allotted
randomly, might face an address clash upon the node’s arrival into the new
LAN as there may already be a similar node identifier present in it. Typically,
addresses are assigned using DHCPv6/ SLAAC; however, in this scenario, it is
always prudent to have static node IP addresses to avoid a clash of addresses.
This strategy is, in most cases, beneficial as the IoT nodes may be resource-
constrained and have low-processing resources due to which it may not be able
to handle protocols such as DHCPv6 or SLAAC.

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Emergence of IoT 95

(ii) Prefix Changes within WANs: Figure 4.12(b) abstracts the addressing strategy
for prefix changes within WANs. In case the WAN changes its global prefix,
the network entities underneath it must be resilient to change and function
normally. The address allocation is hence delegated to entities such as gateways
and proxies, which make use of ULAs to manage the network within the WAN.

(iii) Remote Anchoring: Figure 4.12(c) abstracts the addressing strategy using a
remote anchoring point. This is applicable in certain cases which require that
the IoT node’s global addresses are maintained and not affected by its mobility
or even the change in network prefixes. Although a bit expensive to implement,
this strategy of having a remote anchoring point from which the IoT nodes obtain
their global addresses through tunneling ensures that the nodes are resilient to
changes and are quite stable. Even if the node’s original network’s (LAN) prefix
changes from A to B, the node’s global address remains immune to this change.

Check yourself

DHCP, DHCPv6, SLAAC, MIPv6, PMIPv6, DS-MIPv6

Summary
This chapter covered an overview of the IoT paradigm. Starting from the variations
in global market trends and the rapidly expanding trend toward connected systems
and devices, to the actual market capture of various IoT solutions in diverse
domains, this chapter highlights the importance of IoT in the modern world.
Subsequently, the emergence of IoT from its precursors, the IoT ecosystem, and
thematic differences between IoT and similar technologies (M2M, CPS, WoT) are
outlined. The complex technological interdependence between technologies and
paradigms towards enabling IoT is described in the form of planes of functionalities.
Keeping in tune with the networking theme of this book, the various networking
entities in an IoT ecosystem are described, which is naturally followed by various IoT
deployment topology classes and addressing schemes. This chapter concludes with a
discussion on IoT node address management during node mobility.

Exercises
(i) What is IoT?
(ii) What is smart dust?
(iii) Differentiate between IoT and M2M.
(iv) Differentiate between IoT and WoT.

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96 Introduction to Internet of Things

(v) What is Web of Things (WoT)?

(vi) What are the various IoT connectivity terminologies?
(vii) Differentiate between an IoT proxy and an IoT gateway.
(viii) What is gateway prefix allotment?
(ix) How are locally unique (LU) addresses different from globally unique (GU)
addresses?
(x) How is mobility handled in IoT networks?
(xi) What is the function of a remote anchor point in IoT networks?
(xii) What is tunneling?
(xiii) What is multihoming in IoT networks?

References
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Internet of Things to Reach USD 772 Billion in 2018.” https://www.idc.com/getdoc.
jsp?containerId=prUS43295217.
[2] Savolainen, T., J. Soininen, and B. Silverajan. 2013. “IPv6 Addressing Strategies for IoT.”
IEEE Sensors Journal 13(10): 3511–3519.
[3] Malek, M. 2017. “The Development of the Internet of Environment.” https://www.future-
processing.com/blog/the-development-of-the-internet-of-environment/.
[4] Brans, Cristiaan. 2018. “Internet Of People: Building A New Internet.”
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[8] International Data Corporation. 2016. “IDC Says Worldwide Spending on the Internet
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