1 Formal Definition of a

Lim it and Limit Theorem s

In the study of calculus, the concept of a limit serves as a fundamental

principle that underlies many of the field's key theories and applications. A limit
describes the behavior of a function as its input approaches a particular value or
infinity, providing crucial insights into the notions of continuity, derivatives, and
integrals. This lesson will focus on the formal definition of a limit, elucidating its
significance and implications in mathematical analysis. Additionally, we will
examine important limit theorems that facilitate the evaluation of limits for a
variety of functions, thereby establishing a solid foundation for further exploration
in calculus. Through clear explanations and illustrative examples, this lesson aims
to clarify this essential concept and equip students with the necessary tools for
advanced mathematical inquiry.

Learning Objectives:
After this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of a limit and its significance in calculus.
Recognize and express key limit theorems, including those related to the sum, product, and
quotient of functions.
Determine the limit of a function as it approaches a specific point.
Solve problems that involve calculating limits using different approaches, including
algebraic manipulation and substitution.
Analyze graphs of functions to understand and visualize the behavior of limits at specific
points.
Formal Definition of a Limit

A limit is a tool for describing how (real-valued) functions behave close to a point. It is a
unique y-value the function approaches as x approaches a particular value, say a. This concept is
fundamental in calculus and helps in understanding the behavior of functions at points where they may
not be explicitly defined. Mathematically, if we say the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L, we write it as:

This means that as x gets closer and closer to a, the values of f(x) get closer and closer to L. Limits are
essential for defining derivatives and integrals, which are core concepts in calculus. To understand what
limits are, let's look at an example.

EXAMPLE 1:

Let’s say we have a function f(x) = x+2

Let’s find the limit of the function f(x) as x For example, we start at the point x = 1 and move the
approaches 3. Graphically, this is just the y-value we graph to the right until we get really close to x = 3. We
approach as we get closer and closer to the point on can observe that our y-value gets closer and closer to 5.
the graph where x = 3.

Similarly, if we start at the point x = 5 and move to the For this reason, we can say that the limit of the function
left until we get really close to x = 3, the y-value again f(x) as x approaches 3 is 5.
will be really close to 5.

You might ask what is the difference between the limit of f at x = 3 and the value of f at x = 3 or f(3). So the limit of
the function f(x) at x = 3 is equal to f(3), but this isn’t always the case. To fully understand this let’s look at the next
example.

Definition of a Limit
Formal Definition of a Limit

EXAMPLE 2:
Suppose we have a function g(x) = x+2, take a look at the graph. The function g(x) is the same as
the first example except that it's undefined at x = 3.

Just like the first example, the limit of g at x = 3 is 5. That’s because as the value of x gets very
close to x = 3 at both sides the function's values will get very close to 5.

So the limit of g at x = 3 is equal to 5, but the value of g at x = 3 is undefined!

EXAMPLE 3:

The symbol (-)

- denotes 'from the left'

Read as 'the limit of f(x) as x

approaches a from the left'

The symbol (+)

+ denotes 'from the right'

Read as 'the limit of f(x) as x

approaches a from the right'

The y-value of the function as the When the value of x approches 3 from
value of x approach x=3 depends the left, the y-value of the function
whether it is approaching from the approaches 4. When the value of x
left or from the right. approaches 3 from the right, the y-
value of the function approaches 6.

When a limit doesn't approach the same value from both sides,
we say that the limit doesn't exist.

Definition of a Limit
Formal Definition of a Limit

PRACTICE: Exercise 1.1

1. Consider the following function defined by its graph:

Find the following limits:
(Write DNE if the limit does not exist)

= =

= =

2. Consider the following function defined by its graph:

Find the following limits:
(Write DNE if the limit does not exist)

= =

= =

3. Consider the following function defined by its graph:

Find the following limits:
(Write DNE if the limit does not exist)

= =

= =

Definition of a Limit
 Limit Theorems
Understanding limit properties is crucial for evaluating limits effectively. Limits help us
understand how functions behave as they get close to certain points, and knowing the rules for these
limits is essential for both students and anyone studying math. This section will explore important
limit properties, including how to handle the sum, difference, product, and quotient of limits, as well
as limits at infinity. By learning these rules, you will be better equipped to solve complex limit
problems, which is a stepping stone to studying continuity, derivatives, and integrals. Whether you
are just starting or looking to review your knowledge, this guide will clarify the principles behind
limit evaluation, helping you grasp this key concept in calculus.

Limit of a constant
The Limit of a constant, c, for all c is an element of real numbers, is the constant c
itself, as x approaches a, for any value of a. This property can be written as:
As illustrated in the
∀c∈R, For Example: lim​3=3 graph, since the
x→1
function is just a line at
lim​3=3
x→5 3 y=3, for all values of x,
the y-value of the
1 5 function is always 3.
Limit of Sum of Functions
The Limit of a sum of functions, say f(x) and g(x), is equal to the sum of the limits of
each of f(x) and g(x). This property can be written as:

Given the functions: f(x)=2x and g(x)=x², the limit of the sum:
lim ​[f(x)+g(x)] = lim​(2x + x²) is equal to the sum of the limits, lim ​f(x) + lim g(x), to show, say:
x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3
= lim​(2x + x²) lim f(x) = lim​(2x) lim g(x) = lim​(x²) lim ​f(x) + lim g(x) = 6 + 9
x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3
= (2(3) + (3)²) = 2(3) = 3² = 15
= 6 + 9 = 15 =6 =9

Take note that it is

important that both

Limit of Difference of Functions

functions are
approaching the same
x-value! This applies for
The Limit of a difference is equal to the difference of the limits. This property can be all of the following
written as: properties.

Given the functions: f(x)=2x and g(x)=x², the limit of the sum:
lim ​[f(x) - g(x)] = lim​(2x + x²) is equal to the sum of the limits, lim ​f(x) - lim g(x), to show, say:
x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3
= lim​(2x - x²) lim f(x) = lim​(2x) lim g(x) = lim​(x²) lim ​f(x) + lim g(x) = 6 - 9
x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3 x→3
= (2(3) - (3)²) = 2(3) = 3² = -3
= 6 - 9 = -3 =6 =9

Limit Theorems
 Limit Theorems

Limit of Quotient of Functions

The Limit of a quotient is equal to the quotient of the limits where the limit of the
g(x) cannot be equal to zero. This property can be written as:

lim​ lim​
f (x) x+2
lim​ f (x) lim​ x + 2 is equal to the limit of the quotient, x→1
=
x→1

x→a
g (x) = x→1 x + 1 lim​ g (x)
x→1
lim​ x + 1
x→1
to show, say:

lim​ x + 2 lim​ x + 2
x→1
x→1 x + 1
lim​ x + 1
=
1+2 x→1
1+1
3 =
1+2 3
= =
2 1+1 2
Limit of Product of Functions
The Limit of a product is equal to the product of the limits. This property can be
written as:

Given the function: f(x)= 2x² and g(x)= 5x , the limit of the product:
is equal to the limit of the product, to show, say:

= 2(2)² x 5(2) = 5(2) = 80

= 2(2)²
= 8 x 10 =8 = 10
= 80

Limit of a Function raised to a Power

The limit of a function that has been raised to a power equals the same power of the limit of the
function. Where n is a positive integer.

Given the function: f(x)= x-1 and n is 4 , the limit of the function raised to a power:
is equal to the limit of the function raised to a power, to show, say:

As shown, the limit of the function

lim
x→3 (x - 1) as x approaches 3 is 2, and
= (3- 1)4 = (3- 1) = (3 - 1) when raised to the power of 4, is
= 24 = 24 =2 equal to the limit of the function (x -
= 16 = 16
1)⁴ as x approaches 3, which is 16.

Limit Theorems
 Limit Theorems

Limit of a Radical Function

The limit of a radical function ,where n is a positive integer & if n is even. for all L ≥ 0, is the
radical of the limit of the function. This property can be written as:

Given the function: f(x)= x² + 4x + 4 and n is 2, and the limit of the square root of
the function is equal to the square root of the limit of the function:
As you can see, the limit of the
Ex. lim x²+ 4x + 4 lim x²+ 4x + 4 lim x²+ 4x + 4 function x²+ 4x + 4 as x
x→5 x→5 x→5
approaches 5 is 49 and its square
= (5)²+ 4(5) + 4 = [(5)²+ 4(5) + 4] = (5)²+ 4(5) + 4
root is 7, which is equal to the
= 49 limit of x²+ 4x + 4 , as x
= 49 = 49 approaches 5
=7 =7

EVALUATE:

1. 4.

2. 5.

3. 6.

Limit Theorems
 Infinite Limits

Certain functions exhibit behavior where their values grow arbitrarily large in the positive or negative
direction as they approach a specific value of the independent variable. In such cases, we say that the
function has an infinite limit at that particular point. This behavior is formally expressed as:

lim f(x)= + ∞ or lim f(x)= - ∞

x→0 x→ 0

Let f(x) be a function. If any of the following conditions hold, then the line x=a is a vertical asymptote
of f(x):
lim f(x)= - ∞ If we can make the value of f(x) arbitrarily large and
x → a- negative by taking x to be close to a (but not equal to a).

lim f(x)= + ∞ If we can make the value of f(x) arbitrarily large by taking
x→ a+ x to be close to a (but not equal to a).

lim f(x)= + ∞ or - ∞
x→ a

f(x) should always be in rational (fractional) form; where a is a zero of the denominator. Also, there is
always the presence of vertical asymptotes in Infinite Limits. Take note that rational functions have
asymptotes.

REMEMBER:
-(-∞) = +∞
-(+∞) = -∞
a a
(+∞)+(+∞) = +∞
(-∞)+(-∞) = -∞
(+∞)(-∞) = -∞
f(x) g(x) (-∞)(-∞) = +∞
x=a x=a (+∞)(+∞) = +∞
lim f(x)= +∞ lim g(x)= +∞ constant/ +∞ = 0
x → a- x → a-
lim f(x)= DNE lim g(x)= +∞
x→ a+ x→ a+
Therefore x→a
lim f(x)= + ∞; Even though Therefore lim g(x)= + ∞ because both
x→a

the other side’s limit value does not sides are equal.
exist, you can not prove that they are
not equal because the other side is
does not have any graph or function.

Infinite Limits
 -∞
Infinite Limits
EXAMPLE 1:

lim 1
x → 0+ x 6
= +∞
EXAMPLE 2:

+∞
lim -3
- 3 =
x→0 x
EXAMPLE 3:

lim 9
x → 3- (x-3)
5

(lim
= x → 3-
x-3
9
)( lim
x → 3-
1
(x-3)4 )
(lim
= x-3 → 0-
9
x-3 )( lim
x-3 → 0-
1
(x-3) 4 ) ; Let x-3 be y

(lim
= y→0 -
9
y )( lim
y→0 -
1
y 4 )
= -∞
EXAMPLE 4:
lim 3x+3
x → 2+ x 2 - 2x

= ( lim
x → 2+
3x+1
x(x-2) )
( )( )
lim 3(x+1) lim 1
= x → 2+ x x → 2+ x-2

( )( )
9 lim 1
= 2 x-2→0+ x-2

( )( )
9 lim 1
= + ; Let x-2 be y
2 x-2→0 x-2

( )( )
9 lim 1
= 2 y →0 + y

( ) (+∞)
9
= 2

= +∞
Infinite Limits
 2 Limits at
Infinity
In the study of calculus, the concept of a limit serves as a fundamental
principle that underlies many of the field's key theories and applications. A limit
describes the behavior of a function as its input approaches a particular value or
infinity, providing crucial insights into the notions of continuity, derivatives, and
integrals. This lesson will focus on the formal definition of a limit, elucidating its
significance and implications in mathematical analysis. Additionally, we will
examine important limit theorems that facilitate the evaluation of limits for a
variety of functions, thereby establishing a solid foundation for further exploration
in calculus. Through clear explanations and illustrative examples, this lesson aims
to clarify this essential concept and equip students with the necessary tools for
advanced mathematical inquiry.

Learning Objectives:
After this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of limits at infinity.
Recognize and express key limit theorems, including those related to the sum,
product, and quotient of functions.
Determine the limit of a function as it approaches positive or negative infinity
Solve problems that involve calculating limits at infinity using different
approaches.
Analyze graphs of functions to understand and visualize the behavior of limits as it
approaches to infinity
 Limits at Infinity
Limits at infinity is a fundamental concept in calculus that help us understand the behavior
of functions as their values increase or decrease. When analyzing limits at infinity, it is
determining what value a function f(x) approaches as the variable a approaches positive or
negative infinity. By diving into limits at infinity, there will be insights into horizontal
asymptotes and long-term trends of functions, which are crucial in graphing and analyzing
limits. Whether you are learning this topic for the first time or reviewing it to refresh your
knowledge, knowing limits at infinity is an important part of your mathematical journey.

Definition
Limits at infinity, as opposed to infinite limits, occur when the independent variable becomes large in
magnitude. For this reason, limits at infinity determine what is called the end behavior of a function. An
application of these limits is to determine whether a system (such as an ecosystem or a large oscillating
structure) reaches a steady state as time increase.

1. Limits at Infinity refers to the behavior of a function as x approaches NOTE: As in the note
infinity. Let f(x) be a function which is defined at every number in some following Definition 1,
interval (a, +). The limit of f(x), as x increases without bound, is L, written the symbolism “x→∞”
only indicates the
lim​f(x) = L behavior of the variable
x→∞
x, but we can read Eq.
If for any ∈>0, however small, there exist a number N<0 such that (2) as “the limit of f(x)
|f(x) - L| < ∈ whenever x<N as x approaches
negative infinity is L”

1.1 Consider the same function and let x take on the values 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5,
-10, -100, -1000 and so on, allowing x take on the

Limits at Infinity
 Limits at Infinity
Limits at infinity is a fundamental concept in calculus that help us understand the behavior of
functions as their values increase or decrease. When analyzing limits at infinity, it is determining what
value a function f(x) approaches as the variable a approaches positive or negative infinity. By diving
into limits at infinity, there will be insights into horizontal asymptotes and long-term trends of
functions, which are crucial in graphing and analyzing limits. Whether you are learning this topic for the
first time or reviewing it to refresh your knowledge, knowing limits at infinity is an important part of
your mathematical journey.

Definition
Limits at infinity, as opposed to infinite limits, occur when the independent variable becomes large in
magnitude. For this reason, limits at infinity determine what is called the end behavior of a function. An
application of these limits is to determine whether a system (such as an ecosystem or a large oscillating
structure) reaches a steady state as time increase.

1. Limits at Infinity refers to the behavior of a function as x approaches NOTE: As in the note
infinity. Let f(x) be a function which is defined at every number in some following Definition 1, the
interval (a, +). The limit of f(x), as x increases without bound, is L, written: symbolism “x→∞” only
indicates the behavior of
lim​f(x) = L the variable x, but we can
x→∞
read Eq. (2) as “the limit
If for any ∈>0, however small, there exist a number N<0 such that of f(x) as x approaches
|f(x) - L| < ∈ whenever x<N negative infinity is L”

NOTE: This demonstrates

1.1 Consider the same function and let x take on the values 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, the principle that for
-5, -10, and so on, allowing x to decrease through negative values without rational functions, the limit
bound. at infinity (positive or
negative) depends heavily
Table 1.1 on the ratio of the leading
terms in the numerator and
x 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -10
denominator. Here, the
function tends toward 2
2x²
____ 8
___ 18
___ 32
___ 50
___ 200
___
f(x)= x²+1 0 1 because both the numerator
5 10 17 26 101
and denominator have the
same degree.

Observe that the function values are the same for the negative numbers as for the corresponding positive numbers. So
we intuitively see that as x decreases without bound, f(x) approaches 2, and formally we say that for any ∈>0,
however small, we can find a number N<0 such that |f(x) - 2| < ∈ whenever x<N. Using the symbolism “x→-∞” to
denote that the variable x is decreasing without bound, we write:
2x²
lim​ ____
x→∞ x²+1
=2

Limits at Infinity
Examples of Limits
Limits at Infinity
at Infinity

Shortcuts for Evaluating Limits at Infinity

If f(x) is a rational function, then lim f(x) is found by
Let N = degree of the numerator
Let D = degree of the denominator
If N < D, then lim f(x) = 0
x

If N = D, then lim f(x) = the ratio of the leading coefficients

x

If N > D, then lim f(x) = does not exist

x

a. Start by finding the degree of the numerator (N) and the degree of the denominator (D).
x-3
N < D, so lim 2
=0 1
x + 2x + 4x + 5 x-3
2
2x + 4x + 5

N: 1 ; D: 2

The horizontal asymptote is y = 0 and limit at infinity is 0.

b. Start by finding the degree of the numerator (N) and the degree of the denominator (D).

N= D, so the limit is the leading coefficients. 2

x-3
2
x 2- 3 1 2x + 4x + 5
lim =
x + 2x2+ 4x + 5 2 N: 2 ; D: 2

The horizontal asymptote is y = 1/2 and limit at infinity is 1/2

c. Start by finding the degree of the numerator (N) and the degree of the denominator (D).

N> D, so the limit does not exist.

3
3
x-3 x-3
lim = DNE 2
2x + 4x + 5
x + 2x2+ 4x + 5
N: 3; D: 2

There is no horizontal asymptote and limit at infinity does not exist.

Limit Theorems
Examples of Limits at Infinity

Limits at Infinity. Evaluate the limits of the following functions

The first step in solving limits at infinity is to check the highest degree
4 2 4 2
1. lim (3x - 6x + x - 10) = lim (3x - 6x + x - 10) of the expression. In this problem, the highest degree is 3x⁴. The term
x x
with the highest degree dominates because the other terms with
lower degrees grow much more slowly, so we cancel them out.
0 0 0
4 2 All of the lower coefficients would become “insignificant” since
= lim (3x - 6x + x - 10)
x 3x⁴ would dominate all the terms.

= lim (3x 4 ) =
x ∞ Simplify the expression and you’ll get positive infinity.

4t 3 - 2t 2 - 5 This problem can be solved in two ways, you can solve it manually or you can use the shortcut.
2. lim We will solve this problem both ways, but let’s solve it manually first to see how questions like
x + 8t 3 + t + 2 this come about.

4t 3 - 2t 2 - 5 Identify first the highest degree of the expression, in this example, the highest degree
= lim
x + 8t 3 + t + 2 is t³.

4t 3 - 2t2 - 5
= lim Divide each term with the highest degree which is t³ (or multiply each term with 1/t³).
t3 t3 t3
x +
We do this to simplify the expression by eliminating the dominance of the higher-
8t3 + t + 2 degree terms.
t3 t3 t3
4- 2 - 5 Simplify the expression and you’ll arrive with this. Based on the limit theorem above,
= lim t2 t
3
x + a term with a variable for a denominator approaches infinity and grows larger and
1 + 2 larger, therefore, approaching zero. We can “cancel“ these terms out.
8+
t2 t 3
4- 2 -05 0
= lim 3 The lower terms would turn to zero leaving 4 and 8 behind. The simplified expression
x +
t2 t would look like this.
0 0
8+ 1 + 2
t2 t 3
4-0-0 1 1
= lim = lim =
x x 2
+
8+0+0 +
2

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
An alternative method is simply comparing the highest degrees of the numerator and
3 2

lim
4t - 2t - 5 denominator and deciding what to do (see “Shortcuts for Evaluating Limits”). Since
x + 8t 3 + t + 2 our expressions, both have t³ as their highest degree, we can simply take their
coefficients and have that as your final answer.

4 1
= lim =
x + 8 2

y2+ 1 This problem may seem confusing due to the presence of the radical sign, but it’s
3. lim
x - easy once you recognize that exponents can be a radicand.
2y + 1

y2+ 1 In evaluating limits at infinity, the first thing you must always look at is the highest
= lim degree of the denominator, that’s what you’re going to divide into all the terms in the
x -
2y + 1 expression.

Limit Theorems
Examples of Limits at Infinity

Limits at Infinity. Evaluate the limits of the following functions

Now, you have 2y as the highest degree of your denominator, this is what you’re going
y2+ 1 to use to divide into the terms. But, you might be wondering, how is that possible for
= lim the numerator?
x -
2y + 1
Remember that y is also equal to y² , which makes it easier for us to simplify.
1
y2+ 1 y²
= lim • You multiply 1/y and 1/ y² on the denominator and numerator,
x -
2y + 1 1 respectively.
y
0
1
= lim
- 1+ y² You might be wondering, where the negative sign comes from. When you simplify
0
x -
2+ 1
y² , you get |y|, and since the limit approaches negative infinity, we get a
y²
negative sign. Continue to simplify the equation and cancel out the lower terms.
-1 -1
= lim = Then you’ll arrive with this answer.
x -
2 2

Limit Theorems
Summary: What You Need to Know

LIMITS AT INFINITY refers to the value a function f(x) approaches as the input
x becomes arbitrarily large (i.e., as x → ∞) or as x becomes increasingly negative
(i.e., as x→−∞).

End Behavior
x + x
describes what happens to
x grows and grows in the positive x grows and grows in the negative a function as x → ∞ or as
direction, forever direction, forever
x→-∞
1 1
lim n
=0 lim n
=0 H.A = 2
x + x x x
for n > 0 for n > 0

lim xn = lim xn =
x + x

for all n > 0 for all even n > 0

lim xn =
x

for all odd n > 0

N N
Horizontal Asymptote
lim (Ax + (smaller terms)) lim (Ax + (smaller terms))
x +

= lim Ax N
just look at
x
= lim Ax N
just look at The line y = L is a
x +
the largest x the largest
term term horizontal asymptote of f
(Ax N + (smaller terms)) (Ax N + (smaller terms))
if:
lim lim
x N x
+
(Bx + (smaller terms)) (Bx N + (smaller terms))
lim​f(x) = L
Ax N A Ax N A x→∞
= lim = = lim =
x +
Bx N B x
Bx N B Graph of f will be close to the
horizontal line y = L for large (in
(polynomial) (polynomial) absolute value) negative x
lim = 0 lim = 0
x + (polynomial whose highest x (polynomial whose highest
power > numerator’s) power > numerator’s)
denominator “wins” denominator “wins”
lim​f(x) = L
(polynomial whose highest (polynomial whose highest
x→-∞
lim
power > denominator’s)
lim
power > denominator’s) Graph will be close to the horizontal
x +
(polynomial) x (polynomial) line y = L for large positive x
= or - = or -
numerator “wins” numerator “wins” function can have at most 2 H.A.

Limits at Infinity
 3 Limits Using
Derivatives
In the study of calculus, the concept of a derivative is closely tied to the
idea of limits, forming the basis for understanding rates of change and the behavior
of functions. A derivative measures how a function changes as its input changes,
and this is formally defined through the concept of a limit. Specifically, the
derivative of a function at a point represents the limit of the average rate of change
as the interval over which the change is measured becomes extremely small. This
lesson will focus on the connection between limits and derivatives, highlighting
how the limit definition of a derivative is used to analyze the slope of tangent lines,
optimize functions, and solve real-world problems involving change. By exploring
this relationship through illustrative examples, students will develop a clearer
understanding of how limits serve as the foundation of differential calculus and its
wide-ranging applications.

Learning Objectives:
After this lesson, you will be able to:
Explain the concept of limits using derivatives
Recognize the formal and alternative form of derivatives
Determine the average rate of change and the instantaneous rate of change
Solve problems that involve calculating limits using derivatives
Analyze graphs of functions to understand and visualize the behavior of derivates
as a limit
 Limits Using Derivatives

Formal and alternative form of the derivative

The rate at which a function's value changes in response to changes in its input is indicated by the
derivative of the function at that point. Although the limit is defined in the usual derivative
definition as ℎ approaches 0, there is another form that defines the limit when 𝑥 approaches a
particular point 𝑎. More intuitive insights can be gained from this alternative form, particularly
when examining the behavior of functions at certain places.

Standard definition of the derivative

shows the tangent line's slope to the function at
𝑥=𝑎.
determines the function's instantaneous rate of
change at that particular moment.
Alternative definition of a derivative
Frames the derivative in terms of 𝑥 approaching 𝑎
rather than ℎ near 0. This concept is similar to the
usual definition.
When taking into account points approaching 𝑎 from
both sides, it can be more intuitive.

Examples:

Write the difference quotient with the alternative

form
Substitue f(x)=x^2 and f(3)=9

Factor the numerator

Cancel the x-3 terms

Take the limit as x -> 3

Limits Using Derivatives

Limits Using Derivatives

Examples:

Write the difference quotient with the alternative

form

Substitue f(x)=3x^2 and f(1)=3

Factor the numerator

Cancel the x-1 terms

Take the limit as x -> 1

Limits Using Derivatives

Limits Using Derivatives

Formal definition of the derivative as a limit

The slope of the secant line on a function 𝑓(𝑥) between two points 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 is:

Examples of Secants:

1. Understand the formal definition of the derivative:

The derivative f′(x) is defined as the limit of the average rate of change as the two points get closer to each other:
For a secant line, instead of h→0, we will find the difference quotient between two distinct points, say x1=2 and x2=3

2. Set up the difference quotient for the secant line:

The difference quotient represents the average rate of change of the function f(x)f(x)f(x) between two points:
For f(x)=2, the points x1=2and x2=3.

3. Evaluate the function at the two points:

Calculate f(2) and f(3):
So, the points on the curve are (2,4) and (3,9).

4. Substitute into the difference quotient:

Using the values of f(2) and f(3), the slope of the secant line is
The slope of the secant line between x1=2 and x2=3 is 5.

The secant line illustrates the rate of change of 𝑓(𝑥) on the interval [2,3].

Limits Using Derivatives

Limits Using Derivatives

Secant lines & average rate of change

Secant line is a line that touches a curve at two points, it is the average rate of change because it
is the rate of change between two points on a curve (x1,y1), (x2,y2) the average rate of change is
= (y2-y1)/(x2-x1) which is the slope of the secant line between the two points on the curve.

y
The slope of the
(x , f(x )) secant line through
1 1

two points on the

graph of a
(x , f(x ))
0 0 function gives the
function's average
rate of change
over the interval.
x

Tangent lines & Instantaneous Rate of Change

A tangent line to the function f(x) at the point x=a is a line that touches the graph of the
function at the point in question and is “parallel” (in some way) to the graph at that point. The
instantaneous rate of change of function f at a particular point is represented by the slope of the
tangent line to the graph of function f at that point.

y The slope of the

tangent line
through a point on
the graph of a
(x , f(x ))
function gives the
0 0
function's
instantaneous rate
of change at that
x point.

Limits Using Derivatives

 Limits Using Derivatives
The definition of the derivative involves a limit, calculus is based on limits in a certain sense. In
addition, the limit involved in the limit definition of the derivative is one that always generates an
indeterminate form of 0/0. If f is a differentiable function for which f′(x) exists, then when we
consider:

The derivative of a function describes the function's instantaneous rate of change of

a vertical variable with respect to a horizontal variable.
Δx is the change y The derivative is
y of x and Δy
the slope of the
would be change
in y. Note that tangent, which is
Δy the slope is the
defined as the instantaneous
Δx rate of change in
rate of change
our vertical x1
x variable over the x denoted as:
rate of change of Slope = dY / dX
over the
horizontal
variable which is
also known as
Slope ΔY /Δ
“Rise=over X
Run”

s
The rate at which a function's value changes in response to changes in its input is indicated by the
derivative of the function at that point. Although the limit is defined in the usual derivative
definition as ℎ approaches 0, there is another form that defines the limit when 𝑥 approaches a
particular point 𝑎. More intuitive insights can be gained from this alternative form, particularly
when examining the behavior of functions at certain places.

Limits Using Derivatives

Limits Using Derivatives

Derivative of a function at any point

To find the slope of the tangent line to a function f(x) at a specific point x=a, we utilize the
formal definition of the derivative. The slope of the tangent line is defined as the instantaneous
rate of change of the function at that point. Mathematically, this is expressed as:

In this expression, 𝑓(𝑎+ℎ) represents the value of the function at a point slightly away from 𝑎,
and 𝑓(𝑎) is the value of the function at 𝑎. The difference quotient 𝑓(𝑎 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑎)/ℎ calculates the
average rate of change over the interval from 𝑎 to 𝑎 + ℎ. As ℎ approaches 0, this average rate of
change converges to the exact slope of the tangent line at 𝑥 = 𝑎.

Example:

1. Substitute into the 2. Expand the squares 3. Simplify 4. Substitute the

difference quotient limit

Therefore, to find the slope of the tangent line at f(x), where f(x) = x^2, is to to use f′(x) = 2x.
The following figure illustrates the tangential line of x^2 at h→1:

Example:

1. Substitute into the difference 2. Combine fractions 3. Simplify 4. Substitute in the

quotient limit: as h → 0, to
simplify

Therefore, to find the slope of the tangent line of f(x) at any point, where f(x) = 1/x, is to to use
f′(x) = -1/x^2.

Limits Using Derivatives

 Continuity of a function
Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pencil without lifting
the pencil from the page. Such functions are called continuous. Other functions have points at which a
break in the graph occurs but satisfy this property over intervals contained in their domains. They are
continuous on these intervals and are said to have a discontinuity at a point where a break occurs. One
of its applications is in medical research where they use it to measure brain activity, heart rate, and
blood flow.
y y y

f(x) g(x) h(x)

f(x) can be traced completely with
a pencil, therefore its a continuous
graph. h(x) and g(x) can not be
x x x
traced completely with a pencil,
there are clear gaps in the lines
indicating that it is discontinuous.

Graph A (Continuous) Graph B (Discontinuous) Graph C (Discontinuous)

Continuous y

A function is said to be continuous at a point where it follows these three f(x)

conditions.
1. If f(a) exists.
x
2. If the xlim
-> a
f(x) exists
3. If the lim
x -> a
f(x) = f(a).
A continuous function has no holes or jumps in its graph when plotted.
lim f(x) exists
x -> a

Disontinuous
A function is said to be discontinuous if it doesn’t follow the three conditions

Types of discontinuity
1. Removable Discontinuity
A removable discontinuity occurs at a point where the graph of a function has a hole in it. The hole is
called a removable discontinuity because it can be filled in or removed with a little redefining of the
function’s values. Simply replace the function value at the hole with the value of the limit.
y

A removable discontinuity is identified by these conditions: g(x)

i. the limit exists

ii. f(a) does not exist/DNE or f(a) ≠ lim
x -> a
f(x)
x

In general, suppose ‘f’ is a function discontinuous at a number ‘a’ but for which
the limit exists. Then either f(a) does not exist or else f(a) ≠ lim f(x)
x -> a

Continuity of a function
Continuity of a function
2. Essential Discontinuity

An essential discontinuity, also known as an infinite or non-removable discontinuity, occurs at a point

where the graph of a function exhibits a significant break or vertical asymptote. This means that the
function does not have a defined limit at that point, and no simple redefinition can fill in the gap.

An essential discontinuity is characterized by these conditions:

i. The lim
x -> a
f(x) does not exist.
ii. f(a) exists.

This situation often indicates that the function’s values behave erratically or shoot off to infinity as x
nears a, making it impossible to simply "fill in" the discontinuity.

Examples: 2
x - x - 12 , x ≠ 4
1. g(x) = { x-4
7 , at x = 4

(i) g(4) = 7
2

(ii) lim x - x - 12 = lim (x+ 3) = 7

x ->4 x-4 x ->4

(iii) lim g(x) = g(4)

x ->4

Thus, g(x) is continuous at x = 4.

y ,y<1
2. h(x) = {
1+x
2-x
, x ≤ -2
,-2 < x ≤ 2
3. j(y) = { 2
2y-1
,y=1
, y>1, at y=1
2x - 1 ,2 < x, at x = -2
(i) h(-2) = 1 (i) j(1) = 2
(ii) lim
x ->-2
h(x) = DNE (ii) lim
x ->1
j(y) = 1
lim
x ->-2-
(1+x) = -1 lim y = -1
x ->1 -

lim
x ->-2+
(2-x) = 4 lim+ (2y-1) = 1
x ->1
Thus, h(x) is discontinuous (essential) at x = -2. (iii) lim j(y) ≠ j(y)
x ->1
Thus, j(y) is discontinuous (removable) at y = 1.
y ,y<1
j(y) = { 1
2y-1
,y=1
, y>1

Continuity of a function
 Limit Theorem
3 Involving the Sine and
Cosine Function

In two-dimensional geometry, two straight lines can be used to represent an angle

where the two lines share a common point called the vertex. A given angle is said to
be in standard position if the origin is the vertex, one of its rays the initial side is on
the positive x-axis, and the other ray denoted as terminal side moves to some
position in the anticlockwise direction from the initial side with the initial side
moving on the perimeter of the circle drawn out at the vertex of the given angle.
Mostly in trigonometric angles are measured in degrees measurement in calculus
angles are taken in radian which considers the arc length made by the angle and
not the distance from the x oy arc measuring device. Every time the arc is
subtended by an angle which is less than a semi circle, its arc few is available as a
positive valued function and hence can be easily reiterated by Theorem 7.10.2, and
for semicircles and larger all those arcs are broken into smaller arcs and the total
arc length obtained by adding these small arcs.

Learning Objectives:

After this lesson, you will be able to:

Understand the limit behavior of sine and cosine functions as the input approaches
0.
Use algebraic techniques and trigonometric identities to simplify and evaluate
trigonometric limits.
Explore the role of trigonometric limits in establishing foundational calculus
concepts, such as derivatives of sine and cosine functions.
Visualize trigonometric limits using graphs.
Examine the graphical behavior of sine and cosine limits to reinforce analytical
findings.
 Limit Theorem Involving the Sine and
Cosine Function

In calculus, the examination of limits is a key element that offers understanding of how functions behave near
certain values. The sine and cosine functions stand out because of their inherent periodic nature. The theorem
linked to these trigonometric functions explains important characteristics like continuity and differentiability,
especially near critical points, such as zero.

Trigonometric Identities
These are the following identities that may be used
Unit Circle
in solving trigonometric functions:
A fundamental tool
Pythagorean identities: in trigonometry that
can be used in
numerous fields such
as evaluating limits
Reciprocal identities:
involving
trigonometric
function.

Theorem on Limit of Sine Functions

It is given the form:

Proof:
Assume , where it can be proven through comparison of the graph of y=sin x and y=x,

y=x

y=sin x

Limit Theorem Involving the

Sine and Cosine Function
Limit Theorem Involving the Sine and
Cosine Function

Notice that the graph of y=x and y=sin x gets similar as their x gets closer and closer to 0
from both the left and right hand side. Therefore, we can say that y=x and y=sin x is
approximately equal when their x values approach to 0 from both the left and right hand
side.

Hence,

Examples:
1.
let y=7x

2.
let y=3x

Theorem on Limit of Cosine Functions

It is given the form:

Proof:
Suppose , where can be used to prove ,

Thus,
Examples:
1.

2.

Limit Theorem Involving the

Sine and Cosine Function
Limits Using Derivatives

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Limits Using Derivatives

 2 One-sided
Limits
A one-sided limit describes the behavior of a function as the input (x)
approaches a certain value from only one direction—either from the left or the
right. These limits are crucial for understanding discontinuities and ensuring
proper function behavior

Types of One-Sided Limits

1. Left-Hand Limits
The left-hand limit of a function as x approaches a point a is the value
that the function approaches as the input approaches a from values less
than a. This is denoted as:

“The limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the left”

2. Right-Hand Limits
The right-hand limit of a function as x approaches a point aaa is the value
that the function approaches as the input approaches a from values
greater than a. This is denoted as:

“The limit of f(x) as x approaches a from the right”

One-sided limits are used to find the limits of continuous or discontinuous functions.
Although the two-sided limit does not exist (DNE), the one-sided limits may still exist
though they are not equal.
 One-sided Limits

For a limit to exist at a point a, both the left-hand and right-hand limits must exist
and be equal. If the limits from either side differ, the overall limit at that point does
not exist.

Examples: In this example, we can see that it is a piecewise function. As x is less than 0
(approaching from the left), f(x) is equal to 0. On the other hand, we can
1. see that as x is greater than or equal to 0 (approaching from the right), x is
equal to 1. Since the function is discontinuous and one-sided limits are not
equal, the two-sided limit does not exist.

In this example, we can see that as x is less than or equal to 1,

2. g(x) is equal to x. On the other hand, if 1 is less than x, g(x) is
equal to 4 - x. Just like the previous example, this is a piecewise
function. Since the function is discontinuous and the one-sided
limits are not equal, the two-sided limit odes not exist.

Graph:
 One-sided Limits

The absolute value function represents the distance a number is from 0

on the number line, denoted as .

As shown, values from the right of 0 is equal to x and values from the left of 0 is
equal to -x.