LECTURE NOTE ON NATURAL DESTRUCTION, COMMUNITY FACTORS,

NATURAL CYCLES, AND POPULATION DYNAMICS IN ECOSYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION
Understanding the complexity of ecosystems requires knowledge of natural destruction, the
factors influencing communities, natural cycles, and population dynamics. These elements are
crucial for grasping how ecosystems function, change, and sustain life.
Ecosystems are dynamic entities composed of biological communities and their physical
environments. The interplay of biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors shapes the
structure and function of ecosystems. Human activities, climate change, and natural events can
disrupt these systems, leading to ecosystem destruction. Understanding the factors influencing
community dynamics and population cycles within ecosystems is crucial for conservation and
management efforts.

Ecosystem Components and Functions

Ecosystems consist of producers (autotrophs), consumers (heterotrophs), and decomposers.
Producers, like plants and algae, convert solar energy into chemical energy through
photosynthesis. Consumers, such as herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, rely on producers
and other consumers for energy. Decomposers, including bacteria and fungi, break down organic
matter, recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
Key ecosystem functions include:
• Energy Flow: The movement of energy through trophic levels from producers to
consumers to decomposers.
• Nutrient Cycling: The recycling of nutrients like carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus
through biogeochemical cycles.
• Habitat Provision: Ecosystems provide habitat for diverse species, supporting
biodiversity.
• Regulation of Climate and Water: Ecosystems influence climate patterns and water
cycles, contributing to global environmental stability.
NATURAL DESTRUCTION
Natural destruction refers to events and processes that cause significant changes or damage to
ecosystems. These events can be sudden or gradual and have varying impacts on the
environment and its inhabitants.

Types of Natural Destruction

Natural Disasters: Sudden events that cause significant damage.
• Earthquakes: Ground shaking that can lead to landslides and tsunamis.
• Volcanic Eruptions: Release of lava, ash, and gases that can destroy habitats.
 • Floods: Overflow of water bodies causing soil erosion and habitat loss.
• Hurricanes and Typhoons: Strong winds and heavy rain leading to destruction of
vegetation and infrastructure.
• Wildfires: Uncontrolled fires that can rapidly spread, consuming large areas of forest and
grassland.
Gradual Processes: Slow changes that alter ecosystems over time.
• Erosion: Gradual wearing away of soil and rock by wind, water, or ice.
• Desertification: Land degradation in arid regions due to various factors including climate
change and human activities.
• Climate Change: Long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns affecting
ecosystems globally.
FACTORS OF THE COMMUNITY
Community ecology studies the interactions between species and their environment. Several
factors influence the structure and function of a community.

Biotic Factors
Species Interactions:
• Competition: Organisms vie for the same resources (e.g., food, space).
• Predation: One organism (predator) feeds on another (prey).
• Mutualism: Both species benefit from the interaction (e.g., bees and flowering plants).
• Commensalism: One species benefits, the other is neither harmed nor helped (e.g.,
barnacles on whales).
• Parasitism: One organism (parasite) benefits at the expense of another (host).
Biodiversity: The variety of species in a community. High biodiversity often leads to greater
stability and resilience against disturbances.
Abiotic Factors
• Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and seasonality influence species distribution and
interactions.
• Soil: Nutrient availability, pH, and texture affect plant growth and the types of organisms
that can inhabit an area.
• Water: Availability and quality are crucial for all living organisms.
 • Light: Intensity and duration of sunlight impact photosynthesis and the behavior of
diurnal and nocturnal species.
NATURAL CYCLES
Natural cycles are processes that recycle nutrients and elements essential for life. These cycles
ensure the continuous availability of resources within ecosystems.
Major Biogeochemical Cycles
Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle):
• Processes: Evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff.
• Importance: Distributes water, essential for all living organisms.
Carbon Cycle:
• Processes: Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion.
• Importance: Regulates atmospheric CO2 levels, crucial for climate regulation and life
processes.
Nitrogen Cycle:
• Processes: Nitrogen fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, denitrification.
• Importance: Converts nitrogen into forms usable by plants and animals, essential for
protein synthesis.
Phosphorus Cycle:
• Processes: Weathering of rocks, absorption by plants, consumption by animals, return to
soil through decomposition.
• Importance: Key component of DNA, RNA, and ATP, vital for energy transfer and
genetic information.
DYNAMICS OF POPULATION IN ECOSYSTEMS
Population dynamics involve changes in the size, structure, and distribution of populations over
time and space. These dynamics are influenced by various factors and can have significant
effects on ecosystem stability and function.

Factors Influencing Population Dynamics

1. Birth Rate: The number of new individuals produced per unit time.
2. Death Rate: The number of individuals that die per unit time.
3. Immigration: The arrival of new individuals from other areas.
4. Emigration: The departure of individuals to other areas.
Population Growth Models
1. Exponential Growth: Characterized by a constant rate of growth. Occurs under ideal
conditions with unlimited resources. Represented by the equation , where is the
population size at time , is the initial population size, is the base of the natural logarithm,
and is the intrinsic growth rate.
2. Logistic Growth: Population growth that slows as it approaches the carrying capacity ()
of the environment. Represented by the equation .
Population Regulation
1. Density-Dependent Factors: Factors whose effects increase with population density (e.g.,
competition, predation, disease).
2. Density-Independent Factors: Factors that affect populations regardless of density (e.g.,
natural disasters, climate changes).
CONCLUSION
Understanding natural destruction, community factors, natural cycles, and population dynamics
is essential for comprehending how ecosystems function and maintain balance. These concepts
are interconnected and play a crucial role in the sustainability of life on Earth. Effective
management and conservation efforts rely on this knowledge to protect and restore ecosystems,
ensuring their health and resilience for future generations.
 LECTURE NOTE ON THE SUCCESS OF COMMUNITY INTERACTION IN
ECOSYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Community interaction refers to the various ways species within an ecosystem interact and affect
one another. Successful community interactions are vital for ecosystem stability, productivity,
and resilience. These interactions can be complex and multifaceted, contributing to the overall
health and functionality of the ecosystem.
Types of Community Interactions
Community interactions can be categorized based on the nature of the relationship between the
interacting species.
Competition: Occurs when two or more species vie for the same limited resources (e.g., food,
space, light).
• Intraspecific Competition: Competition among individuals of the same species.
• Interspecific Competition: Competition between different species.
• Outcome: Can lead to competitive exclusion (one species outcompetes another) or
resource partitioning (species evolve to utilize different resources).
Predation: Involves one species (predator) feeding on another species (prey).
• Impact: Helps regulate prey populations, preventing overgrazing or overpopulation. Can
drive evolutionary adaptations in both predator and prey.
Herbivory: A form of predation where herbivores feed on plants.
• Impact: Influences plant community composition and diversity. Plants may develop
defenses like thorns or toxins.
Mutualism: Both species benefit from the interaction.
• Examples: Bees and flowering plants (pollination), mycorrhizal fungi and plant roots
(nutrient exchange).
• Impact: Enhances resource acquisition and survival for both species involved.
Commensalism: One species benefits while the other is neither helped nor harmed.
• Examples: Barnacles attaching to whales, epiphytic plants growing on trees.
• Impact: Provides benefits like transportation or habitat without affecting the host species.
Parasitism: One species (parasite) benefits at the expense of another (host).
• Impact: Can regulate host populations and influence community structure. Hosts may
develop immune responses or other defenses.
Factors Influencing the Success of Community Interactions
1. Resource Availability: The abundance and distribution of resources (e.g., food, water,
shelter) can affect the intensity and outcome of interactions.
2. Environmental Conditions: Temperature, precipitation, and other abiotic factors can
influence species interactions and their success.
3. Species Diversity: Higher biodiversity often leads to more complex and stable
interactions, providing multiple pathways for energy flow and nutrient cycling.
4. Habitat Structure: Physical characteristics of the environment (e.g., complexity,
fragmentation) can affect how species interact and coexist.
5. Disturbance Regimes: Natural disturbances (e.g., fire, storms) and human activities can
alter community interactions by changing species composition and resource availability.

Outcomes of Successful Community Interactions

1. Increased Biodiversity: Diverse interactions can support a wide range of species,
enhancing overall biodiversity.
2. Ecosystem Stability: Stable interactions contribute to the resilience of the ecosystem,
enabling it to withstand and recover from disturbances.
3. Enhanced Productivity: Efficient resource use and mutualistic relationships can boost
primary productivity and overall ecosystem functioning.
4. Evolutionary Adaptations: Interactions can drive evolutionary changes, leading to
adaptations that improve species survival and coexistence.
5. Niche Differentiation: Species may evolve to exploit different resources or habitats,
reducing competition and allowing for coexistence.

Case Studies of Successful Community Interactions

• Coral Reefs: Mutualistic relationships between corals and zooxanthellae algae are crucial
for reef productivity and resilience. Coral reefs support high biodiversity through
complex interactions among fish, invertebrates, and algae.
• Grasslands: Grazing by herbivores (e.g., bison, antelope) maintains grassland structure
and promotes plant diversity. Predator-prey dynamics regulate herbivore populations,
preventing overgrazing.
• Tropical Rainforests: High biodiversity and complex interactions (e.g., pollination, seed
dispersal) contribute to the stability and productivity of rainforests. Mutualisms, such as
those between fig trees and fig wasps, are vital for ecosystem health.
CONCLUSION
Successful community interactions are fundamental to the functioning and sustainability of
ecosystems. These interactions shape species composition, influence resource dynamics, and
drive evolutionary processes. Understanding and preserving the intricate web of community
interactions is essential for maintaining healthy and resilient ecosystems in the face of
environmental change and human impacts.
CONTINUATION ON NATURAL DESTRUCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
Natural destruction of ecosystems can occur due to several factors:
• Natural Disasters: Events like wildfires, hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes can cause
immediate and severe damage to ecosystems.
• Climate Change: Long-term changes in temperature, precipitation, and sea levels can
alter ecosystems, leading to habitat loss and species migration.
• Invasive Species: Non-native species can outcompete native species, disrupt food webs,
and alter ecosystem functions.
• Diseases: Epidemics and pandemics can decimate populations, causing shifts in
community structure and function.

Factors of the Community

Community dynamics are influenced by various factors:
• Species Diversity: High biodiversity increases ecosystem resilience and stability.
• Trophic Interactions: Predator-prey relationships, competition, and symbiosis (mutualism,
commensalism, parasitism) shape community structure.
• Habitat Availability: The physical environment must provide suitable conditions for
species survival and reproduction.
• Disturbance Regimes: Natural and anthropogenic disturbances can reset community
composition, promoting succession and diversity.

Natural Cycle Dynamics of Population

Population dynamics within ecosystems are influenced by:
• Reproductive Strategies: Species vary in their reproductive rates, impacting population
growth and stability.
• Carrying Capacity: The maximum population size that an ecosystem can support
sustainably.
• Density-Dependent Factors: Factors like competition, predation, and disease that
intensify as population density increases.
• Density-Independent Factors: Environmental variables such as weather, natural disasters,
and human activities that affect populations regardless of density.
Population cycles, such as boom-and-bust dynamics, result from the interaction of these factors.
Predator-prey cycles, for instance, illustrate how population sizes of predators and prey oscillate
in response to each other’s abundance.
The factors of a community within an ecosystem can be broadly categorized into biotic and
abiotic components, along with various natural disturbances that can impact them. Here’s an
overview:

Biotic Factors
• Producers (Autotrophs): These are primarily plants and algae that produce energy
through photosynthesis.
• Consumers (Heterotrophs): Animals that consume other organisms. They can be primary
consumers (herbivores), secondary consumers (carnivores), or tertiary consumers (apex
predators).
• Decomposers: Organisms like fungi and bacteria that break down dead organic material,
recycling nutrients back into the ecosystem.
• Symbiotic Relationships: Interactions between species, including mutualism (both
benefit), commensalism (one benefits, the other is unaffected), and parasitism (one
benefits at the expense of the other).

Abiotic Factors

 Climate: Temperature, precipitation, and seasonal changes affect the types of species that
can live in an ecosystem.

 Soil: Soil composition, pH, and nutrient availability influence plant growth and,
consequently, the entire food web.

 Water: Availability and quality of water sources are crucial for all living organisms.

 Light: Sunlight availability affects photosynthesis in plants and the energy base of the
ecosystem.

 Topography: The physical layout of the land, including elevation, slope, and aspect, can
influence microclimates and habitat types.

Natural Disturbances

 Wildfires: Can destroy vegetation but also play a role in some ecosystems by clearing old
growth and promoting new growth.

 Floods: Can change the landscape, redistribute nutrients, and affect population dynamics.

 Droughts: Can reduce water availability, affecting plant and animal survival.

 Storms: Hurricanes, tornadoes, and other severe weather can cause immediate destruction
and long-term changes in the landscape.

 Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions: Can alter the physical environment drastically,
creating new habitats while destroying others.
CONTINUATION ON COMMUNITY INTERACTION
The success of community interactions within an ecosystem is vital for its stability, productivity,
and resilience. Here are some key aspects that contribute to successful community interactions:

Biodiversity
• Species Richness and Evenness: Higher biodiversity often leads to more stable and
resilient ecosystems. A diverse community can better withstand disturbances and adapt to
changes.
• Genetic Diversity: Within species, genetic variation helps populations adapt to
environmental changes and resist diseases.

Mutualistic Relationships
• Pollination: Many plants rely on animals such as bees, birds, and bats for pollination,
which is crucial for plant reproduction and food production.
• Mycorrhizal Associations: Fungi form symbiotic relationships with plant roots,
enhancing nutrient and water uptake for the plants while receiving carbohydrates in
return.

Trophic Interactions
• Food Web Complexity: A complex food web with multiple trophic levels and omnivores
can distribute energy and nutrients more efficiently, supporting ecosystem stability.
• Keystone Species: Species that have a disproportionate effect on their environment
relative to their abundance. Their presence supports the structure of the community.
Niche Differentiation
• Resource Partitioning: Different species use different resources or the same resource in
different ways or times, reducing direct competition and allowing coexistence.
• Habitat Differentiation: Different species may occupy different niches within the same
environment, which can lead to increased biodiversity.

Successional Processes
• Primary and Secondary Succession: The orderly process of change in a community over
time following a disturbance or the creation of new substrate. This can lead to increased
biodiversity and complexity in the ecosystem.
• Climax Community: A stable, mature community that has reached equilibrium after a
process of succession.
Adaptation and Evolution
• Natural Selection: Species evolve traits that help them survive and reproduce in their
specific environment, contributing to the overall success of the community.
• Co-evolution: Reciprocal evolutionary changes between interacting species, such as
predators and prey or plants and pollinators, can enhance the stability of interactions.
Environmental Stability and Habitat Quality
• Healthy Habitat: Availability of clean water, fertile soil, and adequate shelter supports
thriving communities.
• Minimal Pollution and Disturbance: Reduced levels of pollution and human-induced
disturbances help maintain ecosystem health.

Resilience and Redundancy

• Resilience: The ability of an ecosystem to recover from disturbances. High biodiversity
often enhances resilience.
• Functional Redundancy: The presence of multiple species that perform similar ecological
roles can provide a buffer against the loss of any single species.
Successful community interactions are essential for the functioning of ecosystems, contributing
to ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling, soil formation, climate regulation, and the
provision of food, water, and raw materials.
 NATURAL CYCLES
Natural cycles, also known as biogeochemical cycles, are processes that recycle nutrients and
other elements through the environment. These cycles are crucial for maintaining ecosystem
health and stability. Here are the primary natural cycles:

Water Cycle (Hydrological Cycle)

The water cycle (or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle), is a biogeochemical cycle that
involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The
mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time. However, the partitioning of the water
into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and
depends on climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river
to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere. The processes that drive these movements are
evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff,
and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and
vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global
evaporation
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. When
water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it
condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence the
climate system.
• Evaporation: Water from oceans, lakes, and rivers evaporates into the atmosphere.
• Transpiration: Water vapor is released from plants into the atmosphere.
• Condensation: Water vapor cools and condenses into clouds.
• Precipitation: Water falls back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
• Infiltration and Runoff: Water soaks into the ground (infiltration) or flows over the
surface (runoff) back to bodies of water.
Carbon Cycle
Carbon cycle, in biology, circulation of carbon in various forms through nature. Carbon is a
constituent of all organic compounds, many of which are essential to life on Earth. The source of
the carbon found in living matter is carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air or dissolved in water. Algae
and terrestrial green plants (producers) are the chief agents of carbon dioxide fixation through the
process of photosynthesis, through which carbon dioxide and water are converted into simple
carbohydrates. These compounds are used by the producers to carry on metabolism, the excess
being stored as fats and polysaccharides. The stored products are then eaten by consumer
organisms, from protozoans to man, which convert them into other forms. CO2 is added directly
to the atmosphere by animals and some other organisms as a by-product of respiration. The
carbon present in animal wastes and in the bodies of all organisms is released as CO2 by decay,
or decomposer, organisms (chiefly bacteria and fungi) in a series of microbial transformations.
 • Photosynthesis: Plants convert carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere into organic
molecules.

• Respiration: Organisms release CO₂ back into the atmosphere by breaking down organic
molecules.
• Decomposition: Decomposers break down dead organisms, releasing carbon back into
the soil and atmosphere.
• Combustion: Burning fossil fuels and biomass releases CO₂ into the atmosphere.

• Ocean Uptake: Oceans absorb CO₂ from the atmosphere and store it in dissolved forms.

Nitrogen Cycle
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into multiple
chemical forms as it circulates among atmospheric, terrestrial, and marine ecosystems. The
conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes.
Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification, and
denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is atmospheric nitrogen,[16] making it
the largest source of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for
biological use, leading to a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems.

• Nitrogen Fixation: Certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia
(NH₃), which plants can use.

• Nitrification: Other bacteria convert ammonia into nitrites (NO₂⁻) and then into nitrates
(NO₃⁻), which plants can absorb.
• Assimilation: Plants take up nitrates and use them to build proteins and other organic
molecules.
• Ammonification: Decomposers convert organic nitrogen back into ammonia.
• Denitrification: Bacteria convert nitrates back into N₂ gas, releasing it into the
atmosphere.

Phosphorus Cycle
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that involves the movement of phosphorus
through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles,
the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of phosphorus, because
phosphorus and phosphorus-based materials do not enter the gaseous phase readily,[1] as the
main source of gaseous phosphorus, phosphine, is only produced in isolated and specific
conditions.[2] Therefore, the phosphorus cycle is primarily examined studying the movement of
orthophosphate (PO4)3-, the form of phosphorus that is most commonly seen in the environment,
through terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
• Weathering: Phosphate rocks are broken down, releasing phosphorus into the soil and
water.
 • Absorption: Plants absorb phosphorus from the soil.
• Consumption: Animals obtain phosphorus by eating plants or other animals.
• Decomposition: Decomposers break down dead organisms, returning phosphorus to the
soil and water.
• Sedimentation: Phosphorus can settle into sediments and eventually form new phosphate
rocks.
Sulfur Cycle
Sulfur cycle is a biogeochemical cycle in which the sulfur moves between rocks, waterways and
living systems. It is important in geology as it affects many minerals and in life because sulfur is
an essential element (CHNOPS), being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors, and sulfur
compounds can be used as oxidants or reductants in microbial respiration
The global sulfur cycle involves the transformations of sulfur species through different oxidation
states, which play an important role in both geological and biological processes. Steps of the
sulfur cycle are:
Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), elemental
sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S) to sulfate (SO2−4).
Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing derivatives).
Disproportionation of sulfur compounds (elemental sulfur, sulfite, thiosulfate) into sulfate and
hydrogen sulfide.
• Weathering and Volcanic Activity: Sulfur is released from rocks and volcanic eruptions
into the atmosphere and soil.
• Absorption: Plants absorb sulfur in the form of sulfate (SO₄²⁻).
• Consumption: Animals obtain sulfur by eating plants or other animals.
• Decomposition: Decomposers release sulfur back into the soil and atmosphere.
• Deposition: Sulfur can fall to the Earth’s surface through precipitation.

Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen cycle refers to the movement of oxygen through the atmosphere (air), biosphere (plants
and animals) and the lithosphere (the Earth’s crust). The oxygen cycle demonstrates how free
oxygen is made available in each of these regions, as well as how it is used. The oxygen cycle is
the biogeochemical cycle of oxygen atoms between different oxidation states in ions, oxides, and
molecules through redox reactions within and between the spheres/reservoirs of the planet Earth.
The word oxygen in the literature typically refers to the most common oxygen allotrope,
elemental/diatomic oxygen (O2), as it is a common product or reactant of many biogeochemical
redox reactions within the cycle. Processes within the oxygen cycle are considered to be
biological or geological and are evaluated as either a source (O2 production) or sink (O2
consumption).
• Photosynthesis: Plants and algae produce oxygen (O₂) as a byproduct of photosynthesis.

• Respiration: Organisms consume oxygen and release CO₂.

• Decomposition: Decomposers use oxygen to break down dead matter.

• Combustion: Burning organic matter consumes oxygen and releases CO₂.

These natural cycles are interconnected and play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of life
on Earth. Disruptions to any of these cycles can have significant impacts on the environment and
living organisms.
 POPULATION DYNAMICS
Population dynamics is the portion of ecology that deals with the variation in time and space of
population size and density for one or more species.
Population dynamics is the study of the fluctuations of a population’s size over time, as observed
through rates of birth, death, immigration, and emigration.
Population dynamics refers to the changes in the size, structure, and distribution of populations
over time and the factors that influence these changes. It is a key concept in ecology and helps in
understanding how populations interact with their environment and each other. Here are the main
aspects of population dynamics:
Population Size
In population genetics and population ecology, population size (usually denoted N) is a
countable quantity representing the number of individual organisms in a population. Population
size is directly associated with amount of genetic drift, and is the underlying cause of effects like
population bottlenecks and the founder effect. Genetic drift is the major source of decrease of
genetic diversity within populations which drives fixation and can potentially lead to speciation
events.
• Birth Rate (Natality): The number of births per unit of time.
• Death Rate (Mortality): The number of deaths per unit of time.
• Immigration: The arrival of individuals into a population from other areas.
• Emigration: The departure of individuals from a population to other areas.

Population Growth
Population growth is the increase in the number of people in a population or dispersed group.
• Exponential Growth: When resources are abundant, populations can grow exponentially.
The population size increases at a constant rate per unit of time.
• Logistic Growth: As resources become limited, the growth rate slows and the population
size levels off at the carrying capacity (K) of the environment.
Carrying Capacity (K)
Carrying capacity can be defined as a species’ average population size in a particular habitat. The
species population size is limited by environmental factors like adequate food, shelter, water, and
mates. If these needs are not met, the population will decrease until the resource rebounds.
• The maximum population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely without being
degraded.
• Determined by factors such as food availability, habitat space, water supply, and other
resources.
Population Structure
Population structure simply means the way a population of an area can be broken down into
groups. For example, age, gender, and ethnicity.
• Age Structure: The distribution of individuals among different ages in a population. A
population with a large proportion of young individuals may grow rapidly.
• Sex Ratio: The ratio of males to females in a population, which can affect reproduction
rates.
What are the three types of population structure?
The three types of population structure are:
i. Expansive (a young population and is growing)
ii. Stationary (there is neither increase nor decrease in population)
iii. Constrictive (an aging population, decreasing)
Density-Dependent Factors
Density-dependent factors include disease, competition, and predation. Density-dependant
factors can have either a positive or a negative correlation to population size. With a positive
relationship, these limiting factors increase with the size of the population and limit growth as
population size increases.
• Factors that affect the population size in relation to the population’s density. Examples
include competition for resources, predation, disease, and parasitism.
• As the population density increases, these factors tend to slow population growth.
Density-Independent Factors
• Factors that affect population size regardless of the population’s density. Examples
include weather events, natural disasters, and human activities.
• These factors can cause sudden and drastic changes in population size.

Population Regulation
• Negative Feedback: Mechanisms that reduce population growth as population density
increases (e.g., resource limitation).
• Positive Feedback: Mechanisms that can enhance population growth under certain
conditions (e.g., Allee effect, where individuals have a higher fitness at higher population
densities).
Life History Strategies
• r-selected species: Species that produce many offspring, have a high growth rate (r), and
typically exploit less-crowded ecological niches. They often have short lifespans and
little parental care.
• K-selected species: Species that produce fewer offspring, have a lower growth rate, and
typically thrive in stable environments close to the carrying capacity (K). They often have
longer lifespans and extensive parental care.
Metapopulations
• A group of spatially separated populations of the same species that interact through
migration and gene flow.
• Local populations may experience extinction and recolonization events, contributing to
the overall dynamics of the species.
Human Impacts
• Human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, overharvesting, and introduction
of invasive species can drastically affect population dynamics.
• Conservation efforts often focus on mitigating these impacts to preserve biodiversity and
ecosystem stability.
Understanding population dynamics is essential for managing wildlife, conserving endangered
species, and maintaining ecological balance. It also has applications in fields such as
epidemiology, agriculture, and resource management.