Methodsof Data Collection

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
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Page 201
CHAPTER – 9
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Topics Covered 9.1
Concept of Data Collection 9.2 Types of Data
9.3 Issues to be Considered

for Data Collection 9.4 Methods of Primary Data Collection 9.4.1
Questionnaire Method 9.4.2 Interviews Method
9.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

9.4.4 Participatory Rural Appraisal/ Assessment (PRA)
9.4.5 Rapid Rural Appraisal/Assessment (RRA)
9.4.6 Observation Method
9.4.7 Survey Method 9.4.8

Case Study Method 9.4.9 Diaries
Method
9.4.10 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

9.4.11 Activity Sampling Technique 9.4.12
Memo Motion Study 9.4.13
Process Analysis 9.4.14 Link
Analysis 9.4.15 Time
and Motion Study 9.4.16 Experimental
Method 9.4.17 Statistical Method
9.5 Methods of Secondary Data Collection

9.6 Methods of Legal Research
Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 202
9.1 CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an
established systematic fashion that enables one to stated answer research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all
fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary
by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal
for all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates into rich data analysis and
allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that have been posed. Regardless
of the field of study or preference for defined data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection
is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection
instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their
correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research. You can have the best
research design in the world but if you cannot collect the required data you will not be able to
complete your project. Data collection is a very demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard
work, patience, perseverance and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data collection
starts with determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a sample from a
certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the data from the
selected sample.
9.2 TYPES OF DATA

Data are organized into two broad categories: qualitative and quantitative.
Qualitative Data: Qualitative data are mostly non-numerical and usually descriptive or nominal in
nature. This means the data collected are in the form of words and sentences. Often (not always),
such data captures feelings, emotions, or subjective perceptions of something. Qualitative
approaches aim to address the 'how' and 'why' of a program and tend to use unstructured methods
of data collection to fully explore the topic. Qualitative questions are open-ended. Qualitative
methods include focus groups, group discussions and interviews. Qualitative approaches are good
for further exploring the effects and unintended consequences of a programme. They are, however,
expensive and time consuming to implement. Additionally the findings cannot be generalized to
participants outside of the program and are only indicative of the group involved.
Qualitative data collection methods play an important role in impact evaluation by providing useful
information to understand the processes behind observed results and assess changes in people's
perceptions of their well-being. Furthermore qualitative methods can be used to improve the quality
of survey-based quantitative evaluations by helping generate evaluation hypothesis; Strengthening
the design of survey questionnaires and expanding or clarifying quantitative evaluation findings.
These methods are characterized by the following attributes -
• they tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols (ie, researchers may change the data collection strategy by
adding, refining, or dropping techniques or informants);
• they rely more heavily on interactive interviews; Respondents may be interviewed several times to follow up on a particular
issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data;
• They use triangulation to increase the credibility of their findings (ie, researchers rely on
multiple data collection methods to check the authenticity of their results);
Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

• Generally their findings are not generalizable to any specific population, rather each case study produces a single piece of
evidence that can be used to seek general patterns among different studies of the same issue.
Regardless of the types of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of
time. The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and
systematically, using field notes, sketches, audiotapes, photographs and other suitable means. The
data collection methods must observe the ethical principles of research. The qualitative methods
most commonly used in evaluation can be classified in three broad categories -
• In-depth interview
• Observation methods
• Document review.
Quantitative Data: Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.
Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal scale, ordinal
scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data includes measurements of
something. Quantitative approaches address the 'what' of the programme. They use a systematic
standardized approach and employ methods such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative
approaches have the advantage that they are cheaper to implement, are standardized so
comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative
approaches however are limited in their capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities
and unexpected differences. It is important to note that for peer-based quantitative programs data
collection approaches often prove to be difficult to implement for agencies as lack of necessary
resources to ensure rigorous implementation of surveys and frequently experienced low participation
and loss to follow up rates are commonly experienced factors .
The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection
instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. They produce
results that are easy to summarize, compare, and generalize. If the intention is to generalize from
the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ sampling probability to
select participants. Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include -
• Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well-defined events (eg, counting the number of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of
the day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
• Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (eg, face-to-face and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc). • In
quantitative research
(survey research), interviews are more structured than in qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a
standard set of questions and nothing more. Face-to-face interviews have a distinct advantage of enabling the researcher
to establish rapport with potential participants and therefore gain their cooperation. • Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be
sent to a large number of people and saves the researcher time and money. People are more truthful
while responding to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact that their responses are
anonymous.
Mixed Methods: Mixed methods approach as design, combining both qualitative and quantitative
research data, techniques and methods within a single research framework. Mixed methods
approaches may mean a number of things, i.e. a number of different types of methods in a study or
at different points within a study or using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods. Mixed

Methods encompass multifaceted approaches that combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce
weaknesses that stem from using a single research design. Using this approach to collect and evaluate
data may help to increase the validity and reliability of the research. Some of the common areas in
which mixed-method approaches may be used include –
• Initiating, designing, developing and expanding interventions;
• Evaluation;
• Improving research design; and
• Corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence.
Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach include –
• Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions;
• Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and
• Decisions regarding which research methods to combine.
Mixed methods are useful in highlighting complex research problems such as disparities in health and
can also be transformative in addressing issues for vulnerable or marginalized populations or research
which involves community participation. Using a mixed-methods approach is one way to develop
creative options to traditional or single design approaches to research and evaluation.
There are many ways of classifying data. A common classification is based on who collected the data.
PRIMARY DATA
Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary data. Primary data has not
been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and objective. Primary data has not been changed
or altered by human beings; Therefore its validity is greater than secondary data.
Importance of Primary Data: In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary sources and work on
primary data. For example, the statistical records of female population in a country cannot be based on newspaper,
magazine and other printed sources. A research can be conducted without secondary data but a research based on only
secondary data is least reliable and may have biases because secondary data has already been manipulated by human
beings. One of such sources is old and secondly they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading and
biased.
Sources of Primary Data: Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to obtain
data from primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of cooperation.
Following are some of the sources of primary data.
Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to perform logical study to
collect data. Experiments are more suitable for medicine, psychological studies, nutrition and other
scientific studies. In experiments the experimenter has to keep control over the influence of any
extraneous variable on the results.
Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences, management, marketing and
psychology to some extent. Surveys can be conducted in different methods.
Question: It is the most commonly used method in survey. Questionnaires are a list of questions
either open-ended or close-ended for which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire can be
conducted via telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic mail or through
fax and other methods.
Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent. In interview the main problem
arises when the respondent deliberately hides information otherwise it is an in depth source of
information. The interviewer can not only record the statements the interviewee speaks

but he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions to the questions too. This
enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily.
Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person know that s/he is being
observed or without letting him know. Observations can also be made in natural settings as well as in
artificially created environment.
Advantages of Using Primary Data
• The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
• There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
• If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study period.
Disadvantages of Using Primary Data
1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-
• deciding why, what, how, when to collect;
• getting the data collected (personally or through others);
• getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
• ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-
• All desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;
• there is no fake/cooked up data;
• unnecessary/useless data has not been included.
3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.
SECONDARY DATA
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form is called as secondary data.
The review of literature in any research is based on secondary data. It is collected by someone else for
some other purpose (but being utilized by the investigator for another purpose). For examples, Census
data being used to analyze the impact of education on career choice and earning.
Common sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational records and
data collected through qualitative methods or qualitative research. Secondary data is essential, since it
is impossible to conduct a new survey that can adequately capture past change and/or developments.
Sources of Secondary Data: The following are some ways of collecting secondary data –
• Books
• Records
• Biographies
• Newspapers
• Published censuses or other statistical data
• Data archives
• Internet articles
• Research articles by other researchers (journals)
• Databases, etc.
Importance of Secondary Data: Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still there.
Sometimes it is difficult to obtain primary data; In these cases getting information from secondary
sources is easier and possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such situation one has to
confine the research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data is present but the respondents are
not willing to reveal it in such case also secondary data can suffice. For example, if the research is on
the psychology of transsexuals first it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they may

not be willing to give information you want for your research, so you can collect data from books or other published
sources. A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the background work needed has already been
carried out. For example, literature reviews, case studies might have been carried out, published texts and statistics
could have already been used elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts have also been utilized. This
wealth of background work means that secondary data generally have a pre-established degree of validity and
reliability which need not be re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Moreover, secondary data
can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and can provide a baseline with which
the collected primary data results can be compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity
with a review of the secondary data.
Advantages of Using Secondary Data

• No hassles of data collection.
• It is less expensive.
• The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (“I didn't do it”).
Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data
• The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the reliability and accuracy
of data go down.
• Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due to variable environmental
factor.
• With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
• Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using secondary data a
Special care is required to amend or modify for use.
• Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.
Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement of the research study and time
factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and secondary data have been selected.
These are used in combination to give proper coverage to the topic.
9.3 ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR DATA COLLECTION/NORMS IN RESEARCH

There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms
promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against
fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since research
often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and
institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability,
mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship,
copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to
protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for
their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely. Third, many of the ethical
norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. Fourth, ethical norms in research also
help to build public support for research. People are more likely to fund research projects if they can trust the quality
and integrity of research. Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and
social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, and health and
safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly harm human and animal subjects, students, and the public. For
example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm

or even kill patients, and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to radiation or biological
safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and safety of staff and students.
Given the importance of ethics for the conduct of research, it should come as no surprise that many different professional
associations, government agencies, and universities have adopted specific codes, rules, and policies related to research
ethics. The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address -
Honesty: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and
publication status. Do not fabricate, falseify, or misrepresent data. Do not receive colleagues, granting agencies, or the
public.
Objectivity: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel
decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid
or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
Integrity: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; Strive for consistency of thought and action.
Carefulness: Avoid careless errors and negligence; Carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your
peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with
agencies or journals.
Openness: Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Intellectual Property: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgment
or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel
records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.
Responsible Publication: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career.
Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Mentoring: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make
their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public
education, and advocacy.
Non-Discrimination: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, or other
factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.
Competence: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and
learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.
Legality: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and political policies.
Animal Care: Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not unnecessary conduct or
poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects Protection: When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks
and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with
vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Training in research ethics should be able to help researchers grapple with ethical dilemmas by introducing
researchers to important concepts, tools, principles, and methods that can be useful in resolving these
dilemmas. In fact, the issues have become so important for training in research.
9.4 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using qualitative and quantitative methods.
The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and, until you publish,
no one else has access to it. There are many methods of collecting primary data.
The main methods include –
ÿ Questions
ÿ Interviews
ÿ Focus Group Interviews
ÿ Observation
ÿ Survey ÿ
Case-studies
ÿ Diaries
ÿ Activity Sampling Technique
ÿ Memo Motion Study
ÿ Process Analysis
ÿ Link Analysis
ÿ Time and Motion Study
ÿ Experimental Method
ÿ Statistical Method etc.
9.4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the
purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical
analysis of the responses, this is not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis
Galton (1822 - 1911). Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are
cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone surveys, and often have
standardized answers that make it simple to compile data. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have
many of the same problems relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of
opinion polls.
Types: A distinction can be made between questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables,
and questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index.
Questionnaires within the former category are commonly part of surveys, whereas questionnaires in the
latter category are commonly part of tests. Questionnaires with questions that measure separate variables,
could for instance include questions on –
• preferences (eg political party)
• behaviors (eg food consumption)
• facts (eg gender).

Questionnaires with questions that are aggregated into either a scale or index, include for instance
questions that measure -
• latent traits (eg personality traits such as extroversion)
• attitudes (eg towards immigration)
• an index (eg Social Economic Status).
Question Types: Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has
to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-ended questions.
An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her own answer, whereas a closed-
ended question has the respondent pick an answer from a given number of options. The response
options for a closed-ended question should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of
response scales for closed-ended questions are distinguished –
• Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options. •
Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered options. •
Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered options. •
Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous scale.
A respondent's answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response scale afterwards. An
example of an open-ended question is a question where the testee has to complete a sentence
(sentence completion item).
Question Sequence: In general, questions should flow logically from one to the next. To achieve the
best response rates, questions should flow from the least sensitive to the most sensitive, from the
factual and behavioral to the attitudinal, and from the more general to the more specific. There
typically is a flow that should be followed when constructing a questionnaire in regards to the order
that the questions are asked. The order is as follows -
• Screens
• Warm-ups
• Transitions
Skips
Difficult
• Changing Formula
Screens are used as a screening method to find out early whether or not someone should complete
the questionnaire. Warm-ups are simple to answer, help capture interest in the survey, and may not
even pertain to research objectives. Transition questions are used to make different areas flow well
together. Skips include questions similar to 'If yes, then answer question 3. If no, then continue to
question 5'. Difficult questions are towards the end because the respondent is in 'response mode'.
Also, when completing an online questionnaire, the progress barriers let the respondent know that
they are almost done so they are more willing to answer more difficult questions. Classification or
demographic question should be at the end because typically they can feel like personal questions
which will make respondents uncomfortable and not willing to finish survey.
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are -
• Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of different subpopulations of the
population of interest.
• Use statements where people that have different opinions or traits will give different answers.
• Think of having an 'open' answer category after a list of possible answers.
• Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.

• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.

• Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
• Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all educational levels.
• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (eg Do you like strawberries and
potatoes?).
• Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an answer.
Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are -

• Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the items orally.
• Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on paper.
• Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented on the computer.
• Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of items is presented on the computer, and based
on the answers to those items, the computer selects following items optimized for the testee's estimated ability or trait.
Concerns with Questionnaires: It is important to consider the order in which questions are presented.
Sensitive questions, such as questions about income, drug use, or sexual activity, should be put at the
end of the survey. This allows the researcher to establish trust before asking questions that might
embarrass respondents. Researchers also recommend putting routine questions, such as age, gender,
and marital status, at the end of the questionnaire. Double-barrel questions, which ask two questions in
one, should never be used in a survey. An example of a double barreled question is, please rate how
strongly you agree or disagree with the following statement - 'I feel good about my work on the job, and
I get along well with others at work'. This question is problematic because survey respondents are asked
to give one response to two questions.
Researchers should avoid using emotionally loaded or biased words and phrases.
Advantages of Questionnaires: The advantages of questionnaires are -
• Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people in a short period of time and in a relatively
cost effective way.
• Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with limited affect to its validity and reliability.
• The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily quantified by either a
researcher or through the use of a software package.
• Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of research.
• When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other research and may be used to measure
change.
• Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new theories and/or test existing hypotheses.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -

• To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of emotions, behavior,
feelings etc.
• Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited
amount of information without explanation.
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
• There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the situation.
• People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based on their own interpretation of the question - ie what
is 'good' to someone may be 'poor' to someone else, therefore there is a level of subjectivity that is not appreciated.
Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative research, because they commonly require
subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially
as a means of collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal interview. Although the
information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or
opinions have been identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally these apply, if
that is a matter of interest.
9.4.2 INTERVIEWS METHOD

Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants in a study. Interviewing has a variety of
forms including: individual, face-to-face interviews and face-to-face group interviews. The asking and answering of
questions can be mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (eg computers). Interviews can be –
A. Structured, B.
Semi-structured or C.
Unstructured.
Face to face interviews are advantageous since detailed questions can be asked; further probing can be done to provide rich
data; literacy requirements of participants is not an issue; Non verbal data can be collected through observation; complex and
unknown issues can be explored; Response rates are usually higher than for self-administered questionnaires.
Disadvantages of face to face interviews include: they can be expensive and time consuming; Training of interviewers is
necessary to reduce interviewer bias and are administered in a standardized manner why they are prone to interviewer bias
and interpreter bias (if interpreters are used); sensitive issues maybe challenging.
Telephone interviews yield just as accurate data as face to face interviews. Telephone interviews are advantageous as they: are cheaper and faster than
face to face interviews to conduct; use less resources than face to face interviews; allow to clarify questions; do not require literacy skills. Disadvantages of
telephone interviews include: having to make repeated calls as calls may not be answered the first time; potential bias if call backs are not made so bias is
towards those who are at home; only suitable for short surveys; only accessible to the population with a telephone; not appropriate for exploring sensitive
issues.
Structured Interviews
Characteristics of the Structured Interview
• The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions. • The questions are
created prior to the interview, and often have a limited set of responses
categories.
• There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-ended questions included in the interview guide.

• Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are kept consistent from interview to interview. •
The interviewer plays a neutral role
and acts casual and friendly, but does not include his or her
opinion in the interview
• Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured interview.
When to Use a Structured Interview: Development of a structured interview guide or questionnaire
requires a clear topical focus and well-developed understanding of the topic at hand. A well-developed
understanding of a topic allows researchers to create a highly structured interview guide or questionnaire that
provides respondents with relevant, meaningful and appropriate response categories to choose from for each
question. Structured interviews are, therefore, best used when the literature in a topical area is highly developed
or following the use of observational and other less structured interviewing approaches that provide the
researcher with adequate understanding of a topic to construct meaningful and relevant close-ended questions.
Recording Interviews: There are a range of ways to collect and record structured interview data.
Data collections methods include, but are not limited to - paper-based and self-report (mail, face-to-face);
telephone interviews where the interviewer fills in participants' responses; web-based and self-report.
Benefits: Structured interviews can be conducted efficiently by interviewers trained only to follow the
instructions on the interview guide or questionnaire. Structured interviews do not require the development of
rapport between interviewer and interviewee, and they can produce consistent data that can be compared
across a number of respondents.
Semi-structured Interviews
Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews
• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview. • The interviewer
develops and uses an 'interview guide'. This is a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation,
usually in a particular order. • The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical
trajectories in the conversation
that may stray from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate.
When Use Semi-structured Interviews: to Semi-structured interviewing, according to Bernard (1988),
is best used when you won't get more than one chance to interview someone and when you will be sending
several interviewers out into the field to collect data. The semi-structured interview guide provides a clear set
of instructions for interviewers and can provide reliable, comparable qualitative data. Semi-structured interviews
are often preceded by observation, informal and unstructured interviewing in order to allow the researchers to
develop a keen understanding of the topic of interest necessary for developing relevant and meaningful semi-
structured questions. The inclusion of open-ended questions and training of interviewers to follow relevant
topics that may stray from the interview guide does, however, still provide the opportunity for identifying new
ways of seeing and understanding the topic at hand.
Recording Semi-Structured Interviews: Typically, the interviewer has a paper-based interview guide that
s/he follows. Since semi-structured interviews often contain open-ended questions and discussions may diverge
from the interview guide, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and later transcript these tapes for
analysis. While it is possible to try to jot notes to capture respondents' answers, it is difficult to focus on
conducting an interview and jotting notes. This approach will result in poor observations and also detract for
the development of rapport between interviewer and interviewee. Development of rapport and dialogue is
essential in unstructured

interviews. If tape-recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker present during
the interview.
Benefits: Many researchers like to use semi-structured interviews because questions can be prepared
ahead of time. This allows the interviewer to be prepared and appear competent during the interview. Semi-
structured interviews also allow informants the freedom to express their views in their own terms. Semi-
structured interviews can provide reliable, comparable qualitative data.
Unstructured Interviews
Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews
• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have a scheduled time to sit and speak with each
other and both parties recognize this to be an interview. • The interviewer has a clear plan in mind
regarding the focus and goal of the interview. This guides the discussion. • There is not a structured interview guide. Instead,
the interviewer builds
rapport with respondents, getting respondents to open-up and express themselves in their own way. • Questions tend to be
open-ended and express little control over informants' responses. • Ethnographic, in depth interviews are
unstructured. Fontana and Frey (1994) identify three types of in depth, ethnographic unstructured interviews – oral
history, creative interviews and postmodern interviews.
When Use Unstructured Interviews: to Unstructured interviewing is recommended when the

researcher has developed enough of an understanding of a setting and his/her topic of interest to have a
clear agenda for the discussion with the informant, but still remains open to having his/her understanding of
the area of inquiry open to revision by respondents. Because these interviews are not highly structured and
because the researcher's understanding is still evolving, it is helpful to anticipate the need to speak with
informants on multiple occasions.
Recording Unstructured Interviews: Since unstructured interviews often contain open-ended questions
and discussions may develop in unanticipated directions, it is generally best to tape-record interviews and
later transcript these tapes for analysis. This allows the interviewer to focus on interacting with the participant
and follow the discussion. While it is possible to try to jot notes to capture respondents' answers, it is difficult
to focus on conducting an interview and jotting notes.
This approach will result in poor observations and also detract from the development of rapport between
interviewer and interviewee. Development of rapport and dialogue is essential in unstructured interviews. If
tape-recording an interview is out of the question, consider having a note-taker present during the interview.
Benefits: Unstructured interviews are an extremely useful method for developing an understanding of an
as-of-yet not fully understood or appreciated culture, experience, or setting. Unstructured interviews allow
researchers to focus the respondents' talk on a particular topic of interest, and may allow researchers the
opportunity to test out his/her preliminary understanding, while still allowing for ample opportunity for new
ways of seeing and understanding to develop. Unstructured interviews can be an important preliminary step
toward the development of more structured interview guides or surveys.

Informal Interviewing
Characteristics of Informal interviewing
• The interviewer talks with people in the field informally, without use of a structured interview
guide of any kind.
• The researcher tries to remember his/her conversations with informants, and uses jottings or brief notes taken in the field to
help in the recall and writing of notes from experiences in the field.
• Informal interviewing goes hand-in-hand with participant observation. • While in the field as
an observer, informal interviews are casual conversations one might have with the people the researcher is observing.
When Use Informal Interviews: to Informal interviewing is typically done as part of the process of
observing a social setting of interest. These may be best used in the early stages of the development of an
area of inquiry, where there is little literature describing the setting, experience, culture or issue of interest.
The researcher engages in fieldwork - observation and informal interviewing - to develop an understanding of
the setting and to build a rapport. Informal interviewing may also be used to uncover new topics of interest
that may have been overlooked by previous research.
Recording Informal Interviews: Since informal interviews occur 'on the fly,' it is difficult to tape-record this
type of interview. Additionally, it is likely that informal interviews will occur during the process of observing a
setting. The researcher should participate in the conversation. As soon as possible, s/he should make jottings
or notes of the conversation. These jokes should be developed into a more complete account of the informal
interview. This type of account would tend to be included in the researcher's field notes. Developing field
notes soon after an informal interview is recommended. Even with good field jottings the details of an informal
interview are quickly lost from memory.
Benefits: Interviews can be done informally, and 'on the fly' and, therefore, do not require scheduling time
with respondents. In fact, respondents may just see this as 'conversation'. Informal interviews may, therefore,
foster 'low pressure' interactions and allow respondents to speak more freely and openly. Informal interviewing
can be helpful in building rapport with respondents and in gaining their trust as well as their understanding of
a topic, situation, setting, etc. Informal interviews, like unstructured interviews, are an essential part of gaining
an understanding of a setting and its members' ways of seeing. It can provide the foundation for developing
and conducting more structured interviews.
Interviewing, when considered as a method for conducting qualitative research, is a technique used to
understand the experiences of others. Characteristics of qualitative research interviews –
ÿ Interviews are completed by the interviewer based on what the interviewee says.
ÿ Interviews are a far more personal form of research than questionnaires.
ÿ In the personal interview, the interviewer works directly with the interviewee.
ÿ Unlike with mail surveys, the interviewer has the opportunity to probe or ask follow up questions.
ÿ Interviews are generally easier for the interviewee, especially if what is sought are opinions
and/or impressions.

Types of Interviews
Informal, Conversational interview: No predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and
adaptable as possible to the interviewee's nature and priorities; During the interview the interviewer 'goes with the
flow'.
General interview guide approach: Intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected
from each interviewee; This provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of
freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.
Standardized, open-ended interview: The same open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees;
This approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.
Closed, fixed-response interview: All interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers
from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing. This type of
interview is also referred to as structured.
Interviewer's judgments: According to Hackman and Oldman several factors can bias an interviewer's
judgment about a job applicant. However these factors can be reduced or minimized by training interviews to
recognize them. Some examples are -
Prior Information: Interviewers generally have some prior information about job candidates, such as recruiter
evaluations, application blanks, online screening results, or the results of psychological tests. This can cause the
interviewer to have a favorable or unfavorable attitude toward an applicant before meeting them.
The Contrast Effect: How the interviewers evaluate a particular applicant may depend on their standards of
comparison, that is, the characteristics of the applicants they previously interviewed.
Iterviewers' Prejudices: This can be done when the interviewers' judgment is their personal likes and dislikes.
These may include, but are not limited to racial and ethnic background, applicants who display certain qualities or
traits and refuse to consider their abilities or characteristics.
Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews

Interviews are among the most challenging and rewarding forms of measurement. They require a personal
sensitivity and adaptability as well as the ability to stay within the bounds of the designed protocol. The followings
describe the preparation need to do for an interview study and then the process of conducting the interview itself.
ÿ Preparation
Role of the Interviewer: The interviewer is really the 'jack-of-all-trades' in survey research. The
Interviewer's role is complex and multifaceted. It includes the following tasks –
Locate and enlist cooperation of respondents: The interviewer has to find the respondent. In door-to-door surveys,
this means being able to locate specific addresses. Often, the interviewer has to work at the least desirable times
(like immediately after dinner or on weekends) because that's when respondents are most readily available.
Motivate respondents to do a good job: If the interviewer does not take the work seriously, why would the
respondent? The interviewer has to be motivated and has to be able to communicate that motivation to the
respondent. Often, this means that the interviewer has to be convinced of the importance of the research.
Clarify any confusion/concerns: Interviewers have to be able to think on their feet. Respondents may raise
objections or concerns that were not anticipated. The interviewer has to be able to respond candidly and
informatively.

Observe the quality of responses: Whether the interview is in person or over the phone, the interviewer is in the best
position to judge the quality of the information that is being received. Even a verbatim transcript will not adequately
convey how seriously the respondent took the task, or any gestures or body language that were evident.
Conduct a good interview: Last, and certainly not least, the interviewer has to conduct a good interview! Every interview
has a life of its own. Some respondents are motivated and attentive, others are distracted or disinterested. The interviewer
also has good or bad days. Assuring a consistently high-quality interview is a challenge that requires constant effort.
Training the Interviewers: Here are some of the major topics that should be included in the interviewer
training –
Describe the entire study: Interviewers need to know more than simply how to conduct the interview itself. They should
learn about the background for the study, previous work that has been done, and why the study is important.
State who is sponsoring research: Interviewers need to know who they are working for. They and their respondents have
a right to know not just what agency or company is conducting the research, but also, who is paying for the research.
Teach enough about survey research: While you seldom have the time to teach a full course on survey research methods,
the interviewers need to know enough that they respect the survey method and are motivated. Sometimes it may not be
apparent why a question or set of questions was asked in a particular way. The interviewers will need to understand the
rationale for how the instrument was constructed.
Explain the sampling logic and process: Naive interviewers may not understand why sampling is so important. They may
wonder why you go through all the difficulties of selecting the sample so carefully. You will have to explain that sampling
is the basis for the conclusions that will be reached and for the degree to which your study will be useful.
Explain interviewer bias: Interviewers need to know the many ways that they can inadvertently bias the results. And, they
need to understand why it is important that they do not bias the study. This is especially a problem when you are
investigating political or moral issues on which people have strongly held convictions. While the interviewer may think
they are doing good for society by slanting results in favor of what they believe, they need to recognize that doing so
could jeopardize the entire study in the eyes of others.
'Walk through' the Interview: When you first introduce the interview, it's a good idea to walk through the entire
protocol so the interviewers can get an idea of the various parts or phases and how they interact. Explain respondent
selection procedures, including –
Reading maps: It's astonishing how many adults don't know how to follow directions on a map. In personal interviews,
the interviewer may need to locate respondents who are spread over a wide geographic area. And, they often have to
navigate by night (respondents tend to be most available in evening hours) in neighborhoods they're not familiar with.
Teaching basic map reading skills and confirming that interviewers can follow maps is essential.
Identifying households: In many studies it is impossible in advance to say whether every sample household meets the
sampling requirements for the study. In your study, you may want to interview only people who live in single family
homes. It may be impossible to distinguish townhouses and apartment buildings in your sampling frame. The interviewer
must know how to identify the appropriate target household.

Identify respondents: Just as with households, many studies require respondents who meet specific
criteria. For instance, your study may require that you speak with a male head-of-household between the
ages of 30 and 40 who has children under 18 living in the same household. It may be impossible to
obtain statistics in advance to target such respondents. The interviewer may have to ask a series of
filtering questions before determining whether the respondent meets the sampling needs.
Rehearse interview: You should probably have several rehearsal sessions with the interviewer team.
You might even videotape rehearsal interviews to discuss how the trainees responded in difficult
situations. The interviewers should be very familiar with the entire interview before ever facing a
respondent.
Explain supervision: In most interview studies, the interviewers will work under the direction of a
supervisor. In some contexts, the supervisor may be a faculty advisor; In others, they may be the 'boss'.
In order to assure the quality of the responses, the supervisor may have to observe a subsample of
interviews, listen in on phone interviews, or conduct follow-up assessments of interviews with the
respondents. This can be very threatening to the interviewers. You need to develop an atmosphere
where everyone on the research team - interviewers and supervisors - feel like they're working together
towards a common end.
Explain scheduling: The interviewers have to understand the demands being made on their schedules
and why these are important to the study. In some studies it will be imperative to conduct the entire set
of interviews within a certain time period. In most studies, it's important to have the interviewers available
when it's convenient for the respondents, not necessarily the interviewer.
Interviewer's Kit: It's important that interviewers have all of the materials they need to do a professional
job. Usually, you will want to assemble an interviewer kit that can be easily carried and includes all of
the important materials such as –
• a 'professional-looking' notebook (this might even have the logo of the company or organization conducting the interviews);
• maps;
• sufficient copies of the survey instrument;
• official identification (preferable a picture ID);
• a cover letter from the Principal Investigator or Sponsor; and • a phone number
the respondent can call to verify the interviewer's authenticity.
ÿ Process
So all the preparation is complete, the training is done, the interviewers are ready to proceed, their 'kits'
in hand. It's finally time to do an actual interview. Each interview is unique, like a small work of art (and
sometimes the art may not be very good). Each interview has its own ebb and flow - its own pace. To
the outsider, an interview looks like a fairly standard, simple, prosaic effort. But to the interviewer, it can
be filled with special nuances and interpretations that aren't often immediately apparent. Every interview
includes some common components. There's the opening, where the interviewer gains entry and
establishes the rapport and tone for what follows. There's the middle game, the heart of the process,
that consists of the protocol of questions and the improvisations of the probe. And finally, there's the
endgame, the wrap-up, where the interviewer and respondent establish a sense of closure. Whether it's
a two-minute phone interview or a personal interview that spans hours, the interview is a bit of theater, a
mini-drama that involves real lives in real time.
Opening Remarks: In many ways, the interviewer has the same initial problem that a salesperson has.
You have to get the respondent's attention initially for a long enough period that you can sell them

on the idea of participating in the study. Many of the remarks here assume an interview that is being conducted at a
respondent's residence. But the analogies to other contexts interviews should be straightforward.
Gaining entry: The first thing the interviewer must do is gain entry. Several factors can enhance the prospects. Probably
the most important factor is your initial appearance. The interviewer needs to dress professionally and in a manner that
will be comfortable to the respondent. In some contexts a business suit and briefcase may be appropriate. In others, it
may intimidate. The way the interviewer appears initially to the respondent has to communicate some simple messages -
that you're trustworthy, honest, and non-threatening. Cultivating a manner of professional confidence, the sense that the
respondent has nothing to worry about because you know what you're doing - is a difficult skill to teach and an
indispensable skill for achieving initial entry.
Doorstep technique: You're standing on the doorstep and someone has opened the door, even if only halfway. You
need to smile. You need to be brief. State why you are there and suggest what you would like the respondent to do. Don't
ask suggest what you want. Instead of saying 'May I come in to do an interview?', you might try a more systematic
approach like 'I'd like to take a few minutes of your time to interview you for a very important study'.
Introduction: If you've gotten this far without having the door slammed in your face, chances are you will be able to get
an interview. Without waiting for the respondent to ask questions, you should move to introduce yourself. You should have
this part of the process memorized so you can deliver the essential information in 20-30 seconds at most. State your name
and the name of the organization you represent. Show your identification badge and the letter that introduces you. You
want to have as legitimate an appearance as possible. If you have a three-ring binder or clipboard with the logo of your
organization, you should have it out and visible. You should assume that the respondent will be interested in participating
in your important study - assume that you will be doing an interview here.
Explaining the study: At this point, you've been invited to come in. Or, the respondent has continued to listen long
enough that you need to move onto explaining the study. There are three rules to this critical explanation - (1) Keep it
short; (2) Keep it short; and (3) Keep it short! The respondent doesn't have to or want to know all of the neat nuances of
this study, how it came about, how you convinced your thesis committee to buy into it, and so on. You should have a one
or two sentence description of the memorized study. No big words. No jargon. No detail. There will be more than enough
time for that later (and you should bring some written materials you can leave at the end for that purpose). This is the '25
words or less' description. What should you spend some time on is assuring the respondent that you are interviewing them
confidentially, and that their participation is voluntary.
Asking the Questions: You've gotten in. The respondent has asked you to sit down and make yourself comfortable. It
may be that the respondent was in the middle of doing something when you arrived and you may need to allow them a
few minutes to finish the phone call or send the kids off to do homework. Now, you're ready to begin the interview itself.
Use questionnaire carefully, but informally: The questionnaire is your friend. It was developed with a lot of care
and thoughtfulness. While you have to be ready to adapt to the needs of the setting, your first instinct should always be to
trust the instrument that was designed. But you also need to establish a rapport with the respondent. If you have your face
in the instrument and you read the questions, you'll appear unprofessional and disinterested. Even though you may be
nervous, you need to recognize that your respondent is most likely even more nervous. If you memorize the first few

questions, you can refer to the instrument only occasionally, using eye contact and a confident manner to set the tone
for the interview and help the respondent get comfortable.
Ask questions exactly written: as Sometimes an interviewer will think that they could improve on the tone of a
question by changing a few words to make it simpler or more 'friendly' – don't. You should ask the questions as they are
on the instrument. If you had a problem with a question, the time to raise it was during the training and rehearsals, not
during the actual interview. It is important that the interview be as standardized as possible across respondents (this is
true except in certain types of exploratory or interpretivist research where the explicit goal is to avoid any standardization).
You may think the change you made was inconsequential when, in fact, it may change the entire meaning of the question
or response.
Follow the order given: Once you know an interview well, you may see a respondent bring up a topic that you know
will come up later in the interview. You may be tempted to jump to that section of the interview while you're on the topic
– don't. You are more likely to lose your place. You may omit questions that build a foundation for later questions.
Ask every question: Sometimes you'll be tempted to omit a question because you thought you already heard what
the respondent will say. Don't assume that. If you had not asked the question, you would never have discovered the
detail.
Obtaining Adequate Responses - The Probe: OK, you've asked a question. The respondent gives a brief,
cursory answer. How do you elicit a more thoughtful, thorough response? You probe.
Silent probe: The most effective way to encourage someone to elaborate is to do nothing at all -
just pause and wait. This is referred to as the 'silent' probe. It works (at least in certain cultures) because the respondent
is uncomfortable with pauses or silence. It suggests to the respondent that you are waiting, listening for what they will
say next.
Overt encouragement: At times, you can encourage the respondent directly. Try to do so in a way that does not
imply approval or disapproval of what they said (that could bias their subsequent results). Overt encouragement could be
as simple as saying 'Uh-huh' or 'OK' after the respondent completes a thought.
Elaboration: You can encourage more information by asking for elaboration. For instance, it is appropriate to ask
questions like 'Would you like to elaborate on that?' or 'Is there anything else you would like to add?'
Ask for clarification: Sometimes, you can elicit greater detail by asking the respondent to clarify something that
was said earlier. You might say, 'A minute ago you were talking about the experience you had in high school. Could you
tell me more about that?'
Repetition: This is the old psychotherapist trick. You say something without really saying anything new. For instance,
the respondent just described a traumatic experience they had in childhood. You might say 'What I'm hearing you say is
that you found that experience very traumatic'. Then, you should pause. The respondent is likely to say something like
'Well, yes, and it affected the rest of my family as well.' In fact, my younger sister...'
Recording the Response: Although we have the ability to record a respondent in audio and/or video, most interview
methodologists don't think it's a good idea. Respondents are often uncomfortable when they know their remarks will be
recorded word-for-word. They may strain to only say things in a socially acceptable way. Although you would get a more
detailed and accurate record, it is likely to be distorted by the very process of obtaining it. This may be more of a problem
in some situations than in others. It is increasingly common to be told that your

Conversation may be recorded during a phone interview. And most focus group methodologies use unobtrusive
recording equipment to capture what's being said. But, in general, personal interviews are still best when recorded by
the interviewer using pen and paper.
Record responses immediately: The interviewer should record responses as they are being stated.
This conveys the idea that you are interested enough in what the respondent is saying to write it down. You don't have
to write down every single word – you're not taking stenography. But you may want to record certain key phrases or
quotes verbatim. You need to develop a system for distinguishing what the respondent says verbatim from what you
are characterizing.
Include all probes: You need to indicate every single probe that you use. Develop a shorthand for different
standard probes. Use a clear form for writing them in (eg, place probes in the left margin).
Use abbreviations where possible: Abbreviations will help you to capture more of the discussion.
Develop a standardized system (eg, R=respondent; DK=don't know). If you create an abbreviation on the fly, have a
way of indicating its origin. For instance, if you decide to abbreviate Spouse with an 'S', you might make a notation in
the right margin saying 'S=Spouse'.
Concluding the Interview: When you've gone through the entire interview, you need to bring the interview to
closure. Some important things to remember -
Thank the respondent - Don't forget to do this. Even if the respondent was troublesome or uninformative, it is important
for you to be polite and thank them for their time.
Tell them when you expect to send results - You owe it to your respondent to show them what you learned. Now, they
may not want your entire 300-page dissertation. It's common practice to prepare a short, readable, jargon-free summary
of interviews that you can send to the respondents.
Don't be brusque or hasty - Allow for a few minutes of winding down conversation. The respondent may want to know
a little bit about you or how much you like doing this kind of work. They may be interested in how the results will be
used. Use these kinds of interests as a way to wrap up the conversation. As you're putting away your materials and
packing up to go, engage the respondent. You don't want the respondent to feel as though you completed the interview
and then rushed out to them - they may wonder what they said that was wrong. On the other hand, you have to be
careful here. Some respondents may want to keep on talking long after the interview is over. You have to find a way
to politely cut off the conversation and make your exit.
Immediately after leaving write down any notes about how the interview went - Sometimes you will have notes about
the interview that you didn't want to write down while you were with the respondent. You may have noticed them
getting upset at a question, or you may have detected hostility in a response. Immediately after the interview you
should go over your notes and make any other comments and observations - but be sure to distinguish these from the
notes made during the interview (you might use a different color pen, for instance).
Strengths and Weaknesses

Possibly the greatest advantage of interviewing is the depth of detail from the interviewee.
Interviewing participants can paint a picture of what happened in a specific event, tell us their perspective of such
event, as well as give other social cues. Social cues, such as voice, intonation, body language etc. of the interviewee
can give the interviewer a lot of extra information that can be added to the verbal answer of the interviewee on a
question. This level of detailed description, whether it is verbal or nonverbal, can show an otherwise hidden
interrelatedness between emotions, people, objects unlike many quantitative methods of research. In addition,
interviewing has a unique

advantage in its specific form. Researchers can tailor the questions they ask to the respondent in order to get rich, full
stories and the information they need for their project. They can make it clear to the respondent when they need more
examples or explanations. Not only can researchers also learn about specific events, they can also gain insight into
people's internal experiences, specifically how people perceive and how they interpret their perceptions. How events
affected their thoughts and feelings. In this, researchers can understand the process of an event instead of what just
happened and how they reacted to it.
Interviewing is not a perfect method for all types of research. It does have its disadvantages. First, there can be
complications with the planning of the interview. Not only is recruiting people for interviews difficult, due to the typically
personal nature of the interview, planning where to meet them and when can be difficult. Participants can cancel or
change the meeting place at the last minute.
During the actual interview, a possible weakness is missing some information. This can arise from the immense
multitasking that the interviewer must do. Not only do they have to make the respondent feel very comfortable, they have
to keep as much eye contact as possible, write down as much as they can, and think of follow up questions. After the
interview, the process of coding begins and with this comes its own set of disadvantages. Second, coding can be
extremely time consuming. This process typically requires multiple people, which can also become expensive. Third, the
nature of qualitative research itself, does not lend itself very well to quantitative analysis. Some researchers report more
missing data in interview research than survey research, so it can be difficult to compare populations.
9.4.3 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION (FGD)

A focus group discussion (FGD) is an in-depth field method that brings together a small homogeneous group (usually six
to twelve people) to discuss topics on a study agenda. The purpose of this discussion is to use the social dynamics of the
group, with the help of a moderator/facilitator, to stimulate participants to reveal underlying opinions, attitudes, and
reasons for their behavior. In short, a well facilitated group can be helpful in finding out the 'how' and 'why' of human
behavior.
Focus group discussions are a data collection method. Data is collected through a semi-structured group interview
process. Focus groups are generally used to collect data on a specific topic. Focus group methods emerged in the 1940s
with the work of Merton and Fiske who used focus groups to conduct consumer satisfaction. The discussion is conducted
in a relaxed atmosphere to enable participants to express themselves without any personal inhibitions. usually share a
common characteristic such as Participants' age, gender, or socio-economic status that defines them as a member of a
target subgroup. This encourages a group to speak more freely about the subject without fear of being judged by others
thought to be superior. The discussion is led by a trained moderator/facilitator (preferably experienced), assisted by an
observer who takes notes and arranges any tape recording. The moderator uses a prepared guide to ask very general
questions of the group. Usually more than one group session is needed to ensure good coverage of responses to a set
of topics. Each session usually lasts between one and two hours but ideally 60 to 90 minutes.
The aim of the focus group is to make use of participants' feelings, perceptions and opinions. This method requires the
researcher to use a range of skills - group skills; facilitating; moderating; listening/observing; analysis. Focus groups or
group discussions are useful to further explore a topic, providing a broader understanding of why the target group may
behave or think in a particular

way, and assist in determining the reason for attitudes and beliefs. They are conducted with a small sample
of the target group and are used to stimulate discussion and gain greater insights.
The design of focus group research will vary based on the research question being studied. Below, highlight
some general principles to consider -
• Standardization of questions - focus groups can vary in the extent to which they follow a
structured protocol or permit discussion to emerge.
• Number of focus groups conducted - or sampling will depend on the 'segmentation' or different strategies (eg age, sex,
socioeconomic status, health status) that the researcher identifies as important to the research topic.
• Number of participants per group - the rule of thumb has been 6-10 homogeneous strangers, but as Morgan (1996) points
out there may be reasons to have smaller or slightly larger groups.
• Level of moderator involvement - can vary from high to low degree of control exercised during focus groups (eg extent to
which structured questions are asked and group dynamics are actively managed).
Focus group interviews typically have the characteristics -

• Identify the target market (people who possess certain characteristics).
• Provide a short introduction and background on the issue to be discussed.
• Have focus group members write their responses to the issue(s).
• Facilitate group discussion.
• Recommended size of the sample group is 6 - 10 people as smaller groups may limit the potential on the amount of
information collected, and more may make it difficult for all participants to participate and interact and for the interviewer
to be able to make a sense of the information given.
• Several focus groups should be used in order to get a more objective and macro view of the investigation, i.e. focusing on
one group may give you idiosyncratic results. The use of several groups will add to the breadth and depth of
information. A minimum of three focus groups is recommended for best practice approaches.
• Members of the focus group should have something in common which is important to the
investigation
• Groups can either be put together or existing groups - it is always useful to be mindful of the
group dynamics of both situations. •
Provide a summary of the focus group issues at the end of the meeting.
The purpose of an FGD is to obtain in-depth information on concepts, perceptions, and ideas of the group.
An FGD aims to be more than a question-answer interaction. In combination with other methods, focus
groups might be used to -
• explore new research areas;
• explore a topic that is difficult to observe (not easy to gain access);
• explore a topic that does not lend itself to observational techniques (eg attitudes and decision-
making);
• explore sensitive topics;
• collect a concentrated set of observations in a short time span;
• ascertain perspectives and experiences from people on a topic, particularly when these are people who might otherwise
be marginalized;
• gather preliminary data;
• aid in the development of surveys and interview guides;

• clarify research findings from another method; • explore the

range of opinions/views on a topic of interest; • collect a wide variety of local
terms and expressions used to describe a disease (eg, diarrhea) or an act (eg, defecation);
• explore meanings of survey findings that cannot be explained statistically.
Steps in Focus Group Discussions (FGD)

The steps in using FGDs to study a problem are summarized below. The extent to which these steps must be followed varies,
however, depending on the training and experience of those involved in the data collection.
STEP 1: Plan the entire FGD •

What activities need to be planned? • Is there the
need for a resource person. • Role of resource person
in training field staff.
STEP 2: Decide what types of groups are needed • Method
of sampling (selection criteria) • Composition of
groups • Number of groups •
Group size • Contacting
and informing
participants.
STEP 3: Select moderator and field team • Field
staff requirements • Moderator •
Observer/recorder
• Other staff.
STEP 4: Develop moderator's guide and format for recording responses

• Structure and sequence of topics • Wording
of guide • Number of topics
• Example of an FGD guide.
STEP 5: Train field team and conduct pilot test • Training

hints • Training
package • Theory
sessions • Practice
sessions • On-going
revision of FGD guide.
STEP 6: Prepare for the individual FGDs
• Site selection and location for FGD • Date and
time • Plan for
supporting materials or FGD checklist.
STEP 7: Conduct the FGD •
Conducting the Discussion •
Introduction • Warm-
up • Discussion

• Wrap-up summary
• Debriefing
• Collecting and managing information in FGD.
STEP 8: Analyze and interpret FGD results
• How much analysis is required
• Debriefing;
• Notes;
• Transcripts; and log book
• Writing the report
• Interpretation of findings
• Example of format of an FGD report.
Identify suitable discussion participants and invite a small group to a meeting at an agreed place and time. The ideal
number of participants is six to eight, but be flexible about numbers - do not turn away participants after they have
arrived at the meeting and do not pressure people to come to the meeting. Be psychologically prepared for the
session; You will need to remain alert to be able to observe, listen, and keep the discussion on track for a period of
one to two hours. Make sure you arrive at the agreed place before the participants, and be ready to greet them.
Maintain a neutral attitude and appearance, and do not start talking about the topic of interest before the official
opening of the group discussion. Begin by introducing yourself and your team (even if the participants have already
met them individually), and ask participants to introduce themselves.
Explain clearly that the purpose of the discussion is to find out what people think about the practices or activities
depicted by the pictures. Tell them that you are not looking for any right or wrong answer but that you want to learn
what each participant's views are. It must be made clear to all participants that their views will be valued. Bring the
discussion to a close when you feel the topic has been exhausted, and do nor let the group discussion degenerate
into smaller discussions. Be sincere in expressing your thanks to the participants for their contributions. Refreshments
may be served at the end of the meeting as a way of thanking the participants and maintaining good rapport with them.

Conducting FGD
The following guideline may be provided for conducting FGD.
Preparation
Selection of topic: It is appropriate to define and clarify the concepts to be discussed. The basic idea is to lay out a
set of issues for the group to discuss. It is important to bear in mind that the moderator will mostly be improving comments
and questions within the framework set by the guidelines. By keeping the questions open-ended, the moderator can
stimulate useful trains of thought in the participants that were not anticipated.
Selecting the study participants: Given a clear idea of the issues to be discussed, the next critical step in designing
a focus group study is to decide on the characteristics of the individuals who are to be targeted for sessions. It is often
important to ensure that the groups all share some common characteristics in relation to the issue under investigation. If
you need to obtain information on a topic from several different categories of informants who are likely to discuss the issue
from different perspectives, you should organize a focus group for each major category. For example, a group for men and
a group for women, or a group for older women and a group for younger women. The selection of the participants can be
on the basis of purposive or convenience sampling. The participants should receive the invitations at least one or two days
before the exercise. The invitations should explain the general purpose of the FGD.
Physical arrangements: Communication and interaction during the FGD should be encouraged in every way possible.
Arrange the chairs in a circle. Make sure the area will be quite, adequately lit, etc., and that there will be no disturbances.
Try to hold the FGD in a neutral setting that encourages participants to freely express their views. A health center, for
example, is not a good place to discuss traditional medical beliefs or preferences for other types of treatment. Neutral
setting could also be from the perspective of a place where the participants feel comfortable to come over and above their
party factions.
Conducting the Session

ÿ One of the members of the research team should act as a 'facilitator' or 'moderator' for the focus group. One should serve as
'recorder'.
ÿ Functions of the Facilitator: The facilitator should not act as an expert on the topic. His/her role is to stimulate and support
discussion. S/he should perform the following functions -
Introduce the session - S/he should introduce himself/herself as facilitator and introduce the recorder. Introduce
the participants by name or ask them to introduce themselves (or develop some new interesting way of introduction).
Put the participants at ease and explain the purpose of the FGD, the kind of information needed, and how the
information will be used (eg, for planning of a health program, an education program, et.).
Encourage discussion - The facilitator should be enthusiastic, lively, and humorous and show his/her interest in
the group's ideas. Formulate questions and encourage as many participants as possible to express their views.
Remember there are no 'right' or 'wrong' answers. Facilitator should react neutrally to both verbal and nonverbal
responses.
Encouragement involvement - Avoid a question and answer session. Some useful techniques include asking for
clarification (can you tell me more?); reorienting the discussion when it goes off the track (Saying - wait, how does this
relate to the issue? Using one participant's remarks to direct a question to another); bringing in reluctant participants
(Using person's name, requesting his/her opinion, making more frequent eye contact to encourage participation);
dealing with

Dominant participants (Avoiding eye contact or turning slightly away to discourage the person from
speaking, or thanking the person and changing the subject).
Avoid being placed the role of in expert - When the facilitator is asked for his/her opinion by a
respondent, remember that s/he is not there to educate of information. Direct the question back to the
group by saying 'What do you think?' 'What would you do?' Set aside time, if necessary, after the
session to give participants the information they have asked. Do not try to give comments on
everything that is being said. Do not feel you have to say something during every pause in the
discussion. Wait a little and see what happens.
Control the of the but unobtrusively - timing meeting Listen carefully and move the discussion
from topic to topic. Subtly control the time allocated to various topics so as to maintain interest. If the
participants spontaneously jump from one topic to the other, let the discussion continue for a while
because useful additional information may surface and then summarize the points brought up and
reorient the discussion.
ÿ Take time at the end of the meeting to summarize, check for agreement and thank the participants: Summarize the main
issues brought up, check whether all agree and ask for additional comments. Thank the participants and let them know
that their ideas had been valuable contribution and will be used for planning the proposed research/intervention/or
whatever the purpose of FGD was. Listen to the additional comments made after the meeting.
Sometime some valuable information surfaces, which otherwise may remain hidden.
Advantages and Disvantages of FGD
Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they -
• Are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs;
• Can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and how it influences them
beliefs and values;
• Can be used to explore complex issues;
• Can be used to develop hypothesis for further research;
• Do not require participants to be literate.
Disadvantages of focus groups include -
• Lack of privacy/anonymity;
• Having to carefully balance the group to ensure they are culturally and gender appropriate (ie
gender may be an issue);
• Potential for the risk of 'group think' (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs etc.);
• Potential for group to be dominated by one or two people;
• Group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups, dealing with conflict, drawing out
passive participants and creating a relaxed, welcoming environment; •
Are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time consuming to analyze.
9.4.4 PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL/ ASSESSMENT (PRA)

Participatory rural appraisal/ assessment (PRA) is a set of participatory and largely visual techniques for
assessing group and community resources, identifying and prioritizing problems and appraising strategies
for solving them. During the 1980s, PRA was first developed in India and Kenya, mainly supported by
NGOs operating at grass-roots level. Until today PRA evolved so fast in terms of the methodology, the
creation of new tools and specifically in the different ways it is applied. It is a research/planning
methodology in which a local community (with or without the assistance of outsiders) studies an issue that
concerns the population, prioritizes problems, evaluates options for

solving the problem(s) and comes up with a Community Action Plan to address the concerns that have been
raised. PRA is particularly concerned that the multiple perspectives that exist in any community are
represented in the analysis and that the community itself takes the lead in evaluating its situation and finding
solutions. Outsiders may participate as facilitators or in providing technical information but they should not
'take charge' of the process.
In PRA, a number of different tools are used to gather and analyze information. These tools encourage
participation, make it easier for people to express their views and help to organize information in a way that
makes it more useful and more accessible to the group that is trying to analyze a given situation. It is also
called 'Participatory Learning for Action (PLA)', is a methodological approach that is used to enable farmers
to analyze their own situation and to develop a common perspective on natural resource management and
agriculture at village level.
Key Tenets / Principles of PRA
ÿ Participation: Local people's input into PRA activities is essential to its value as a research and planning method and as a
means for diffusing the participatory approach to development.
ÿ Teamwork: To the extent that the validity of PRA data relies on informal interaction and
brainstorming among those involved, it is best done by a team that includes local people with perspective
and knowledge of the area's conditions, traditions, and social structure and either nationals or expatriates
with a complementary mix of disciplinary backgrounds and experience. A well-balanced team will
represent the diversity of socioeconomic, cultural, gender, and generational perspectives.
ÿ Flexibility: PRA does not provide blueprints for its practitioners. The combination of techniques that is appropriate in a particular
development context will be determined by such variables as the size and skill mix of the PRA team, the time and resources
available, and the topic and location of the work.
ÿ Optimal Ignorance: To be efficient in terms of both time and money, PRA work intends to gather just enough information to
make the necessary recommendations and decisions.
ÿ Triangulation: PRA works with qualitative data. To ensure that information is valid and reliable, PRA teams follow the rule of
thumb that at least three sources must be consulted or techniques must be used to investigate the same topics.
Organizing PRA
A typical PRA activity involves a team of people working for two to three weeks on workshop discussions,
analyses, and fieldwork. Several organizational aspects should be considered –
ÿ Logistical arrangements should consider nearby accommodations, arrangements for lunch for fieldwork
days, sufficient vehicles, portable computers, funds to purchase refreshments for community meetings
during the PRA, and supplies such as flip chart paper and markers.
ÿ Training of team members may be required, particularly if the PRA has the second objective of
training in addition to data collection.
ÿ PRA results are influenced by the length of time allowed to conduct the exercise, scheduling and
assignment of report writing, and critical analysis of all data, conclusions, and recommendations.
ÿ A PRA covering relatively few topics in a small area (perhaps two to four communities) should take
between ten days and four weeks, but a PRA with a wider scope over a larger area can take several
months. Allow five days for an introductory workshop if training is involved.
Reports are best written immediately after the fieldwork period, based on notes from PRA team members.
A preliminary report should be available within a week or so of the fieldwork, and the final report should be
made available to all participants and the local institutions that were involved.

PRA Tools
PRA is an exercise in communication and transfer of knowledge. Regardless of whether it is carried out as part of project
identification or appraisal or as part of country economic and sector work, the learning-by-doing and teamwork spirit of
PRA requires transparent procedures. For that reason, a series of open meetings (an initial open meeting, final meeting,
and follow-up meeting) generally frame the sequence of PRA activities. Common tools in PRA are –
Mapping: Making a community map is probably the best approach for you to get started, and for a community to get
started. Take a group on a walk through the community, and let them draw a map of the area. Let the map include
communal facilities, personal and family buildings, assets and liabilities. Do not draw the map for them. One method is
for individuals or small groups to each make a separate map, then, as a group exercise later, all the small groups of
individuals prepare a large map (eg using newsprint or flip chart paper) combining and synthesizing what is included on
all the maps. Valuable information above and above that shown on scientifically produced maps can be obtained from
maps drawn by local people. These maps show the perspective of the drawer and reveal much about local knowledge of
resources, land use and settlement patterns, or household characteristics. You can encourage community members to
draw their map on the ground, using sticks to draw lines. Drawing the map on the ground, like drawing a large map on
the wall, gives you and the participants a chance to easily make the drawing process a group process.
Models: If the community members add sticks and stones to a map scratched onto the ground, they are making a simple
model - a three dimensional map. Do not draw the map or construct the model for the participants; Encourage them to all
contribute. As you watch them, note if some facilities are made by others, if some are larger in proportion than others.
This will give you some insight into what issues may be more important than others to the participants. Make notes;
These will contribute to your sociological understanding of the community. Make a copy on paper of the map or model as
a permanent record. Maps and models can later lead to transect walks, in which greater detail is recorded
Creating a Community Inventory: The inventory, and especially the process of making it, is the most important and central
element of participatory appraisal. The process of making the community inventory is sometimes called semi structured
interviewing. If it were perfectly unstructured, then it would be a loose conversation that goes nowhere. A 'Brainstorm'
session, in contrast, is highly structured (The brainstorm has its uses, especially in the project design phase of community
empowering). Making the inventory is somewhere in between these two. You also allow the discussion to be a little bit
free, especially in allowing participants to analyze their contributions to making the inventory. You do not work with a set
of specific questions, but you might best prepare a check list of topics to cover and work from that so that you cover all
topics. When you prepare your check list, remember that you should include both assets and liabilities in the community.
Include available facilities, including how well they are working, or not working. Include potentials and opportunities as
well as threats and hindrances, both possible and current. Remember that this is an assessment. Aim for an inventory
that assesses the strengths and weaknesses of the community. Your job is not to create the inventory, but to guide the
community members to construct it as a group.
Focus Group Discussions: There may be a range of experiences and opinions among members of the community or
there may be sensitivity in divulging information to outsiders or to others within the community. This is where a focus
group discussion can be useful. It is best here if you do not work alone, but as a facilitation team of two or three facilitators,
one leading the discussion and another making a record. The discussion topics chosen should be fewer than for the
general community

inventory. First conduct separate sessions for the different interest groups, record their contributions carefully, and then
bring them together to share as groups their special concerns. It is important to be careful here. While you recognize
the different interest groups in the community, you do not want to increase the differences between the groups - to
widen the schism. You are not trying to make all the different groups the same as each other, but to increase the
tolerance, understanding and co-operation between them. Special focus groups gives you the opportunity to work
separately with different groups that you may find difficult at first to work together; but you must work towards bringing
them together.
Preference Ranking: When you are working with a community with different interest groups, you may wish to list
preference rankings of the different groups, and then look at them together with the groups together. Preference ranking
is a good ice-breaker at the beginning of a group interview, and helps focus the discussion.
Wealth Ranking: This is a particularly useful method of (1) discovering how the community members define poverty, (2)
to find who the really poor people are, and (3) to stratify samples of wealth. This is best done once you have built up
some rapport with the community members. A good method here is to make a card with the name of each of the
households in the community on it. Select some members of the community. Ask them to put these cards into groups
according to various measures of wealth and to give their rationale (reasons) for the groups. How they categorize
members of the community, and the reasons they give for making those categories and for putting different households
into each category, are very revealing about the socio-economic makeup of the community.
Seasonal and Historical Diagramming: Seasonal and historical variations and trends can be easy to miss during a short
visit to the field. You can attempt various diagramming techniques can help
Explore changes in - rainfall, labor demand, farming (fishing, hunting, herding) activities, wood supply for fuel, disease
incidence, migration for employment, food stocks and many other elements that change over time. The diagrams you
produce can be used as a basis for discussions for the reasons behind changes and implications for the people involved.
Institutional Mapping: Information about the social organization of the community and the nature of social groups is
difficult to get in a short visit. Complex relationships between rich and poor segments of the community, family ties and
feuds, and political groups cannot be untangled in a few weeks. Using participatory appraisal methods can be useful
here. One way to understand the less sensitive aspects of social interaction in a community is to ask key informants to
construct a 'Venn diagram'. This technique is simply a collection of circles, each of which represents a different group
or organization active in the community. The size of each circle reflects the relative importance of the group represented
- the smaller the circle, the less influential the group. The amount of overlap between two circles represents the amount
of collaboration or joint decision making between two groups.
Participatory Mapping: Create a wall or ground map with group participation. Members should do the marking, drawing
and coloring with a minimum of interference and instruction by outsiders. Using pencils, pens or local materials (eg
small rocks, different colored sands or powders, plant material) members should draw maps that depict/illustrate certain
things. Each group member is then asked 'to hold the stick' to explain the map or to criticize it or revise it. Create
resource maps showing the location of houses, resources, infrastructure and terrain features-useful for analyzing certain
community-level problems. Create social maps, showing who is related to whom and where they live.

Seasonal Calendars: These charts show monthly changes in climate (rainfall or temperature) or
agricultural activities (agricultural hours worked, different activities undertaken, crop cycles). The
calendars are useful in identifying planting and harvesting times, labor constraints and marketing
opportunities.
Matrices: These are grid formats used to illustrate links between different activities or factors.
They are useful in information gathering and analysis.
Important Techniques of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
Village Transect: A transect is constructed with the help of local inhabitants by walking through the village. The major objective of a transect is to
identify the types of land-use, opportunities and constraints to the agricultural or rural development. The application of a transect is to identify
and explain the cause and effect relationships between topography, soils, natural vegetation, cultivation and other production activities and
human settlement patterns.
Procedure - Draw an outline map of the village. Ask villagers to select one or more routes which cover the main variations in topography. Ask
two or more people to accompany you to the edge of the village. Stop when you arrive at the edge of a new topography zone; record the
characteristics and distance covered by the last zone. When the transect is completed prepare a chart summarizing the major features
encountered. When more than one transects have been completed, prepare a combined chart, compare results and generate questions and
hypothesis for the latter enquires.
Social and Physical Maps: The social and resource map is used to show the relative location of different households, resource points, roads,
canals, crop fields, residential areas, markets, educational institutions, co-operative societies, etc.
The villagers are asked to draw a social map of the village usually on the ground using a pointed stick. A social map drawn by villagers should
encourage maximum participation and interaction of the villagers.
Procedure - Select a suitable space. Mark paths and other landmarks from the residential part of the village on the ground.
Sub-divide the village into para or other units to enable the available information to provide accurate information. Ask the informant to identify the
position of each household, and write the name on a strip of paper, which can then be placed on the map. Use appropriate symbols and materials
to build on any further information, which may be required about assets, group membership, etc. Start recording on a separate sheet of paper as
soon as the locations of the households have been identified.
Seasonality Exercise: To identify the times of year at which people suffer from particular hardship like unemployment, diseases, rainfall, draft and some other
allied aspects of the rural life. To take appropriate safety nets or other remedial action.
Procedure - Consider all the months in a year either in Bangla or in English year. Lay out the matrix on the ground considering months along one
axis and the elements of a particular phenomenon along the other axis. To get information with degree of differentiation by the villagers use
sticks, seeds and other locally available materials. Count the number of seeds or sticks by row and column. Consider this number as score of
the respective item. Assign rank according to score.
Chapati or Venn Diagrams: To identify the institutions in a community. To show how the various external institutions involved in the delivery of
services. To show how they relate to each other.
Procedure - Cut a large circle of paper to represent the major institutions with which you are concerned (Village or Para).
Cut or draw oval shapes to represent outside institutions with linkages in the village and place these overlapping with the outer edges of the
circle (size can be used to indicate relative importance). Cut or draw further circles of appropriate sizes to represent institutions wholly contained
within the village. Relate these to each other through overlaps where these exist,
through incorporation where one institution lies entirely within another and through separate location where there is no overlap. Check that the
basic diagram is correct before reproducing a clean version on another sheet of paper.
Wealth Ranking: Means of dividing households into different economic categories. This can be used to identify target group members before an activity is launched or to
determine the extent to which targeting has proven successful after the event.
Procedure - List each household name on a card together with other information. Identify the criteria which they use in distinguishing between
the better and less well off households. Keeping the criteria in mind ask the participants to place the cards in a small number of piles. The
category of each household to be recorded at the bottom of the card.
Finally, count the number of households in each pile and record accordingly.
Preference Ranking: Ranking means placing something in sequential order. Preference ranking is a tool that helps us prioritizing the problems.
Procedure- Organize one focus group representing relevant stakeholders. Make a list of all the problems to be prioritized.
Identify criteria on which problems are to be prioritized. Criteria can be identified through comparing the problems by a wise pair. Define all of the
criteria positively. For example 'tastes good', 'not tasted bad', or 'easy to cook', 'not hard to cook', then select a suitable symbol for each one.
Decide whether you will ask the informant to rank items on a simple yes/no

basis, or whether you want to assign scores (say from one to three). Lay out the matrix on the ground with the problems along
one axis and the criteria along the other. Ask the informant to rank or score each item against each criterion, using seeds or
available material. This can be done on a scale of 1-3 or by allocating a fixed number of seeds for each criterion.
When the exercise is completed verify the results with the participants. Put the most favored items at the top; the least favored
at the bottom, the most powerful criteria on the left, and the weakest on the right.
Sequence of Techniques
PRA techniques can be combined in a number of different ways, depending on the topic under investigation. Some
general rules of thumb, however, are useful. Mapping and modeling are good techniques to start with because they
involve several people, stimulate much discussion and enthusiasm, provide the PRA team with an overview of the
area, and deal with noncontroversial information. Maps and models may lead to transit walks, perhaps accompanied
by some of the people who have constructed the map. Wealth ranking is best done later in a PRA, once a degree of
rapport has been established, given the relative sensitivity of this information. Preference ranking is a good icebreaker
at the beginning of a group interview and helps focus the discussion. Later, individual interviews can follow up on the
different preferences among the group members and the reasons for these differences.
Seven major techniques used in PRA

1. Secondary data reviews - books, files, reports, news, articles, maps, etc.
2. Observation - direct and participant observation, wandering, DIY (do-it-yourself) activities.
3. Semi-structured interviews - this is an informal, guided interview session, where only some of the questions are
pre-determined and new questions arise during the interview, in response to answers from those interviewed.
4. Analytical game - this is a quick game to find out a group's list of priorities, performances,
ranking, scoring, or stratification.
5. Stories and portraits - colorful description of the local situation, local history, trend analysis,
etc.
6. Diagrams - maps, aerial photos, transects, seasonal calendars, Venn diagram, flow diagram, historical profiles,
ethno-history, timelines, etc.
7. Workshop - local and outsiders are brought together to discuss the information and ideas
intensively
Modified PRA Tools: Resource Map; Social Map; Wealth Ranking Objectives; Local Perceptions of Malnutrition Mapping
Objectives; Venn Diagram on Institutions; Resource Cards; Seasonal Calendar; Income and Expenditure Matrix; Daily Activity
Clocks; Focus Group Discussion; Semi Structured Interview; Community Workshop; Daily Evaluation and Planning Meeting.
Resource Map: It is a tool that helps us to learn about a community and its resource base. The primary concern is not to develop
an accurate map but to get useful information about local perceptions of resources. The participants should develop the content
of the map according to what is important to them. The objective is to learn the villagers' perceptions of what natural resources
are found in the community and how they are used.
Social Map: It is a map that is drawn by the residents and which shows the social structures and institutions found in an area. It also helps us to learn about
social and economic differences between the households. The objectives are – to learn about the social structures and the differences among the households
by ethnicity, religion and wealth; to learn about who is living where; to learn about the social institutions and the different views local people might have regarding
those institutions.
Wealth Ranking Objectives: To investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in a community; to identify and
understand local indicators and criteria of wealth and well-being; to map the relative position of households in a community.
Ranking and mapping methods are used. Carry out the exercise with a few key informants who know the community well.
Local Perceptions of Malnutrition Mapping Objectives: To identify various forms of malnutrition prevalent in the community; to
understand the local perceptions of malnutrition; to map nutritionally vulnerable households. Ranking, mapping and matrix

methods are used. Carry out the interview with one or more key informants (Community Health Worker; Traditional Birth Attendant; Home
Agent; Traditional Healer; Teacher etc.).
Venn Diagram on Institutions: It shows institutions, organizations, groups and important individuals found in the village (Kushet), as well as the
villagers view of their importance in the community. Additionally the Diagram explains who participates in these groups in terms of gender and
wealth. The Institutional Relationship Diagram also indicates how close the contact and cooperation between those organizations and groups
is. The objectives are – to identify external and internal organizations/groups/important persons active in the community; to identify who
participates in local organizations/institutions by gender and wealth; to find out how the different organizations and groups relate to each other
in terms of contact, co-operation, flow of information and provision of services.
Resource Cards: Resource picture cards are useful for facilitating a discussion about who uses and controls resources in a fun and non-
threatening way. They show very clearly the resource base of both men and women. This can lead to discussions about the differences between
men's and women's priorities and their need for resources. The objective is to learn about the differences between men and women in use and
control over resources.
Seasonal Calendar: A seasonal calendar is a participatory tool to explore seasonal changes (eg gender-specific workload, diseases, income,
expenditure etc.). The objective is to learn about changes in livelihoods over the year and to show the seasonality of agricultural and non-
agricultural workload, food availability, human diseases, gender-specific income and expenditure, water, forage, credit and holidays.
Income and Expenditure Matrix: It is a tool that helps us to identify and quantify the relative importance of different sources of income and
expenditures. The tool also helps us to understand how secure or how vulnerable certain groups of people's incomes are. In the Expenditures
matrix, we can see if all, most or only some of people's total income is spent to meet basic needs - food, water, clothing, shelter, health care,
education. We can also ask whether people have any money left over to save or to invest in tools, fertilizer, or other important items that could
help them in their work. The objective is to learn about sources of income (cash and kind) and how income is proportionally spent by gender
and wealth.
Daily Activity Clocks: Daily activity clocks illustrate all of the different kinds of activities carried out in one day. They are particularly useful for looking
at relative work-loads between different groups in the community. Comparisons between clocks show who works the hours, who concentrates on a
few longest activities and who does a number of tasks in a day, and who has the most leisure time and sleep. The objective is to learn what different
people do during one day and how heavy their workloads are.
Focus Group Discussion: Semi-structured group interview, ranking and matrix methods are used. The objectives are –
understand local perceptions of nutrition and household food security; Identify and understand constraints in the household and community to
achieve nutrition and household food security; Identify and understand mechanisms in the household and the community to cope with nutrition
and household food insecurity; Identify what community, household and individual resources are required to obtain nutrition and household food
security.
Semi-structured Interview: Semi-structured group interview, ranking and observation methods are used. The objectives are – understand why
members of a household (that was mapped as being affected by malnutrition) have nutrition-related health problems and why other households
are not affected; Identify constraints and opportunities in the household and community for household members to achieve nutrition security.
Community Workshop: 'Group Discussion' and 'Presentation' are used as methods. The objectives are – to present the main findings and
conclusions of the appraisal to the community at large; to provide an opportunity to the community for discussion of the main findings of the
appraisal; to reach a consensus on the way forward and the roles and responsibilities of the community, the community support staff and the
project. Organize a meeting with the community at large, ensuring that men and women are equally represented, as well as people from different
socio-economic groups and ages.
Daily Evaluation and Planning Meeting: Every afternoon the PRA team comes together to reflect the process of the day, to present the results
gathered, to evaluate the results and to plan for the next day. The objectives are – to present the results of the day; to summarize and structure
the results according to the key questions and according to related 'Strength and Weaknesses' inside the community and according to
'Opportunities and Threats' identified outside the community; to compare the results of the different groups and to identify differences and
correspondences; to enable the PRA team to elaborate new relevant key questions and a program for the next day.

Using of PRA
PRA supports the direct participation of communities, with rural people themselves becoming the main investigators
and analysts. Rural people set the priorities; determine needs; select and train community workers; collect, document,
and analyze data; and plan and implement solutions based on their findings. Actions stemming from this research tend
to serve the local community. Outsiders are there to facilitate the process but do not direct it. PRA uses group animation
and exercises to facilitate information sharing, analysis, and action among stakeholders. PRA is an exercise in
communication and transfer of knowledge. Regardless of whether it is carried out as part of project identification or
appraisal or as part of country economic and sector work, the learning-by-doing and teamwork spirit of PRA requires
transparent procedures. For that reason, a series of open meetings (an initial open meeting, final meeting, and follow-
up meeting) generally frame the sequence of PRA activities. A typical PRA activity involves a team of people working
for two to three weeks on workshop discussions, analyses, and fieldwork.
Scope of PRA
PRA is used –
ÿ To ascertain needs;
ÿ To establish priorities for development activities;
ÿ Within the scope of feasibility studies;
ÿ During the implementation phase of projects;
ÿ Within the scope of monitoring and evaluation of projects;
ÿ For studies of specific topics;
ÿ For focusing formal surveys on essential aspects, and identifying conflicting group interests.
Areas of Application
ÿ Natural resource management
ÿ Agriculture
ÿ Poverty alleviation/women in development programmes
ÿ Health and nutrition
ÿ Preliminary and primary education
ÿ Village and district-level planning
ÿ Institutional and policy analysis.
Advantages of PRA
ÿ Identification of genuine priorities for target group. PRA allows local people to present their
own priorities for development and get them incorporated into development plans.
ÿ Developmentof management responsibilities. An important goal of PRA is to encourage self-reliant
development with as much of the responsibility for the management and implementation of development activities
devolved to local people themselves. This can greatly improve the efficiency of development work and eliminate
many of the problems regarding proprietorship of development activities at the community level.
ÿ Motivation and mobility of local development workers. Participation in PRA by local

development workers, whether from NGOs, government or other agencies can greatly increase the motivation and
level of mobility in support of the project or program of which it is part.
Where changes in development approaches are being introduced, such as a shift to a more integrated development
planning mechanism, a PRA-type activity which illustrates how these new mechanisms will work on the ground
can help to ensure better understanding and commitment by

local workers. This is one reason why involvement of people from different administrative and organizational levels
can be so vital that commitment is built up right through the chain.
ÿ Forming better linkages between community development institutions. and PRA can assist in
forming better links between communities and the agencies and institutions concerned with rural development. A PRA
which encourages a better understanding of the environmental issues at stake in local communities and develops
activities which enable them to benefit from better management could also lead to better monitoring of mangrove
exploitation by the communities themselves. PRAs involve intensive interaction between communities and outsiders
which can have lasting effects in breaking down the barriers of reticence and suspicion which often characterize these
relationships.
ÿ Use of local resources. Where local people have had more say in the design of projects they are also more
likely to design activities which make full use of existing resources.
ÿ Mobilization of community resources. Greater commitment from the community can also mean greater
mobility of community resources for development and less reliance on outside inputs.
This can take the form of labor inputs, savings or time devoted to management functions.
ÿ More sustainable development activities. This combination of effects will generally lead to more sustainable
development activities which are less reliant on support from outside agencies and is technically, environmentally
and socially appropriate to local conditions.
These benefits from participation can only be realized where the full implications of participation for the development
agencies which are encouraging it have been taken into account and accommodated and the institutions involved are
willing to support the sort of long-term changes in social, political and institutional Frameworks which proper participation,
and PRA, can set in motion.
Where this is not the case, many of the following disadvantages can come into play.
Weaknesses of PRA
• The term PRA itself can cause difficulties. PRA need not be rural, and sometimes is not even
participatory, and is frequently used as a trendy label for standard RRA techniques.
• Raising expectations which cannot be realized. One of the most immediate and frequently encountered
risks in PRA is that it raises a complex set of expectations in communities which cannot frequently be realized given
the institutional or political context of the area. This can be due to the political situation, the local power and social
structure or simply too bureaucratic inertia in institutions which are supposed to be supporting development. In some
cases the intended aim of the PRA may be to deliberately set expectations 'at the grassroots' so as to put pressure
on the institutional and political structures above to change. However, not all development agencies are in a position
to support such activities and there is a risk that agencies
which are not properly equipped to respond to PRA-type planning may use the approach inappropriately.
• Hijacking. If PRA becomes part of the global development agenda, there are risks of hijacking -
When this occurs, the PRA agenda is externally driven, and used to create legitimacy for projects, agencies and
NGOs.
• Disappointment. Local expectations can easily be raised. If nothing tangible emerges, local communities may
come to see the process as a transient external development. Lack of feedback to the community adds to the sense
of disappointment.
• Failure take account of stratification in communities. to The fact that PRA is often carried out with the
community as a whole can mean that stratification within the community, whether by wealth, social status, gender or
ethnic group, can often be obscured and ignored.

• Threats. The empowerment implications of PRA, and the power of its social analysis, can create
threats to local vested interests, although less so than with PAR (Participatory Action Research).
9.4.5 RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL/ ASSESSMENT (RRA)

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) emerged in the late 1970s in response to some of the problems with
large-scale, structured questionnaire surveys. It provided an alternative technique for outsiders –
Scientists often carry out research into agriculture – to quickly learn from local people about their
realities and challenges. RRA practitioners worked in multi-disciplinary teams and pioneered the use
of a suite of visual methods and semi-structured interviews to learn from respondents. While it was
largely about data collection, usually analyzed by outsiders, RRA contained the seeds from which
other primary methods grew in the 1980s. Reflections on RRA led to the development of Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA), which focused more strongly on facilitation, empowerment, behavior change,
local knowledge and sustainable action. It was developed in response to the disadvantages of more
traditional research methods, including - the time taken to produce results, the high cost of formal
surveys and the low levels of data reliability due to non-sampling errors.
RRA is a bridge between formal surveys and unstructured research methods such as depth
interviews, focus groups and observation studies. In developing countries, it is sometimes difficult to
apply the standard marketing research techniques employed elsewhere. There is often a paucity of
baseline data, poor facilities for marketing research (eg no sampling frames, relatively low literacy
among many populations of interest and few trained enumerators) as well as the lack of appreciation
of the need for marketing research. The nature of RRA is such that it holds the promise of overcoming
these and other limitations of marketing research.
Unfortunately, there is no generally accepted definition of RRA. RRA is more commonly described
as a systematic but semi-structured activity out in the field by a multidisciplinary team and is designed
to obtain new information and to formulate new hypotheses about rural life. A central characteristic
of RRA is that its research teams are multidisciplinary. Beyond that, the distinction between RRA
and other research methodologies depends upon its multidisciplinary approach and the particular
combination of tools that it employs. A core concept of RRA is that research should be carried out
not by individuals, but by a team comprised of individuals drawn from a variety of appropriate
disciplines. Such teams are intended to be comprised of some members with relevant technical
backgrounds and others with social science skills, including marketing research skills. In this way, it
is thought that the varying perspectives of RRA research team members will provide a more balanced
picture. The techniques of RRA include – interview and question design techniques for individual,
household and key informant interviews; methods of cross-checking information from different
sources; sampling techniques that can be adapted to a particular objective; Methods of obtaining
quantitative data in a short time frame; group interview techniques, including focus-group interviewing;
Methods of direct observation at site level, and use of secondary data sources. RRA is an approach
for conducting action-oriented research in developing countries.

Many 'definitions' of RRA have been offered by different people who have worked on it, but there are always others who
object to those definitions because they are not what they think RRA is or should be. The fact that it is difficult to give a
precise definition to RRA is a reflection of the fact that it is very flexible - it is a tool which can be used in a lot of different
situations to achieve very different objectives. Not surprisingly everyone seems to think RRA is what they have used it for.
So it is probably best to avoid 'definitions' and just describe the features which most RRAs seem to have in common. RRA
essentially consists of the following –
• an activity carried out by a group of people from different professional fields or disciplines which usually aims to learn about a
particular topic, area, situation, group of people or whatever else is of concern to those organizing the RRA
•
it usually involves collecting information by talking directly to people 'on the ground'
•
it uses a set of guidelines on how to approach the collection of information, learning from that information and the
involvement of local people in its interpretation and presentation
•
it uses a set of tools - these consist of exercises and techniques for collecting information, means of organizing that
information so that it is easily understood by a wide range of people, techniques for stimulating interaction with
community members and methods for quickly analyzing and reporting findings and suggests appropriate action.
These features are just about the 'bottom line' with RRA but everything else is fairly flexible within the guidelines described
below.
RRA Guidelines
ÿ Structured flexible: but RRA is a structured activity requiring careful planning, clear objectives, the right
balance of people involved and a good choice of tools and techniques for use in the field. At the same time, it is
flexible enough to respond to local conditions and unexpected circumstances. Progress is reviewed constantly so that
new information can be understood and the focus of the RRA redirected.
ÿ Integrated and interdisciplinary: RRA helps 'outsiders' to learn about rural conditions by looking at them from
many points of view. This means having people participating with a variety of different technical and scientific skills
and a balance of different institutional outlooks. This requires an integrated development approach which cuts across
institutional and disciplinary boundaries.
ÿ Awareness of bias: Researchers and development workers who are trying to understand rural conditions can be
biased by their urban attitudes, their own professional and personal priorities, the type of transport they use, the
language they speak. The people researchers talk to can be biased as well by their limited experience, their customs
and beliefs and their own interests and those of their families. RRA seeks to avoid biases by being aware of them
and by being systematic in taking into account different points of view and different sets of interests.
ÿ Accelerating the planning process: RRA tries to shorten the time it takes to get from knowing nothing about
an area or a situation to decide what development interventions might be best for that area by using key informants,
careful observation and by exploiting the knowledge and experience of local people. The information produced is
analyzed 'on the spot' and presented in a form which is more easily used by planners and which can be discussed
and understood by local people themselves.
ÿ Interaction with and learning from local people: Whatever the purpose of the RRA it must involve the
people who are the intended 'beneficiaries' of any eventual development activities.
RRA should give them the opportunity to describe their lives and conditions. The people carrying

out an RRA must be prepared to listen to local people and learn from them. Participation by local people can take
many forms but any RRA will involve intense interaction between researchers, planners, traditional and formal
authorities and local people.
ÿ Combination of different tools: The RRA approach uses a combination of communication and learning
tools. These tools help outsiders to observe conditions in a concise but systematic way.
They also allow local people to present their knowledge, concerns and priorities to outsiders. The combination of
different tools and techniques builds up a more complete picture where different viewpoints can be compared and
contrasted. The systematic cross-checking of information collected in different ways by different people from different
sources can increase accuracy and comprehensiveness.
ÿ Iterative: During an RRA, what has been learned is constantly reviewed and analyzed in the field.
This is usually done in workshops carried out at regular intervals. This means the focus of the RRA, the tools used
and the people talked to can be adjusted constantly.
Obviously, these guidelines leave plenty of room for the people using RRA to decide exactly what they want to do with it.
For example, if the most important thing for the people organizing the RRA is to collect information quickly, they might
want to structure the activity more carefully so that things move faster. If one of the principal concerns is to get local
people involved as much as possible, the structure of the RRA would probably have to be looser and more time allowed
for getting to know the people and putting them at ease.
RRA Teams
The composition of the team which carries out an RRA is extremely important in determining the outcome of an RRA.
Obviously, the composition of an RRA team depends very much on the objectives of the RRA and the particular concerns
which it is addressing.
ÿ Gender Considerations: Gender bias is particularly important for RRA teams. For male researchers, women in
many rural communities are difficult to contact and talk to and may remain almost invisible to anyone visiting the
community for a short time. However all aspects of rural conditions studied by an RRA team will have gender
dimensions which need to be taken into consideration.
ÿ Multidisciplinary: The composition of teams carrying out RRAs should be dictated by a careful consideration of
the objectives of the appraisal, the issues which are thought to be of importance in the area and the need to have a
balanced set of disciplinary, institutional and gender viewpoints represented on the team. As a minimum requirement,
there should be a balance between specialists in the biological and physical sciences and specialists in the social
sciences. However, the need for different formal backgrounds should not be overemphasized.
The important point is to have people who can contribute different ways of looking at rural conditions - so, when
organizing an RRA, it might be possible for people to 'cover' different disciplines at the same time if they have the
relevant experience.
ÿ Levels of Expertise: One of the risks of RRA is that it tends to rely on the knowledge, experience and
'sensitivity' of team members to come to conclusions about rural conditions.
These conclusions cannot then be tested or checked against 'hard data'. This means that a great deal depends on
the skills of team members. As a result, it has always been regarded as important to have experienced and skilled
people on RRA teams. Obviously this is preferable, but RRA does not depend only on the skills and experience of its
team members to overcome the risks of coming to faulty conclusions due to lack of hard data. It is the combination of
different viewpoints and the systematic use of cross-checking during an RRA that counts perhaps more

than individual skills. The presence on the team of 'authoritative' experts, with a wide range and depth
of experience in their fields, can be an advantage as they bring new knowledge and experience to bear
on local problems. However, such 'experts' also have to be willing to listen and learn from the activity.
Frequently, those who are most qualified are also most likely to impose their own biases and
interpretations on the work of the team. Experts who are not willing to learn something new during an
appraisal can create more problems than they solve. In such circumstances it can be better to have a
less experienced specialist who is willing to learn something new than a highly experienced expert who
is sure that s/he knows everything already.
ÿ RRA Experience: At least one member of the team should have experience in carrying out RRAs.
This person can act as trainer in RRA techniques and as facilitator, guiding the rest of the team through
the process of carrying out the RRA and making sure that the activity keeps on track.
ÿ Mix of Institutions: The involvement of people from the institutions and agencies which will
implement RRA recommendations is important. It can ensure that the subsequent involvement of
different agencies is based on the same understanding of the local situation and a similar interpretation
of local needs and priorities. Where many agencies are involved a few key personnel have to be
selected either because of their skills or because they are likely to play a leading role in the future.
Team members from different agencies can also contribute a range of perspectives to the RRA and
improve the depth of understanding achieved. RRAs can provide an opportunity for people from
different levels of the hierarchy of development agencies and institutions to work together. Involvement
of such a range of people in an RRA can lead to a better understanding both of the conditions of 'target'
communities and of the different priorities and problems of workers at different administrative and
organizational levels ie regional planners and village extension workers.
ÿ Language Ability: As many of the team as possible should be able to communicate directly with
local people in their normal language. Use of translators and interpreters is clumsy and risky.
Advantages of RRA
ÿ The approach is responsive and flexible to new learning and conditions on the ground.
ÿ Achieve a complex understanding of processes, dynamics and connections between different disciplines, activities and sets
of conditions.
ÿ The analysis and interpretation of findings is carried out during the appraisal provision
opportunities for cross-checking.
Weaknesses of RRA
• The findings will not be statistically 'sound', even if RRA teams can use 'quick and dirty' sampling methods to make sure that
they cover a reasonable number of people or households in a particular area.
• Risk that the information collected by an RRA is not very 'representative' but is a collection of 'particular cases' which do not
tell researchers very much about general conditions.
• RRA is very dependent on the skills of the people carrying it out and having the right
Combination of experience and viewpoints on the team.

Some Principles that are shared by PRA and RRA

ÿ Offsetting biases through different perspectives, methods and tools, sources of information, people from different
background and places, background of team members - spatial, person, gender, age groups, interest groups, key
informants, wealth groups, seasonal, professionals, disciplines .
ÿ Rapid and progressive learning - flexible, interactive.

ÿ Be gender sensitive at all times.
ÿ Reversal of roles - learning from, with and by local people, eliciting and using their symbols, criteria, categories and
indicators; and finding, understanding and appreciating local people's knowledge.
ÿ Focused learning - not finding out more that is needed and not measuring when comparison is enough. We are often
trained to make absolute measurements and to give exact numbers, but often relative proportions, trends, scores
or rankings are all that is needed for decision making and planning of activities.
ÿ Seeking for diversity and differences - people often have different perceptions of the same
situation
ÿ Attitude - in order to make the PRA or RRA workshops a success, it is most important to build a positive relationship
with local women and men. Outsiders must have an attitude of respect, humility and patience, and a willingness
to learn from the local people.
Potential Differences between RRA and PRS
RRA PRA
Responding to needs of development Responding to needs of communities and target groups
workers and agencies
More emphasis on efficient use of time More emphasis on flexibility to adapt to time frame of community
& achievement of objectives
Communication and learning tools used to Communication and learning tools used to help local people analyze
help outsiders analyze conditions and their own conditions and communicate with outsiders
understand local people
Focus of RRA decided by outsiders Focus of PRA decided by communities
End product mainly used by End product mainly used by community
development agencies and outsiders
Enables development agencies and Enables (empowers) communities to make demands on
institutions to be more 'participatory' development agencies and institutions
Can be used purely for 'research' Closely linked to action or intervention and requiring
purposes without necessarily linking to immediate availability of support for decisions and
subsequent action or intervention conclusions reached by communities as a result of the PRA

9.4.6 OBSERVATIONAL METHOD

Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us. As human beings, we are very well
equipped to pick up detailed information about our environment through our senses.
However, as a method of data collection for research purposes, observation is more than just looking or listening.
Research, simply defined, is 'systematic enquiry made public' (Stenhouse, 1975).
Firstly, in order to become systematic, observation must in some way be selective. We are constantly bombarded
by huge amounts of sensory information. Human beings are good at selectively attending to what is perceived as
most useful to us. Observation harnesses this ability; Systematic observation entails careful planning of what we
want to observe. Secondly, in order to make observation 'public', what we see or hear has to be recorded in some
way to allow the information to be analyzed and interpreted. Observation is a systematic data collection approach.
Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in natural settings or naturally occurring situations.
Observation of a field setting involves -

• prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation;
• clearly expressed, self-conscious notations of how observing is done;
• methodical and tactical improvisation in order to develop a full understanding of the setting of
interest;
• imparting attention in ways that is in some sense 'standardized';
• recording one's observations.
Use of Observational Method
There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of these reasons include -
• When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on answering a how- or what-type question.
• When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the behavior of people in a
particular setting
• When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable.
• When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting.
• When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be different from actual behavior (what people
actually do). One example of this seen in the difference between self-reported versus observed preventive
service delivery in health care settings.
• When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be used in conjunction with other quantitative
data collection techniques. Observational data can help researchers evaluate the fidelity of an intervention across
settings and identify when 'stasis' has been achieved.
Classification of Observational Method

Observational methods can be classified as follows –
Casual and Scientific Observation: An observation can sometimes be casual in nature or sometimes it may act
scientifically. An observation with a casual approach involves observing the right thing at the right place and also at
the right time by a matter of chance or by luck whereas a scientific observation involves the use of the tools of the
measurement, but a very important point to be kept in mind here is that all the observations are not scientific in
nature.
Natural Observation: Natural observation involves observing the behavior in a normal setting and in this type of
observation, no efforts are made to bring any type of change in the behavior of the observed. Improvement in the
collection of the information and improvement in the environment of making an observation can be done with the
help of natural observations.

Subjective and Objective Observation: All the observations consist of the two main components, the subject and the
object. The subject refers to the observer whereas the object refers to the activity or any type of operation that is being
observed. Subjective observation involves the observation of the one's own immediate experience whereas the
observations involving observer as an entity apart from the thing being observed, are referred to as the objective
observation.
Objective observation is also called as the retrospection.
Direct and Indirect Observation: With the help of the direct method of observation, one comes to know how the observer
is physically present in which type of situation he is present and then this type of observation monitors what takes place.
Indirect method of observation involves studies of mechanical recording or the recording by some of the other means
such as photographic or electronic.
Direct observation is relatively more straight forward as compared to the indirect observation.
Participant and Non-Participant Observation: Participation by the observers with the various types of operations of the
group under study refers to the participant type of observation. In participant observation, the degree of the participation
is largely affected by the nature of the study and it also depends on the type of the situation and also on its demands. But
in the non-participant type of observation, no participation of the observer in the activities of the group takes place and
also there occurs no relationship between the researcher and the group.
Undisguised Participant observation is often used to understand the culture and behavior of groups of individuals.
Participant observation
Disguised
is often used when researchers believe individuals would change their behavior if they knew it
was being recorded. Participant observation allows researchers to observe behaviors and situations that are not usually
open to scientific observation.
Participant observers may sometimes lose their objectivity or may unduly influence the individuals whose behavior they
are recording.
Structured and Unstructured Observation: Structured observation works according to a plan and involves specific
information of the units that are to be observed and also about the information that is to be recorded. The operations that
are to be observed and the various features that are to be noted or recorded are decided well in advance. Such
observations involve the use of especial instruments for the purpose of data collection that are also structured in nature.
But in the case of the unstructured observation, its basics are diametrically against the structured observation. In such
observation, the observer has the freedom to note down what s/he feels is correct and relevant to the point of study and
also this approach of observation is very suitable in the case of exploratory research.
Structured observations are set up to record behaviors that may be difficult to observe using naturalistic observation.
Clinical and developmental psychologists often use structured observations.
Problems in interpreting structured observations can occur when the same observation procedures are not followed
across observations or observers, or when important variables are not controlled.
Structured observation is more likely to be carried out by those operating from a 'positivist' perspective, or who at least
believe it is possible to clearly define and quantify behaviors.
Unstructured observation is more likely to be carried out by those operating from an 'interpretive'
or 'critical' perspective where the focus is on understanding the meanings participants, in the contexts observed, attribute
to events and actions. Positivist and critical researchers are likely to be operating from a 'realist' perspective, namely that
there is a 'real world' with 'real impact' on people's lives and this can best be studied by looking at social settings directly.
Controlled and Un-controlled Observation: Controlled observations are the observations made under the influence of
some of the external forces and such observations rarely lead to improvement in

the precision of the research results. But these observations can be very effective in the work if these are made to
work in the coordination with mechanical synchronizing devices, film recording etc. Un-controlled observations are
made in the natural environment and reverse to the controlled observation. These observations involve no influence
or guidance of any type of external force.
Covert and Overt Observation: Covert observations are when the researcher pretends to be an ordinary member of
the group and observes in secret. There could be ethical problems or deception and consent with this particular
method of observation. Overt observations are when the researcher tells the group s/he is conducting research (ie
they know they are being observed).
Type of Obser-Advantages vational Method Disadvantages
Naturalistic • Particularly good for observing specific subjects. • Ethics: Where research is undisclosed consent
Observation will not be obtained, where consent is not
• Provides ecologically valid recordings of natural behavior. • obtained - details may be used which infringe
confidentiality.
Spontaneous behaviors are more likely to happen.
Structured • Allows control of extraneous variables. • The implementation of controls may have an
Observation • Reliability of results can be tested by repeating the effect on behavior.
study. • Lack of ecological validity.
• Provides a safe environment to study contentious concepts • Observer effect.
such as infant attachment. • Observer bias.
Unstructured • Gives a broad overview of a situation. • Only really appropriate as a 'first step' to give an
Observation • Useful where situation/subject matter to be studied is clear. overview of a situation / concept / idea.
Participant • Gives an 'insiders' view. • Observer effect.

Observation • Behaviors are less prone to misinterpretation because • Possible lack of objectivity on the part of the
the researcher was a participant. observer.
• Opportunity for researcher to become an 'accepted' part of
the environment.
Non-Participant • Avoidance of observer effect • Observer is detached from situation so relies on
Observation their perception which may be inaccurate
Recording behavior in observational method

The goals of observational research determine whether researchers seek a comprehensive description of behavior
record or a description of only selected behaviors. How the results of a study are ultimately summarized, analyzed,
and reported depends on how behavioral observations are initially recorded.
Fieldnotes: Participant observers may use multiple methods to gather data. One primary approach involves writing
fieldnotes. There are several guides for learning how to prepare fieldnotes -
• Researchers may be interested in creating or using a template to guide a researchers'
observations
• Templates or observational coding sheets can be useful when data is collected by inexperienced
observers
• Templates or observational coding sheets should only be developed after observation in the field that is not inhibited by such a template.
• Theories and concepts can be driven by templates and results in focused data collection.
• Templates can deflect attention from unnamed categories, unimagined and unanticipated activities that can be very important to understanding
a phenomenon and a setting.

Qualitative Records of Behavior: Observation can provide rich qualitative data, sometimes described
as 'thick description' (Geertz, 1973), for example, where the relevant phenomena have been carefully
observed and detailed field notes have been recorded. Typically, the researcher would not approach
the observation with pre-determined categories or questions in mind. Because of this openness,
observation in qualitative research is often referred to as unstructured.
Quantitative Measures of Behavior: Researchers often obtain quantitative measures such as
frequency or duration of occurrence when they seek to describe specific behaviors or events.
Quantitative measures of behavior use one of the four levels of measurement scales: nominal,
ordinal, interval, and ratio. The term 'systematic' observation is usually associated with observation
undertaken from the perspective of quantitative research where the purpose is to provide reliable,
quantifiable data. This usually involves the use of some kind of formal, structured observation
instrument or schedule. The observation method being used will clearly identify - the variables to be
observed, perhaps by means of some kind of behavioral checklist; who or what will be observed; how
the observation is to be conducted; and when and where the observations will take place.
Analysis of Observational Data
Data Reduction: Observational data are summarized through the process of data reduction.
Researchers quantify the data in narrative records by coding behaviors according to specified criteria,
for example, by categorizing behaviors. Data are summarized using descriptive measures such as
counts frequency, means, and standard deviations.
Observer Reliability: Inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which independent observers agree in their
observations. Inter-observer reliability is increased by providing clear definitions about behaviors and events to be
recorded, by training observers, and by providing feedback about discrepancies. High inter-observer reliability increases
researchers' confidence that observations about behavior are accurate (valid). Inter-observer reliability is assessed by
calculating percentage of agreement or correlations, depending on how the behaviors were measured and recorded.
Influence of the Observer: If individuals change their behavior when they know they are being
observed (reactivity), their behavior may no longer be representative of their normal behavior.
Research participants may respond to demand characteristics in the research situation to guide their
behavior. Methods to control reactivity include unobtrusive (non-reactive) measurement, adaptation
(habituation, desensitization), and indirect observations of behavior. Researchers must consider
ethical issues when attempting to control reactivity.
Observer Bias: Observer bias occurs when observers' biases determine which behaviors they choose
to observe and when observers' expectations about behavior lead to systematic errors in identifying
and recording behavior. Expectancy effects can occur when observers are aware of hypotheses for
the outcome of the study or the outcome of previous studies. The first step in controlling observer
bias is to recognize that it may be present. Observer bias may be reduced by keeping observers
unaware (blind) of the goals and hypotheses of the study.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Observational Method

What and how you observe depends very much on your subject of study. Researchers who prefer more
security from the beginning might consider systematic observation. This involves using an observation
schedule whereby teacher and/or child behavior is coded according to certain predetermined categories at
regular intervals. The strengths of systematic observation are –
• It is relatively free of observer bias. It can establish frequencies, and is strong on objective
which measures involve low inference on the part of the observer.
• Reliability can be strong. Where teams of researchers have used this approach, 80% reliability
has been established among them.
• Generalisability. Once you have devised your instrument, large samples can be covered.
• It is precise. There is no 'hanging around' or 'muddling through'.
• It provides a structure for the research.
The weaknesses are –
• There is a measure of unreliability. Qualitative material might be misrepresented through the
use of measurement techniques.
• Much of the interaction is missed.
• It usually ignores the temporal and spatial context in which the data is collected.
• It is not good for generating fresh insights.
• The pre-specification of categories predetermines what is to be discovered and allows only
partial description.
• It ignores process, flux, development, and change.
There has been live debate about the pros and cons of systematic and unsystematic observation.
In general, systematic observation is a useful technique and can be particularly strong where used in
conjunction with more purely qualitative techniques.
9.4.7 SURVEY METHOD

Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions, and feelings. Survey research can be specific
and limited, or it can have more global, widespread goals. Today, survey research is used by a variety of
different groups. Psychologists and sociologists often use survey research to analyze behavior, while it is
also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as, in evaluating political candidates, public
health officials, professional organizations, and advertising and marketing directors. A survey consists of a
predetermined set of questions that is given to a sample. With a representative sample, that is, one that is
representative of the larger population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the population from
which the sample was drawn. Moreover, one can compare the attitudes of different populations as well as
look for changes in attitudes over time. A good sample selection is key as it allows one to generalize the
findings from the sample to the population, which is the whole purpose of survey research.
Surveys provide a means of measuring a population's characteristics, self-reported and observed behavior,
awareness of programs, attitudes or opinions, and needs. Repeating surveys at regular intervals can assist
in the measurement of changes over time. These types of information are invaluable in planning and
evaluating government policies and programs. Unlike a census, where all members of a population are
studied, sample surveys gather information from only a portion of a population of interest. The size of the
sample depends on the purpose of the study. In a statistically valid survey, the sample is objectively chosen
so that each member of the population will have a . Only then can the results be reliably projected from the
known non-zero chance of selection sample

to the population. The sample should not be selected randomly or only from those who volunteer to
participate.
Surveys are a good way of gathering a large amount of data, providing a broad perspective. Surveys
can be administered electronically, by telephone, by mail or face to face. Mail and electronically
administered surveys have a wide reach, are relatively cheap to administer, information is standardized
and privacy can be maintained. They do, however, have a low response rate, are unable to investigate
issues to any great depth, require that the target group is literate and do not allow for any observation.
As surveys are self-reported by participants, there is a possibility that responses may be particularly
biased if the issues involved are sensitive or require some measure of disclosure on trust by the
participant. It is therefore vital that the surveys used are designed and tested for validity and reliability
with the target groups who will be completing the surveys.
Careful attention must be given to the design of the survey. If possible the use of an already designed
and validated survey instrument will ensure that the data being collected is accurate. If you design
your own survey it is necessary to pilot test the survey on a sample of your target group to that the
survey instrument is measuring what it intends to measure and is appropriate for the target group.
Questions within the survey can be asked in several ways and include: closed questions, open-ended
and scaled questions, and multiple choice questions. Closed questions are usually in the format of yes/
no or true/false options. Open-ended questions on the other hand leave the answer entirely up to the
respondent and therefore provide a greater range of responses.
Additionally, the use of scales is useful when assessing participants' attitudes. A multiple choice
question may ask respondents to indicate their favorite topic covered in the program, or most preferred
activity. Other considerations when developing a survey instrument include - question
sequence, layout and appearance, length, language, and an introduction and cover letter. Sensitive
questions should be placed near the end of a survey rather than at the beginning.
Use of Survey
When determining the need for a survey, departments/agencies should first check that the required
information is not already available. The option of collecting the required information using existing
administrative records should also be explored. Using existing data or records provides significant
advantages in terms of cost, time and the absence of respondent burden. The major disadvantage is
the lack of control over the data collected. If existing data are not available or suitable, a number of
factors must then be considered when determining which type of survey, if any, is appropriate. For
example -
Practicality
• Can the information cost be collected effectively and accurately via a survey?
• How complex and how sensitive is the topic?
• Do respondents have access to the required information?
• Will they be willing to supply the information?
• Will their responses to the questions be valid?
Resources
• Are the necessary financial, staff, computer or other resources available?

Timing
• When is the information required?
• Is enough time available to ensure that data of sufficient quality can be collected and analysed?
• When is the best time to conduct the survey? (For example, need to allow for seasonality,
impact of school holiday periods etc).
Survey requirements
• Do you want to use this information to target program improvements? If so, you may need to identify the key sub-groups
you wish to report on (for example, geographic areas, age groups, sex, industry and size of business) and obtain
responses for each group to ensure sufficient results are accurate enough for your needs.
Accuracy
• What level of error can be tolerated? This depends on how and for what purposes you intend to use the survey results.
Frequency
• Is the survey to be repeated? How often?
Legislative powers
• Does the department/agency have authority to collect the information through either a
Compulsory or voluntary survey?
Ethical consideration
Ethical considerations must be observed during the survey exercise. This includes that data, where appropriate, are
treated confidentially, and that where information is sought on the understanding that the respondent cannot be identified,
that such anonymity is preserved. Other ethical considerations include -
• Do you need identifiable information (for example, names, addresses, telephone numbers) relating to respondents for
follow-up research or matching with other data? If so, you need to clearly explain why you need such details and obtain
the respondents' consent.
• Respondents will be adversely affected or harmed as a direct result of participating in the
survey?
• Are procedures in place for respondents to check the identity and bonafides of the
researchers?
• Is the survey being conducted on a voluntary basis? If so, respondents must not be misled to
believe it is compulsory when being asked for their co-operation.
• Is it necessary to interview children under 14 years? If so, the consent of their parents / guardians / responsible adults
must be obtained.
These factors must all be taken into consideration when developing an appropriate sample design (that
is, sample size, selection method, etc.) and survey method.
Survey Process
The following is an outline of the general process to be followed once the need for a survey has been
determined. Some steps will not be necessary in all cases and some processes can be carried out at
the same time (for example, data collection and preparation for data entry and processing). A sample
survey is cheaper and timelier than a census but still requires significant resources, effort and time. The
survey process is complex and the stages are not necessarily sequential. Pilot testing of, at least, key
elements such as the questionnaire and survey operations is an essential part of the development
stage. It may be necessary to go through more than one cycle of development, testing,

Evaluation and modification before a satisfactory solution is reached. The entire process should be planned ahead,
including all critical dates. The time required from initial planning to the completion of a report or publication may vary
from several weeks to several months according to the size and type of survey. Key steps in the survey process include
–
Planning and Designing
1. Define the purpose, objectives and the required output. Experience has shown that well-defined output requirements
at the offset minimize the risk of the survey producing invalid results.
2. Design collection methodology and sample selection method.
3. Develop survey procedures. Design and print test questionnaires and any other documentation
(for example, instructions for interviewers and introductory letters).
Testing and Modifying
4. Pilot test all aspects of the survey if possible. As a minimum, a small-scale pre-test of questionnaires can reveal problems
with question wording, layout, understanding or respondent reaction.
5. Analyze test results (completed questionnaires, response/consent rate etc). Obtain feedback
from respondents and/or interviewers.
6. Modify procedures, questionnaires and documentation according to test evaluation.
7. Repeat steps 1–6 if necessary.
Conducting the Survey
8. Finalize procedures, questionnaires and documentation.
9. Select sample.
10. Train interviewers (if interviewer-based).
11. Conduct the survey (that is, mail out questionnaires or commence interviewing) including follow-up of refusals and
non-contacts, supervision and checks of interviewers' work.
Processing and Analyzing
12. Prepare data entry, estimation and tabulation systems.
13. Code, enter and edit data.
14. Process data - calculate population estimates and standard errors, prepare tables.
15. Prepare report of survey results.
16. Prepare technical report. Evaluate and document all aspects of the survey for use when
designing future surveys.
Data Collection Method in Survey

Commonly used methods for collecting quantitative data include telephone and face-to-face interviews, self-completion
questionnaires (such as mail, email, web-based or SMS) or combinations of these. Each has advantages and
disadvantages in terms of the cost, time, response/consent rate and the type of information that can be collected.
Self-completion Surveys Via mail, email, the internet or SMS are generally the least expensive, particularly for a
widespread sample. They allow respondents time to consider their answers, refer to records or consult with others (which
can be helpful or unhelpful, depending on the survey's objectives). They also eliminate interviewer errors and reduce the
incidence of selected people (or units) being unable to be contacted. A major disadvantage of self-completion surveys is
the potentially high non-response. In such cases, substantial bias can result if people who do not complete the survey
have different characteristics from those who do. However, response can be improved using techniques such as well-
written introductory letters, incentives for timely return of questionnaires and follow-up for those initially not responding.
In self-completion surveys there is no

Opportunity to clarify answers or supplement the survey with observational data. In mail surveys the questionnaire usually
has to be simple and reasonably short, particularly when surveying the general community. Internet and email-based
surveys are commonly used for surveying clients or staff within organizations and allow more complex questionnaires to
be used than mail surveys do.
Interviewer-based Surveys Such as face-to-face or telephone surveys generally allow more data to be collected
than self-completion surveys and can include the use of more complex questionnaires.
Interviewers can reduce non-response by answering respondents' queries or concerns. They can often pick up and
resolve respondent errors. Face-to-face surveys are usually more expensive than other methodologies. Poor interviewers
can introduce additional errors and, in some cases, the face-to-face approach is unsuitable for sensitive topics.
Telephone surveys are generally cheaper and quicker than face-to-face surveys, and are well suited to situations where
timely results are needed.
However, non-response may be higher than for face-to-face surveys as it is harder for interviewers to prove their identity,
assure confidentiality and establish rapport. Telephone surveys are not suitable for situations where the respondents
need to refer to records extensively. Also, the questionnaires must be simpler and shorter than for face-to-face surveys
and prompt cards cannot be used.
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI) is a particular type of telephone survey technique
that helps to resolve some of the limitations of general telephone-based surveying. With CATI, interviewers use a
computer terminal. The questions appear on the computer screen and the interviewers enter responses directly into the
computer. The interviewer's screen is programmed to show questions in the planned order. Interviewers cannot
inadvertently omit questions or ask them out of sequence. Online messages warn interviewers if they enter invalid values
or unusual values.
Most CATI systems also allow many aspects of survey operations to be automated, eg rescheduling of call-backs,
engaged numbers and 'no answers', and allow automatic dialing and remote supervision of interviewer/respondent
interaction. A survey frame or list which contains telephone numbers is required to conduct a telephone survey. For
general population surveys, such lists are not readily available or they have limitations that can lead to biased results. If
the Electronic White Pages list is used to select a sample of households then the sample will not include households with
silent numbers. In addition, it may exclude households with recent new connections or recent changes to existing
numbers. Electoral rolls exclude respondents aged less than 18 years of age, migrants not yet naturalised and others
ineligible to vote. Random Digit Dialing may address some of the under-coverage associated with an Electronic White
Pages or electoral role list, but it is inefficient for sampling at a low geographic level and does not allow for communicating
(via pre-approach letter, for example) with families prior to the commencement of telephone interviewing.
Combinations of Collection Methods such as interviewers dropping off a questionnaire to be mailed back or
returning to pick it up, a mail survey with telephone follow-up, or an initial telephone call to obtain cooperation or name of
a suitable respondent followed by a mail survey – are sometimes used to obtain higher response/consent rates to a
survey.
If in-depth or purely qualitative information is required, alternative research methods should be considered. are all useful
when developing Focus
a survey
groups,
or initially
observation
exploring
and areas
in-depth
of interest.
interviewing
They can also be a valuable supplement to survey data.
However, results from such studies should not be considered representative of the entire population of interest.
Sources of Error

Whether a survey is being conducted by departmental/agency staff or by consultants, it is important to be aware of

potential sources of error and strategies to minimize them. Errors arising in the collection of survey data can be divided
into two types - sampling error non-sampling and
error .
Sampling error Occurs when data are collected from a sample rather than the entire population. The sampling error
associated with survey results for a particular sub-group of interest depends mainly on the number of responses achieved
for that sub-group rather than on the percentage of units sampled. Estimates of sampling error, such as standard errors,
can be calculated mathematically.
They are affected by factors such as -
• sample size - increasing the sample size will decrease the sampling error.
• population variability - a larger sampling error will be present if the items of interest vary greatly within the population.
• sample design - standard errors cannot be calculated if the probability of selection is not known (for example, quota sampling).
All other errors associated with collecting survey data are called . Although they cannot be measured
non-sampling in the same way
errors
as sampling errors, they are just as important. The following table lists common sources of non-sampling error and some
strategies to minimize them.
Table 9.1
Common Sources of Non-sampling Error and Strategies to Minimize Them
Source of error Examples Strategies to minimize error
Planning Inadequate definitions of concepts, terms or Ensure all concepts, terms and populations are precisely defined
and interpretation populations. through consultation between data users and survey designers.
Sample Inadequate list from which sample is Check list for accuracy, duplicates and missing units; use
selection selected; biased sample selection. appropriate selection procedures.
Survey methods Inappropriate method (eg, mail survey for a Choose an appropriate method and test thoroughly.
very complicated topic).
Questionnaire Loaded, misleading or ambiguous questions, Use plain English, clear questions and logical layout; test
poor layout or sequencing. thoroughly.
Interviewers Leading respondents, making assumptions, Provide clear interviewer instructions and appropriate training,
misunderstanding or misreporting answers. including exercises and field supervision.
Respondents Refusals, memory problems, rounding Promote survey through public media; ensure confidentiality; if
answers, protecting personal interests or interviewer-based, use well-trained, impartial interviewers and
integrity. probing techniques; if mail-based, use a well-written
introductory letter.
Processing Errors in data entry, coding or editing. Adequately train and supervise processing staff; Check a sample
of each person's work.
Estimation Incorrect weighting, errors in calculation of estimates. Ensure that skilled statisticians undertake estimation.
Non-response occurs in virtually all surveys through factors such as refusals, non-contact and language difficulties. It is
of particular importance if the characteristics of non-respondents differ from respondents. For example, if high-income
earners are more likely to refuse to participate in an income survey, the results will obviously be biased towards lower
incomes. For this reason, all surveys should aim for the maximum possible response/consent rate, within cost and time
constraints, by using techniques such as call-backs to non-contacts and follow-up of refusals. The level of non-response
should always be measured.
Bias can also arise from insufficient the listssampling

from which
frames ,
respondents are selected.
Household and business telephone listings and electoral rolls are often used as sampling frames, but they all have
limitations. Telephone listings exclude respondents who do not have telephones and can

exclude those with 'silent' or unlisted numbers. Electoral rolls exclude respondents aged less than 18 years of age,
migrants not yet naturalized and others ineligible to vote.
Issues for Selecting Survey Methods

Selecting the type of survey you are going to use is one of the most critical decisions in many social research contexts.
There are very few simple rules that will make the decision to balance the advantages and disadvantages of different
survey types. Here, is a number of questions which can be asked for decision.
ÿ Population Issues
The first set of considerations has to do with the population and its accessibility.
Can the population be enumerated? For some populations, you have a complete listing of the units that will be
sampled. For others, such a list is difficult or impossible to compile. For instance, there are complete listings of registered
voters or person with active driver's licenses. But no one keeps a complete list of homeless people. If you are doing a
study that requires input from homeless people, you are very likely going to need to go and find the respondents personally.
In such contexts, you can pretty much rule out the idea of mail surveys or telephone interviews.
Is the population literate? Questionnaires require that your respondents can read. While this might initially seem
like a reasonable assumption for many adult populations, we know from recent research that the instance of adult illliteracy
is alarmingly high. And, even if your respondents can read to
some degree, your questionnaire may contain difficult or technical vocabulary. Clearly, there are some populations that
you would expect to be illiterate. Young children would not be good targets for questionnaires.
Are there language issues? We live in a multilingual world. Virtually every society has members who speak other
than the predominant language. Some countries (like Canada) are officially multilingual.
And, our increasingly global economy requires us to do research that spans countries and language groups. Can you
produce multiple versions of your questionnaire? For mail instruments, can you know in advance the language your
respondent speaks, or do you send multiple translations of your instrument? Can you be confident that important
connotations in your instrument are not culturally specific? Could some of the important nuances get lost in the process of
translating your questions?
Will the population cooperate? People who do research on immigration issues have a difficult methodological
problem. They often need to speak with undocumented immigrants or people who may be able to identify others who they
are. Why would we expect those respondents to cooperate? Although the researcher may mean no harm, the respondents
are at great risk if information they divulge should get into the hands of the authorities. The same can be said for any
target group that is engaging in illegal or unpopular activities.
What are the geographic restrictions? Is your population of interest dispersed over too broad a geographic
range for you to study feasibly with a personal interview? It may be possible for you to send a mail instrument to a
nationwide sample. You may be able to conduct phone interviews with them. But it will almost certainly be less feasible to
do research that requires interviewers to visit directly with respondents if they are widely dispersed.
ÿ Sampling Issues
The sample is the actual group you will have to contact in some way. There are several important sampling issues you
need to consider when doing survey research.
What data is available? What information do you have about your sample? Do you know their current addresses?
What are their current phone numbers? Are your contact lists up to date?

Can respondents be found? Can your respondents be located? Some people are very busy. Some travel a lot. Some
work the night shift. Even if you have an accurate phone or address, you may not be able to locate or make contact with your
sample.
Who responded? Who is the respondent in your study? Let's tell you draw a sample of households in a small
city. A household is not a respondent. Do you want to interview a specific individual? Do you want to talk only to the 'head of
household' (and how is that person defined)? Are you willing to talk to any member of the household? Do you state that you will
speak to the first adult member of the household who opens the door? What if that person is unwilling to be interviewed but
someone else in the house is willing? How do you deal with multi-family households?
Similar problems arise when you sample groups, agencies, or companies. Can you survey any member of the organization? Or,
do you only want to speak to the Director of Human Resources? What if the person you would like to interview is unwilling or
unable to participate? Do you use another member of the organization?
Can All members of the population be sampled? If you have an incomplete list of the population (ie, sampling frame)
you may not be able to sample every member of the population. Lists of various groups are extremely hard to keep up to date.
People move or change their names. Even though they are on your sampling frame listing, you may not be able to get to them.
And, it's possible they are not even on the list.
Are response rates likely to be a problem? Even if you are able to solve all of the other population and sampling
problems, you still have to deal with the issue of response rates. Some members of your sample will simply refuse to respond.
Others have the best of intentions, but can't seem to find the time to send in your questionnaire by the due date. Still others
misplace the instrument or forget about the appointment for an interview. Low response rates are among the most difficult
problems in survey research. They can ruin an otherwise well-designed survey effort.
ÿ Question Issues
Sometimes the nature of what you want to ask respondents will determine the type of survey you select.
What types of questions can be asked? Are you going to be asking personal questions? Are you going to need to get
lots of detail in the responses? Can you anticipate the most frequent or important types of responses and develop reasonable
closed-ended questions?
How complex will the questions be? Sometimes you are dealing with a complex subject or topic. The questions you
want to ask are going to have multiple parts. You may need to branch to sub-questions.
Will screening questions be needed? A screening question may be needed to determine whether the respondent is
qualified to answer your question of interest. For instance, you wouldn't want to ask someone their opinions about a specific
computer program without first 'screening' them to find out whether they have any experience using the program. Sometimes you
have to screen on several variables (eg, age, gender, experience). The more complicated the screening, the less likely it is that
you can rely on paper-and-pencil instruments without confusing the respondent.
Can question sequence be controlled? Is your survey one where you can construct in advance a reasonable
sequence of questions? Or, are you doing an initial exploratory study where you may need to ask lots of follow-up questions that
you can't easily anticipate?
Will how long questions be asked? If your subject matter is complicated, you may need to give the respondent some
detailed background for a question. Can you reasonably expect your respondent to sit still long enough in a phone interview to
ask your question?

Will long response scales be used? If you are asking people about the different computer equipment they use, you may
have to have a lengthy response list (CD-ROM drive, floppy drive, mouse, touch pad, modem, network connection, external
speakers, etc.). Clearly, it may be difficult to ask about each of these in a short phone interview.
ÿ Content Issues
The content of your study can also pose challenges for the different survey types you might utilize.
Can the respondents be expected know about the issue? to If the respondent does not keep up with the news
(eg, by reading the newspaper, watching television news, or talking with others), they may not even know about the news issue
you want to ask them about. Or, if you want to do a study of family finances and you are talking to the spouse who doesn't pay
the bills on a regular basis, they may not have the information to answer your questions.
Will respondent need consult records? to Even if the respondent understands what you're asking about, you may
need to allow them to consult their records in order to get an accurate answer. For instance, if you ask them how much money
they spent on food in the past month, they may need to look up their personal check and credit card records. In this case, you
don't want to be involved in an interview where they would have to go look things up while they keep you waiting (they wouldn't
be comfortable with that).
ÿ Bias Issues
People come to the research endeavor with their own sets of biases and prejudices. Sometimes, these biases will be less of a
problem with certain types of survey approaches.
Can be
social desirability avoided? Respondents generally want to 'look good' in the eyes of others.
None of us likes to look like we don't know an answer. We don't want to say anything that would be embarrassing. If you ask
people about information that may put them in this kind of position, they may not tell you the truth, or they may 'spin' the
response so that it makes them look better. This may be more of a problem in an interview situation where they are face-to-face
or on the phone with a live interviewer.
Can interviewer distortion and subversion be controlled? Interviewers may distort an interview as well. They
may not ask questions that make them uncomfortable. They may not listen carefully to respondents on topics for which they
have strong opinions. They may make the judgment that they already know what the respondent would say to a question based
on their prior responses, even though that may not be true.
Can false respondents be avoided? With mail surveys it may be difficult to know who actually responded. Did the
head of household complete the survey or someone else? Did the CEO actually give the responses or instead pass the task off
to a subordinate? Is the person you're speaking with on the phone actually who they say they are? At least with personal
interviews, you have a reasonable chance of knowing who you are speaking with. In mail surveys or phone interviews, this may
not be the case.
ÿ Administrative Issues
Last, but certainly not least, you have to consider the feasibility of the survey method for your study.
Costs: Cost is often the major determining factor in selecting survey type. You might prefer to do personal interviews, but
can't justify the high cost of training and paying for the interviewers. You may prefer to send out an extensive mailing but can't
afford the postage to do so.
Facilities: Do you have the facilities (or access to them) to process and manage your study? In phone interviews, do you
have well-equipped phone surveying facilities? For focus groups, do you have a

Comfortable and accessible room to host the group? Do you have the equipment needed to record
and transcribe responses?
Time: Some types of surveys take longer than others. Do you need responses immediately (as in an
overnight public opinion poll)? Have you budgeted enough time for your study to send out mail surveys
and follow-up reminders, and to get the responses back by mail? Have you allowed enough time to get
enough personal interviews to justify that approach?
Personnel: Different types of surveys make different demands of personnel. Interviews require
interviewers who are motivated and well-trained. Group administered surveys require people who are
trained in group facilitation. Some studies may be in a technical area that requires some degree of
experience in the interviewer.
Clearly, there are lots of issues to consider when you are selecting which type of survey you wish to
use in your study. And there is no clear and easy way to make this decision in many contexts.
9.4.8 CASE STUDY METHOD

Case studies are in-depth investigations of a single person, group, event or community. Typically data
are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (eg observations &
interviews). The case study research method originated in clinical medicine (the case history, i.e. the
patient's personal history). The case study method often involves simply observing what happens to,
or reconstructing 'the case history' of a single participant or group of individuals (such as a school class
or a specific social group), ie the idiographic approach. Case studies allow a researcher to investigate
a topic in far more detail than might be possible if they were trying to deal with a large number of
research participants (nomothetic approach) with the aim of 'averaging'.
The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers select methods of data collection and
analysis that will generate material suitable for case studies such as qualitative techniques (unstructured
interviews, participant observation, diaries), personal notes (eg letters, photographs, notes ) or official
document (eg case notes, clinical notes, appraisal reports). The data collected can be analyzed using
different theories (eg grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text interpretation (eg
thematic coding) etc. All the approaches mentioned here use preconceived categories in the analysis
and they are ideographic in their approach, ie they focus on the individual case without reference to a
comparison group.
Case studies are widely used in psychology and amongst the best known were the ones carried out by
Sigmund Freud. He conducted very detailed investigations into the private lives of his patients in an
attempt to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses. Freud's most famous case studies
include 'Little Hans' (1909a) and 'The Rat Man' (1909b). Even today case histories are one of the main
methods of investigation in abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines they
can give a vivid insight into what those who suffer from mental illness often have to endure. Case
studies are often conducted in clinical medicine and involve collecting and reporting descriptive
information about a particular person or specific environment, such as a school. In psychology, case
studies are often confined to the study of a particular individual. The information is mainly biographical
and relates to events in the individual's past (ie retrospective), as well as to significant events which
are currently occurring in his or her everyday life. In order to produce a fairly detailed and comprehensive
profile of the person, the psychologist may use various of accessible data, such as types medical
records, employer's reports, school reports or psychological test results. The interview is also an
extremely effective procedure for obtaining information about an individual, and it may be used to
collect comments from the person's friends, parents, employer,

workmates and others who have a good knowledge of the person, as well as to obtain facts from the person
him or herself.
In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes
for behavior. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others.
Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a larger
population.
Characteristics of Case Study Method
• Case study research is not sampling research. Selecting cases must be done so as to maximize
what can be learned in the period of time available for the study.
• The unit of analysis is a critical factor in the case study. It is typically a system of action rather than an individual or group of
individuals. Case studies tend to be selective, focusing on one or two issues that are fundamental to understanding the
system being examined.
• Case studies are multi-perspectives analyses. This means that the researcher considers not just the voice and perspective of
the actors, but also of the relevant groups of actors and the interaction between them. This one aspect is a salient point in
the characteristic that case studies possess. They give a voice to the powerless and voiceless.
• Case study is known as a triangulated research strategy. Snow and Anderson (1991) asserted that triangulation can occur
with data, investigators, theories, and even methodologies. Stake (1995) stated that the protocols that are used to ensure
accuracy and alternative explanations are called triangulation. The need for triangulation arises from the ethical need to
confirm the validity of the processes. In case studies, this could be done by using multiple sources of data (Yin, 1984). The
problem in case studies is to establish meaning rather than location. Denzin (1984) identified four types of triangulation:
Data source triangulation, when the researcher looks for the data to remain the same in different contexts; Investigator
triangulation, when several investigators examine the same phenomenon; Theory triangulation, when investigators with
different viewpoints interpret the same results; and Methodological triangulation, when one approach is followed by another,
to increase confidence in the interpretation.
Characteristics of the case study method in legal research can be described shortly as follows -
• Any researcher can hold research into one single or more social unit such as a person, family, society and so on for the
accomplishment of the aim of his/her study under this method. He/she can hold comprehensive and intensive study in
different aspects of the unit so selected. Under this method, he/she can give the weight and consideration towards all the
aspects of a person, group or society so selected for study. All aspects can be deeply and intensively studied.
• Any researcher does not only hold the study to find out how many crimes have been committed by a man but also deeply hold
study into causes that forces or abets him to commit such crimes.
In this example, one of the main objectives of the researcher could be to give suggestion to referring
the criminals.
• Under this method, any researcher can endeavor to know the relationship of causal factors
interlinked
• Under this method, all the related aspects of the unit, which is in subject to study, can be directly or indirectly studied.
• Case study method helps to find out the useful data and enables to generalize the knowledge
also.

• The main characteristics of the case study method includes continuing, completeness, validity,
and data as it deals with the life of social unit or units or society as a whole.
Application of Case Study Model
Yin (1994) presented at least four applications for a case study model.
To…
• explain complex causal links in real-life interventions;
• describe the real-life context in which the intervention has occurred;
• describe the intervention itself; and • explore
those situations in which the intervention being evaluated has no clear set of outcomes.
Sources of Information in Case Study
There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information
about an individual or group. The six major sources that have been identified by researchers (Yin, 1994;
Stake, 1995) are –
Direct Observation: This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting. While an
individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
Interviews: One of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An
Interview can involve structured survey-type questions, or more open-ended questions.
Documents: Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc.
Archival Records: Census records, survey records, name lists, etc.
Physical Artifacts: Tools, objects, instruments and other artifacts often observed during a direct
observation of the subject.
Participant Observation: Involves the researcher actually serving as a participant in events and
observing the actions and outcomes.
Category of Case Study
There are several categories of case studies.
Prospective: A type of case study in which an individual or group of people is observed in order to
determine outcomes. For example, a group of individuals might be watched over an extended period of
time to observe the progression of a particular disease.
Retrospective: A type of case study that involves looking at historical information. For example, researchers might
start with an outcome, such as a disease, and then backwards at information about the individuals life to determine risk
factors that may have contributed to the onset of the illness.
Explanatory: Explanatory case studies examine the data closely both at a surface and deep level in
order to explain the phenomena in the data. On the basis of the data, the researcher may then form a
theory and set to test this theory (McDonough and McDonough, 1997). Furthermore, explanatory cases
are also deployed for causal studies where pattern-matching can be used to investigate certain
phenomena in very complex and multivariate cases. Yin and Moore (1987) note that these complex and
multivariate cases can be explained by three competing theories – a knowledge-driven theory, a problem-
solving theory, and a social-interaction theory. The knowledge-driven theory stipulates that eventual
commercial products are the results of ideas and discoveries from basic research.
Similar notions can be said for the problem-solving theory. However, in this theory, products are derived
from external sources rather than from research. The social-interaction theory, on the other hand,
suggests that overlapping professional network causes researchers and users to communicate frequently
with each other.

Exploratory: A case study that is sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research.
This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses. A
pilot study is considered an example of an exploratory case study (Yin, 1984; McDonough and McDonough, 1997)
and is crucial in determining the protocol that will be used.
Description: Descriptive case studies set to describe the natural phenomena which occur within the data in
question. The goal set by the researcher is to describe the data as they occur. McDonough and McDonough (1997)
suggest that descriptive case studies may be in a narrative form. An example of a descriptive case study is the
journalistic description of the Watergate scandal by two reporters (Yin, 1984). The challenge of a descriptive case
study is that the researcher must begin with a descriptive theory to support the description of the phenomenon or
story. If this fails there is the possibility that the description lacks rigor and that problems may occur during the project.
Intrinsic: A type of case study in which the researcher has a personal interest in the case.
Collective: Involves studying a group of cases.
Instrumental: Occurs when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially
obvious to observers.
According to McDonough and McDonough (1997) other categories include interpretive and evaluative case studies.
Through interpretive case studies, the researcher aims to interpret the data by developing conceptual categories,
supporting or challenging the assumptions made regarding them. In evaluative case studies, the researcher goes
further by adding their judgment to the phenomena found in the data.
Intrinsic - when the researcher has an interest in the case; Instrumental - when the case is used to understand more
than what is obvious to the observer; Collective - when a group of cases is studied.
Exploratory cases are sometimes considered as a prelude to social research. Explanatory case studies may be used
for doing causal investigations. Descriptive cases require a descriptive theory to be developed before starting the
project. In all of the above types of case studies, there can be single-case or multiple-case applications.

Procedure of Case Study Method

In short, for the case study, the researchers recommend the above procedures in the study –
• Design the case study protocol
ÿ Determine the required skills
ÿ Develop and review the protocol
• Conduct the case study
ÿ Prepare for data collection
ÿ Distribute questionnaire
ÿ Conduct interview
• Analyze case study evidence

ÿ Analytic strategy
• Develop conclusions, recommendations, and implications based on the evidence.
Each section begins with the recommended procedures in the literature, followed by the application of
the recommended procedure in the study.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Studies
A good case study should always make clear which information is factual description and which is
inference or the opinion of the researcher. The strengths of case studies are - Provides detailed (rich
qualitative) information; Provides insight for further research; Permitting investigation of otherwise
impractical (or unethical) situations.
Merits of case study method can be described briefly as follows -
ÿ The case study helps to study and understand the human nature and conducts very intensively.
As a result, any researcher can formulate a valid hypothesis.
ÿ Any researcher can get actual and exemplary records of experience that may be useful as guidelines to others life as this
method carries out intensive study of all aspects of a unit or a problem selected for research.
ÿ This case study method is very useful in sampling as it efficiently and orderly classifies the units selected for research
based on data and information so collected.
ÿ Under the case study, any researcher can undertake one or more research method(s) under the existing circumstances.
S/he can use various methods as interviews, questionnaires, report, sampling and other similar methods.
ÿ As this method emphasizes historical analysis, this method is taken as a means of knowing and understanding the past
life of a social unit. That is why; it can suggest the possible measures to be taken for having improvements in present
life by the lesson of past life. In other words, it is said that the old is gold and morning show the day.
ÿ Under this case study method, any researcher can find out new helpful things as it holds perfect study of sociological
materials that can represent real image of experience.
ÿ Under this case study method, any research may increase his/her analytical ability and skill of
the study of practical experiences.
ÿ This method makes possible the study, to bring positive changes in the society. As this method holds an overall study of
life of a social unit, the researcher can know and understand the changes that occurred in our society and can suggest
to make corrections in human behavior for the welfare, as well.
ÿ As this case study method holds study of all aspects of a social unit, terms of past, present and future time, it gives the
matured knowledge that could also be useful to his/her personal and public life.

ÿ This case study method is also taken as indispensable and significant as regards to taking decision on many management
issues. Case data are also very useful for diagnosis and implementation of practical case issues. It can be taken as an
example to be followed in the future.
Case studies can help us generate new ideas (that might be tested by other methods). They are an important way
of illustrating theories and can help show how different aspects of a person's life are related to each other. The
method is therefore important for a holistic point of view. Despite its merits as referred to above, demerits of the
case study method can be described shortly as follows –
• This case study method is a very vague process. There is no mechanism to control researcher.
Generalization is almost impossible to a larger similar population.
• Under this case study method, letters and other documents can be used. A write up is generally prepared to impress and give
undue influence to personal matters. It always depends on the personal feeling and thought. As a result, the study of the
researcher may be worthless and meaningless by virtue of possible occurrence of distortion.
• Under this case study method, there is no limitation of study. The researcher always finds difficulties in deciding when s/he
should stop to collect data for his/her study. He/she may find all things to be permanent.
• This case study method is always based on several assumptions. However, sometimes, they may not be realistic. Under such
circumstances, such data should be tested.
• Under this case study method, the result is drawn up on the basis of all post experiences.
Collection of much data and information may lead to confusion to find out pertinent and specific information.
• This case study method is based on comparison with the post life. However, human value, attitude, behavior, reactions,
circumstance are very wide and differ with each other. It is difficult to compare from one another.
• This case study method always collects post information and data from the society. However, there is no system of checking.
Difficult to replicate.
• This case study method is time consuming, expensive and complex.
9.4.9 DIARIES METHOD

A diary is a type of self-administered questionnaire often used to record frequent or contemporaneous events or
experiences. In diary surveys, respondents are given the self-administered form and asked to fill in the required
information when events occur (event-based diaries) or at specified times or time intervals (time-based diaries). Data
from diary studies can be used to make cross-sectional comparisons across people, track an individual over time, or
study processes within individuals or families. The main advantages of diary methods are that they allow events to
be recorded in their natural setting and, in theory, minimize the delay between the event and the time it is recorded.
Diaries are used in a variety of domains. These include studies of expenditure, nutrition, time use, travel, media
exposure, health, and mental health. Diary studies in user research are a longitudinal technique used in anthropology,
psychology, and 'User Experience'
research, primarily to capture data from participants as they live through certain experiences.
There are two types of diary studies –
• Elicitation studies, where participants capture media that are then used as prompts for discussion in interviews. The method is
a way to trigger the participant's memory.
• Feedback studies, where participants answer predefined questions about events. This is a way of
Getting immediate answers from the participants.

Using Diaries in Research

Biographers, historians and literary scholars have long considered diary documents to be of major
importance for telling history. More recently, sociologists have seriously taken the idea of using personal
documents to construct pictures of social reality from the actors' perspective. In contrast to these
'journal' type of accounts, diaries are used as research instruments to collect detailed information about
behavior, events and other aspects of individuals' daily lives.
Self-completion diaries have a number of advantages over other data collections methods. First, diaries
can provide a reliable alternative to the traditional interview method for events that are difficult to recall
accurately or that are easily forgotten. Second, like other self-completion methods, diaries can help to
overcome the problems associated with collecting sensitive information by personal interview. Finally,
they can be used to supplement interview data to provide a rich source of information on respondents'
behavior and experiences on a daily basis. Two other major areas where diaries are often used are
consumer expenditure and transport planning research. For example, the UK Family Expenditure
Survey (OPCS) uses diaries to collect data for the National Accounts and to provide weights for the
Retail Price Index. In the National Travel Survey (OPCS) respondents record information about all
journeys made over a specified time period in a diary.
Other topics covered using diary methods are social networks, health, illness and associated behavior,
diet and nutrition, social work and other areas of social policy, clinical psychology and family therapy,
crime behavior, alcohol consumption and drug use, and sexual behavior. Diaries are also increasingly
being used in market research. Diary surveys often use a personal interview to collect additional
background information about the household and sometimes about behavior or events of interest that
the diary will not capture. A placing interview is important for explaining the diary keeping procedures to
the respondent and a concluding interview may be used to check on the completeness of the recorded
entries. Often retrospective estimates of the behavior occurring over the diary period are collected at
the final interview.
Diary Design and Format
Diaries may be open format, allowing respondents to record activities and events in their own words, or
they can be highly structured where all activities are pre-categorized. An obvious advantage of the free
format is that it allows for greater opportunity to recode and analyze the data. However, the intensive
labor work required to prepare and make sense of the data may render it unrealistic for projects lacking
time and resources, or where the sample is large. Although the design of a diary will depend on the
detailed requirement of the topic under study, there are certain design aspects which are common to
most. Below are a set of recommended guidelines for anyone thinking about designing a diary. • An A4
booklet of about
5 to 20 pages is desirable, depending on the nature of the diary. • The inside cover page
should contain a clear set of instructions on how to complete the diary.
This should stress the importance of recording events as soon as possible after they occur and how
the respondent should try not to let the diary keeping influence their behavior.
• Depending on how long a period the diary will cover, each page denoting either a week, a day of the week or a 24 hour period
or less. Pages should be clearly ruled up as a calendar with prominent headings and enough space to enter all the desired
information (such as what the respondent was doing, at what time, where, who with and how they felt at the time, and so
on) .
• Checklists of the items, events or behavior to help jog the diary keeper's memory should be printed somewhere fairly prominent.
Very long lists should be avoided since they may be off-putting and confusing to respondents. For a structured time
budget diary, an exhaustive list of

All possible relevant activities should be listed together with the appropriate codes. Where more than one type of
activity is to be entered, that is, primary and secondary (or background) activities, guidance should be given on how
to deal with competing or multiple activities.
• There should be an explanation of what is meant by the unit of observation, such as a 'session', an 'event' or a 'fixed time
block'. Where respondents are given more freedom in naming their activities and the activities are to be coded later, it is
important to give strict guidelines on what type of behavior to include, what definitely to exclude and the level of detail
required.
Time budget diaries without fixed time blocks should include columns for start and end times for activities.
• Appropriate terminology or lists of activities should be designed to meet the needs of the sample under study, and if necessary,
different versions of the diary should be used for different groups.
• Following the diary pages it is useful to include a simple set of questions for the respondent to complete, asking, among other
things, whether the diary keeping period was atypical in any way compared to usual daily life. It is also good practice to
include a page at the end asking for the respondents' own comments and clarifications of any peculiarities relating to their
entries. Even if these remarks will not be systematically analysed, they may prove helpful at the editing or coding stage.
Data Quality and Response Rates: In addition to the types of errors encountered in all survey methods, diaries are
especially prone to errors arising from respondent conditioning, incomplete recording of information and under-reporting,
inadequate recall, insufficient cooperation and sample selection bias.
Diary keeping period: The period over which a diary is to be kept needs to be long enough to capture the behavior
or events of interest without jeopardizing successful completion by imposing an overly burdensome task. For collecting
time-use data, anything from one to three day diaries may be used.
Household expenditure surveys usually place diaries on specific days to ensure an even coverage across the week and
distribute their field work over the year to ensure seasonal variation in earnings and spending is captured.
Reporting errors: In household expenditure surveys it is routinely found that the first day and first week of diary
keeping shows higher reporting of expenditure than the following days. This is also observed for other types of behavior
and the effects are generally termed 'first day effects'. They may be due to respondents changing their behavior as a
result of keeping the diary (conditioning), or becoming less conscientious than when they started the diary. Recall errors
may also extend to 'tomorrow' diaries. Respondents often write down their entries at the end of a day and only a small
minority are diligent diary keepers who carry their diary with them at all times. Expenditure surveys find that an
intermediate visit from an interviewer during the diary keeping period helps preserve 'good' diary keeping to the end of
the period.
Literacy: All methods that involve self-completion of information demand that the respondent has a reasonable
standard of literacy. Thus the diary sample and the data may be biased towards the population of competent diary
keepers.
Participation: The best response rates for diary surveys are achieved when diary keepers are recruited on a face-to-
face basis, rather than by post. Personal collection of diaries also allows any problems in the completed diary to be
sorted out on the spot. Success may also depend on the quality of interviewing staff who should be highly motivated,
competent and well-briefed. Appealing

to respondent's altruistic nature, reassuring them of confidentiality and offering incentives are
thought to influence co-operation in diary surveys.
Coding, Editing and Processing: The amount of work required to process a diary depends largely
on how structured it is. For many large scale diary surveys, part of the editing and coding process
is done by the interviewer while still in the field. Following this is an intensive editing procedure
which includes checking entries against information collected in the personal interview. For
unstructured diaries, involving coding of verbatim entries, the processing can be very labor
intensive, in much the same way as it is for processing qualitative interview transcripts. Using
highly trained coders and a rigorous unambiguous coding scheme is very important particularly
where there is no clear demarcation of events or behavior in the diary entries. Clearly, a well
designed diary with a coherent pre-coding system should cut down on the degree of editing and coding.
Relative Cost of Diary Surveys: The diary method is generally more expensive than the personal
interview, and personal placement and pick-up visits are more costly than postal administration. If
the diary is unstructured, intensive editing and coding will push up the costs. However, these costs
must be balanced against the superiority of the diary method in obtaining more accurate data,
particularly where the recall method gives poor results.
Computer Software for Processing and Analysis: Although computer assisted methods may help
to reduce the amount of manual preparatory work, there are few packages and most of them are
custom built to suit the specifics of a particular project. Time-budget researchers are probably the
most advanced group of users of machine readable diary data and the structure of these data
allows them to use traditional statistical packages for analysis. More recently, methods of analysis
based on algorithms for searching for patterns of behavior in diary data are being used (Coxon 1991).
Software development is certainly an area which merits future attention. For textual diaries,
qualitative software packages such as the 'Ethnograph' can be used to code them in the same way
as interview transcripts (Fielding & Lee 1991).
Archiving Diary Data: In spite of the abundance of data derived from diary surveys across a wide
range of disciplines, little is available to other researchers for secondary analysis (further analysis
of data already collected). This is perhaps not surprising given that the budget for many diary
surveys does not extend to systematic processing of the data. Many diary surveys are small scale
investigative studies that have been carried out with very specific aims in mind. For these less
structured diaries, for which a possibly common coding scheme is neither feasible, nor desirable,
an answer to public access is to deposit the original survey documents in an archive. This kind of
data bank gives the researcher access to original diary documents allowing them to make use of
the data in ways to suit their own research strategy. However, the ethics of making personal
documents public (even if in the limited academic sense) have to be considered.

Advantages and Criticism of Diary Studies

Advantages of diary studies are numerous. They allow –
• collecting longitudinal and temporal information;
• reporting events and experiences in context;
• determining the antecedents, correlates and consequences of daily experiences.
The criticism of diary studies are as - diary studies might generate inaccurate recall, especially if using the elicitation
type of diary studies, because of the use of memory triggers, like for example taking a photo and then writing about it
later. There is low control, low participation and there is a risk of disturbing the action. In feedback studies there is also
low control, and it can be troubling and disturbing to write everything down.
9.4.10 PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS (PCA)

Principal component analysis (PCA) is a procedure for identifying a smaller number of uncorrelated variables, called
'principal components', from a large set of data. PCA was invented in 1901 by Karl Pearson, as an analogue of the
principal axis theorem in mechanics; It was later independently developed (and named) by Harold Hotelling in the 1930s.
The goal of principal components analysis is to explain the maximum amount of variance with the fewest number of
principal components.
Principal components analysis is commonly used in the social sciences, market research, and other industries that use
large data sets. Principal component analysis is appropriate when you have obtained measures on a number of observed
variables and wish to develop a smaller number of artificial variables (called principal components) that will account for
most of the variance in the observed variables. The principal components may then be used as predictor or criterion
variables in subsequent analyses. It is a variable reduction procedure. It is useful when you have obtained data on a
number of variables (possibly a large number of variables), and believe that there is some redundancy in those variables.
In this case, redundancy means that some of the variables are correlated with one another, possibly because they are
measuring the same construct. Because of this redundancy, you believe that it should be possible to reduce the
observed variables into a smaller number of principal components (artificial variables) that will account for most of the
variance in the observed variables.
Because it is a variable reduction procedure, principal component analysis is similar in many respects to exploratory
factor analysis. In fact, the steps followed when conducting a principal component analysis are virtually identical to those
followed when conducting an exploratory factor analysis.
However, there are significant conceptual differences between the two procedures, and it is important that you do not
mistakenly claim that you are performing factor analysis when you are actually performing principal component analysis.
Principal components analysis is commonly used as one step in a series of analyses. You can use principal components
analysis to reduce the number of variables and avoid multicollinearity, or when you have too many predictors relative to
the number of observations. A consumer products company wants to analyze customer responses to several
characteristics of a new shampoo: color, smell, texture, cleanliness, shine, volume, amount needed to lather, and price.
They perform a principal components analysis to determine whether they can form a smaller number of uncorrelated
variables that are easier to interpret and analyse. The results identify the following patterns –
ÿ Color, smell, and texture form a 'Shampoo quality' component.

ÿ Cleanliness, shine, and volume form an 'Effect on hair' component.
ÿ Amount needed to lather and price form a 'Value' component.

Objectives of principal component analysis are –

ÿ To discover or to reduce the dimensionality of the data set.
ÿ To identify new meaningful underlying variables.
Traditionally, principal component analysis is performed on the symmetric Covariance matrix or on the
symmetric Correlation matrix. These matrices can be calculated from the data matrix. The covariance
matrix contains scaled sums of squares and cross products. A correlation matrix is like a covariance
matrix but first the variables, i.e. the columns, have been standardized. We will have to standardize the
data first if the variances of variables differ much, or if the units of measurement of the variables differ.
To perform the analysis, we select the 'Table of Real' data matrix in the list of objects and choose to PCA.
9.4.11 ACTIVITY SAMPLING

Activity sampling is a technique whereby a number of successful observations are made over a period
of time of one or a group of workers, machines or processes. Each observation records what is happening
at that instant, with a rating if necessary. And the percentage of observations recorded for a particular
activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during which that activity occurs. The activity
sampling technique was devised for the purpose of getting information on the time spent by groups of
workers or machines on various activities or delays. For this purpose the sample can be very useful, and
in many cases it has been found most valuable as a method of reconnaissance prior to the use of more
detailed work study techniques. Among the many applications of activity sampling are numbered the
investigating work necessary in-1. Improving the arrangement of duties and general
organization of work.
2. Indicating the trends in which improvements in methods and equipment should be sought, and
assessing the value of the proposed changes.
3. Assessing the value of introducing group incentive schemes.
4. Assessing labor requirements for machine usage.
5. Examining the causes of unsatisfactory performance/efficiency figures or machine usage
figures.
The activity sampling technique is conducted over a representative period of work by taking samples of
activity of the operators and machines to be included and then analyzed using statistical tolerance
procedures. Certain types of work may be difficult to study using standard work measurement techniques,
for example warehouses. A full production study would be time
consuming and expensive. This technique, developed on statistical work by Tippett, allows 'snap'
observations to be built into a picture of the whole. It is an ideal system for assessing machine efficiency
in a large department, and can easily demonstrate the average stoppage rate. The technique is very
similar to statistical quality control, where large numbers of products are inspected to give an expected
confidence level of defect expectation.
Obviously, the accuracy of activity sampling will depend on the number of observations. Few and
infrequent observations will provide a low level of accuracy, while many and frequent observations will
give highly accurate but more expensive information. It is, therefore, particularly important that the
observer knows the optimum number of observations necessary for a particular study.

This number can be calculated quite simply once an approximate picture of the situation is established, using
the following formula.
N= 4P(100-P)
L2
Where, N = Number of observations; P = Approximate occurrence of factor as a percentage of N; L =
Acceptable accuracy in occurrence of factor being studied.
This formula will give the accuracy of the study within 95% confidence limits.
For example, a worker is studied using activity sampling, and 32 observations are noted. Of these 75%
showed that the worker was performing useful work. If we assume that we would like to check that the worker
is performing at this level continuously, plus or minus 10%, i.e. Between 67.5% and 82.5%, how many
observations would we need to provide 95% confidence in the result.
Solution: Here, P = 75%; L = 10%
Hence, N = 4 x 75(100-75)
10 * 10
N = 300 * 25
100
N = 75
However, after performing 75 checks, the value of P was found to be only 70% so the extra data could be
used to assess the new requirement for the number of checks.
N=4 * 70(100-70)
10 * 10
N = 280 * 30
100
N = 28 * 3 = 84
Hence more checks would be required, ie. a total of 9.
Once these checks had been completed, a final calculation should be done to ensure that the required
number had not changed.
It is normally used for collecting information on the percentages of time on activities, without the need to
devote the time that would otherwise be required for any continuous observation spent. One of the great
advantages of this technique is that it enables lengthy activities or groups of activities to be studied
economically and in a way that produces statistically accurate data. Activity sampling can be carried out at
random intervals or fixed intervals. Random activity sampling is where the intervals between observations are
selected at random from a table of random numbers. Fixed interval activity sampling is where the same
interval exists between observations. A decision will need to be made on which of these two approaches is
to be chosen. A fixed interval is usually chosen where activities are performed by a person or group of people
who have a degree of control over what they do and when they do it. Random intervals will normally be used
where there are a series of automated tasks or activities as part of a process, that are have to be performed
in a pre established regular pattern. If fixed interval sampling were to be used in this situation there is a
danger that the sampling point would continue to occur at the same point in the activity cycle.
9.4.12 MEMO MOTION STUDY

Memo motion or spaced-shot photography is a tool of time and motion study that analyzes long

operations by using a camera. It was developed in 1946 by Marvin E. Mundel at Purdue University, who
was the first to save film material while planning studies on kitchen work.
Mundel published the method in 1947 with several studies in his textbook 'Systematic Motion and Time
Study'. A study showed the following advantages of Memo-Motion in regard to other forms of time and
motion study –
• Single operator repetition work.
• Area studies, the study of a group of men or machines.
• Team studies.
• Utilization studies.
• Work measurement.
As a versatile tool for work study it was used in the US to some extent, but rarely in Europe and other
industrial countries mainly because of the difficulties of procuring the required cameras. Today Memo-
Motion could have a comeback because more and more workplaces have conditions which it can explore.
9.4.13 PROCESS ANALYSIS

A step-by-step breakdown of the phases of a process, used to convey the inputs, outputs, and operations
that take place during each phase. A process analysis can be used to improve understanding of how the
process operates, and to determine potential targets for process improvement through removing waste
and increasing efficiency. Inputs may be materials, labor, energy, and capital equipment. Outputs may
be a physical product (possibly used as an input to another process) or a service. Processes can have a
significant impact on the performance of a business, and process improvement can improve a firm's
competitiveness. The first step to improving a process is to analyze it in order to understand the activities,
their relationships, and the relevant values of metrics. Process analysis generally involves the following
tasks-
• Define the process boundaries that mark the entry points of the process inputs and the exit points of the process outputs.
• Construct a process flow diagram that illustrates the various process activities and their
interrelationships
• Determine the capacity of each step in the process. Calculate other measures of interest.
• Identify the bottleneck, that is, the step having the lowest capacity.
• Evaluate further limitations in order to quantify the impact of the bottleneck.
• Use the analysis to make operating decisions and to improve the process.
Process Analysis Tools
When you want to understand a work process or some part of a process, these tools can help -
• Flowchart: A picture of the separate steps of a process in sequential order, including materials or services entering or
leaving the process (inputs and outputs), decisions that must be made, people who become involved, time involved at
each step and/or process measurements.
• Failure Mode Effects Analysis (FMEA): A step-by-step approach for identifying all possible failures in a design, a
manufacturing or assembly process, or a product or service; studying the consequences, or effects, of those failures;
and eliminating or reducing failures, starting with the highest-priority ones.
• Mistake-proofing: The use of any automatic device or method that either makes it impossible for an error to occur or makes
the error immediately obvious once it has occurred.
• Spaghetti Diagram: A spaghetti diagram is a visual representation using a continuous flow line

Tracing the path of an item or activity through a process. The continuous flow line enables process teams to
identify redundancies in the work flow and opportunities to expedite process flow.
Process Flow Diagram

The process boundaries are defined by the entry and exit points of inputs and outputs of the process. Once the
boundaries are defined, the process flow diagram (or) is a valuable tool for understanding
process
the process
flowchart
using graphic
elements to represent tasks, flows, and storage. The following is a flow diagram for a simple process having three
sequential activities-
The symbols in a process flow diagram are defined as follows-

ÿ Rectangles - represent tasks.
ÿ Arrows - represent flows. Flows include the flow of material and the flow of information. The flow of information may include
production orders and instructions. The information flow may take the form of a slip of paper that follows the material, or it
may be routed separately, possibly ahead of the material in order to prepare the equipment. Material flow usually is
represented by a solid line and information flow by a dashed line.
ÿ Inverted triangles - represent storage (inventory). Storage bins are commonly used to represent raw material inventory, work
in process inventory, and finished goods inventory.
ÿ Circles - represent storage of information In a process (not shown the above diagram)in .
flow diagram, tasks drawn one after the other in series are performed sequentially.
Tasks drawn in parallel are performed simultaneously. In the above diagram, raw material is held in a storage bin
at the beginning of the process. After the last task, the output is also stored in a storage bin. When constructing a
flow diagram, care should be taken to avoid pitfalls that might cause the flow diagram not to represent reality. For
example, if the diagram is constructed using information obtained from employees, the employees may be reluctant
to disclose rework loops and other potentially embarrassing aspects of the process. Likewise, if there are illogical
aspects of the process flow, employees may tend to portray it as it should be and not as it is. Even if they portray
the process as they perceive it, their perception may differ from the actual process. For example, they may leave
out important activities that they deem to be insignificant.
Process Performance Measures

Operations managers are interested in process aspects such as cost, quality, flexibility, and speed.
Some of the process performance measures that communicate these aspects include-
• Process capacity - the capacity of the process is its maximum output rate, measured in units produced per unit of
time. The capacity of a series of tasks is determined by the lowest capacity task in the string. The capacity of
parallel strings of tasks is the sum of the capacities of the two strings, except for cases in which the two strings
have different outputs that are combined. In such cases, the capacity of the two parallel strings of tasks is that
of the lowest capacity parallel string.
• Capacity utilization - the percentage of the process capacity that actually is being used.
flow raterate at which units flow past a specific point in the process. The
• Throughput rate (also known as ) - the average
maximum throughput rate is the process capacity.
• Flow time (also known as ) - thethroughput timethat aorunit
average time lead time to flow through the process from the entry point
requires
to the exit point. The flow time is the length of

the longest path through the process. Flow time includes both processing time and any time the unit spends
between steps.
• Cycle time - the time between successful units as they are output from the process. Cycle time for the process is
equal to the inverse of the throughput rate. Cycle time can be thought of as the time required for a task to repeat
itself. Each series task in a process must have a cycle time less than or equal to the cycle time for the process.
Put another way, the cycle time of the process is equal to the longest task cycle time. The process is said to be
in balance if the cycle times are equal for each activity in the process. Such balance is rarely achieved.
• Process time - the average time that a unit is worked on. Process time is flow time less idle time.
• Idle time - time when no activity is being performed, for example, when an activity is waiting for work to arrive from
the previous activity. The term can be used to describe both machine idle time and worker idle time.
• Work In process - the amount of inventory in the process.

• Set-up time - the time required to prepare the equipment to perform an activity on a batch of units. Set-up time
usually does not depend strongly on the batch size and therefore can be reduced on a per unit basis by increasing
the batch size.
• Direct labor content - the amount of labor (in units of time) actually contained in the product.
Excludes idle time when workers are not working directly on the product. Also excludes time spent maintaining
machines, transporting materials, etc.
• Direct labor utilization - the fraction of labor capacity that actually is utilized as direct labor.
Process Bottleneck
The process capacity is determined by the slowest series task in the process; that is, having the slowest throughput
bottleneck .
rate or longest cycle time. This slowest task is known as the Identification of the bottleneck is a critical
aspect of process analysis since it not only determines the process capacity, but also provides the opportunity to
increase that capacity. Saving time in the bottleneck activity saves time for the entire process. Saving time in a non-
bottleneck activity does not help the process since the throughput rate is limited by the bottleneck. It is only when the
bottleneck is eliminated that another activity will become the new bottleneck and presents a new opportunity to
improve the process. If the next slowest task is much faster than the bottleneck, then the bottleneck is having a major
impact on the process capacity. If the next slowest task is only slightly faster than the bottleneck, then increasing the
throughput of the bottleneck will have a limited impact on the process capacity.
Starvation and Blocking

Starvation Occurs when a downstream activity is idle with no inputs to process because of upstream delays. Occurs
Blocking
when an activity becomes idle because the next downstream activity is not ready to take it. Both starvation and blocking
can be reduced by adding buffers that hold inventory between activities.
Process Improvement
Improvements in cost, quality, flexibility, and speed are commonly sought. The following lists some of the ways that
processes can be improved.
• Reduce work-in-process inventory - reduces lead time.
• Add additional resources to increase the capacity of the bottleneck. For example, an additional
Machine can be added in parallel to increase the capacity.
• Improve the efficiency of the bottleneck activity - increases process capacity.
• Move work away from bottleneck resources where possible - increases process capacity.

• Increase availability of bottleneck resources, for example, by adding an additional shift -

increases process capacity.
• Minimize non-value adding activities - decreases cost, reduces lead time. Non-value adding activities include transportation,
rework, waiting, testing and inspection, and support activities.
• Redesign the product for better manufacturability - can improve several or all processes
performance measures.
• Flexibility can be improved by outsourcing certain activities. Flexibility also can be enhanced by
postponement, which shifts customizing activities to the end of the process.
In some cases, dramatic improvements can be made at minimal cost when the bottleneck activity is
severely limiting the process capacity. On the other hand, in well-optimized processes, significant
investment may be required to achieve a marginal operational improvement. Because of the large
investment, the operational gain may not generate a sufficient rate of return. A cost-benefit analysis
should be performed to determine if a process change is worth the investment. Ultimately, net present
value will determine whether a process 'improvement' really is an improvement.
9.4.14 LINK ANALYSIS

Link analysis is a data analysis technique used in network theory that is used to evaluate the
relationships or connections between network nodes. These relationships can be between various
types of objects (nodes), including people, organizations and even transactions. Link analysis is
essentially a kind of knowledge discovery that can be used to visualize data to allow for better analysis,
especially in the context of links, whether Web links or relationship links between people or between
different entities. Link analysis has been used for investigation of criminal activity (fraud detection,
counterterrorism, and intelligence), computer security analysis, search engine optimization, market
research and medical research.
Link analysis is literally about analyzing the links between objects, whether they are physical, digital or
relational. This requires diligent data gathering. For example, in the case of a website where all of the
links and backlinks that are present must be analyzed, a tool has to sift through all of the HTML codes
and various scripts on the page and then follow all the links it finds in order to determine what sort of
links are present and whether they are active or dead. This information can be very important for search
engine optimization, as it allows the analyst to determine whether the search engine is actually able to
find and index the website. In networking, link analysis may involve determining the integrity of the
connection between each network node by analyzing the data that passes through the physical or
virtual links. With the data, analysts can find bottlenecks and possible fault areas and are able to patch
them up more quickly or even help with network optimization.
Link analysis has three primary purposes –

ÿ Find matches for known patterns of interests between linked objects.
ÿ Find anomalies by detecting violated known patterns.
ÿ Find new patterns of interest (for example, in social networking, marketing and business
intelligence).
9.4.15 TIME AND MOTION STUDY

Time and motion study, or motion and time study, is a basic set of tools used by industrial engineers to
increase operational efficiency through work simplification and the setting of standards, usually in
combination with a wage-incentive system designed to increase worker motivation. Originally

Developed to drive productivity improvement in manufacturing plants, motion and time study is also
now used in service industries. Motion and time study is associated with the so-called scientific
management movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century's in the United States,
primarily with the work of industrial engineers Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856–1915), Frank B.
Gilbreth (1868–1924), and Lillian Gilbreth (1878–1972). Some time studies had been conducted
before Taylor, particularly by French engineer Jean Rodolphe Perronet (1708–1794) and English
economist Charles Babbage (1791–1871), both analyzing pin manufacturing. However, modern
movement and time study was developed as part of the scientific management movement championed
by Taylor and eventually became known as Taylorism.
The foundation of Taylorism is a system of task management in which responsibilities are clearly
divided between managers and workers. Managers and engineers engage in planning and task
optimization, primarily through motion and time study, while workers are responsible for carrying out
discrete tasks as directed. The Gilbreths sought to find the best method to perform an operation and
reduce fatigue by studying body movements, attempting to eliminate unnecessary ones and simplify
necessary ones to discover the optimal sequence of movements. The Gilbreths developed the
technique of micromotion study, in which motions are filmed and then watched in slow motion.
Taylor incorporated early research from the Gilbreths in his 'The Principles of Scientific Management'
(1911), and subsequent industrial engineers further developed the Taylorist system.
Taylorism played a key role in the continuous productivity improvement generated by the Fordist
model of work organization. The Fordist model, which is based on the supply-driven, mass production
of standardized goods using semiskilled workers, achieved efficiency improvements across scale
economies and detailed division of labor, both accomplished through the Taylorist separation of
conception from execution, in which managers plan tasks that workers execute. Taylor argued that
such a division of labor between management and workers was a form of 'harmonious cooperation'
that ultimately removed antagonisms from the workplace and benefited both managers and workers.
However, this process of separating conception from execution is often understood as a form of de-
skilling, and Taylorism has been rejected by unions, who have denounced it as a form of speedup
that harms workers and hence quality and productivity.
Debates about the effect of motion and time study on workers continue today in discussions of post-
Fordism, particularly lean production, which employs motion and time study to set standards and
achieves continuous improvement in work processes, but in a context of demand-driven production
Without large buffers of in process inventory. Some workers and commentators argue that motion
and time study under lean production is simply a form of work intensification that is detrimental to
workers, while others argue that under lean production workers are able to contribute to problem
solving and standard setting and thus prefer motion and time study under lean production to that
under Fordism.
Underlying each system is a theory of worker motivation - that workers need to be coerced (in the
Fordist model) or that workers want to do their best and are interested in more intellectual activity (in
the post-Fordist model). In reality, there is more likely a distribution of different motivations across
workers, and worker well-being is likely to depend more on the interaction between individual
orientations toward work and how a given set of methods such as motion and time study are applied
in a particular work context. Because it's the method that determines the time needed for any activity,
the whole emphasis has changed over the years. The 21st century equivalent of the time
and motion study is more literally a method and time study. This is a more far-reaching philosophy
and approach to managing a business. When everyone is focused on better and leaner processes the

Methods improve, time is reduced and more value is added. This - with continuous improvement -
means activities become more streamlined and lean. Lean means that anything wasteful is shown the bin
(movement, time, materials, space). When improvements and Lean initiatives are identified and implemented,
workers can often benefit from less stressful working conditions, less fatigue -
Potentially better rewards, maybe in the form of different hours, increased pay and job satisfaction. It can be a win-
win situation.
Time and Motion Study Basics

In summary, it goes like this –
ÿ Look closely at what you're doing.
ÿ Spot opportunities to be more efficient.
ÿ Make a change to the way you work to do it.
ÿ See if it produces the expected results.
ÿ Rinse and repeat.
ÿ Small changes, big benefits - Small savings quickly mount up. At the same time, we spend a lot of
time in our lives doing stuff that is not very useful. ÿ Pay
attention - Pay attention to what you do and how you do it.
ÿ Start by thinking, in broad terms, about how you spend your time over the course of a typical
working week
ÿ Rescue Time, which tracks the applications and websites you use, may give you more objective data about how you spend
your time. Simply writing things down may be enough.
ÿ Spot opportunities for improvement - You already have data about the amount of time spent
from your observations. ÿ
Make a positive change.
ÿ Evaluate results.
Productivity is often linked with 'time and motion'. The evidence of time and motion studies was used to put
pressure on workers to perform faster. Not surprisingly these studies had a bad press as far as workers were
concerned. Productivity is about the effective and efficient use of all resources.
To manage the resources of a business it is essential that you –
• understand exactly what needs to be done to meet customer demand;
• establish a plan that clearly identifies the work to be carried out;
• define and implement the methodologies that need to be used to complete all activities and tasks
efficiently;
• establish how long it will actually take to complete each activity and task;
• determine what resources you need to meet the plan;
• provide the necessary resources and initiate the plan;
• constantly monitor what is actually happening against the plan; and • identify
variances and take the relevant actions to correct them or modify the plan.

9.4.16 EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The primary method of inquiry in science is the experiment. The key features are control over variables,
careful measurement, and establishing cause and effect relationships. An experiment is an investigation in
which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is
manipulated and the dependent variable (the effect) is measured; Any extraneous variables are controlled.
An advantage is that experiments should be objective. The views and opinions of the researcher should not
affect the results of a study. This is good as it makes the data more valid, and less bias.
There are three types of experiments you need to know –

1. Laboratory / Controlled Experiments: This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment
– not necessarily a laboratory – and therefore accurate measurements are possible.
The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at what time, with which participants, in
what circumstances and using a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.
Strength: It is easier to replicate (ie copy) a laboratory experiment. This is because a standardized
procedure is used. They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent variables. This allows
a cause and effect relationship to be established.
Limitation: The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behavior that does not reflect real life,
i.e. low ecological validity. This means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a real life
setting. Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the results and become confounding
variables.
2. Field Experiments: Field experiments are done in the everyday (ie real life) environment of the participants.
The experimenter still manipulates the independent variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really
control extraneous variables).
Strength: Behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting,
i.e. higher ecological validity than a laboratory experiment. There is less likelihood of demand
characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied. This occurs
when the study is covered.
Limitation: There is less control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it
difficult for another researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.
3. Natural Experiments: Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (ie real life) environment of the
participants, but here the experimenter has no control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life.
Strength: Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life because of its natural setting,
i.e. very high ecological validity. There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results,
as participants may not know they are being studied. Can be used in situations in which it would be
ethically unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable, eg researching stress.
Limitation: They may be more expensive and time consuming than laboratory experiments. There is no
control over extraneous variables that might bias the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher
to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

Experiment Terminology
ÿ Ecological validity: The degree to which an investigation represents real-life experiences.
ÿ Experimenter effects: These are the ways that the experimenter can accidentally influence the
Participant through their appearance or behavior.
ÿ Demand characteristics: The clues in an experiment that lead the participants to think they are
know what the researcher is looking for (eg experimenter's body language).
ÿ Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulations (ie changes) – assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable.
ÿ Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures.
ÿ Extraneous variables (EV): Variables, which are not the independent variable, but could affect
the results (DV) of the experiment. EVs should be controlled where possible.
ÿ Confounding variables: Variable(s) that have affected the results (DV), apart from the IV. A confounding variable could be an
extraneous variable that has not been controlled.
Research Biases
We have got a hypothesis which is the first step in doing an experiment. Before we can continue, we need
to be aware of some aspects of research that can contaminate our results. In other words, what could get
in the way of our results in this study being accurate. These aspects are called research biases, and there
are basically three main biases we need to be concerned with.
• Selection Bias – occurs when differences between groups are present at the beginning of the
experiment.
• Placebo Effect – involves the influencing of performance due to the subject's belief about the results. In other words, if I believe
the new medication will help me feel better, I may feel better even if the new medication is only a sugar pill. This
demonstrates the power of the mind to change a person's perceptions of reality.
• Experimenter Bias – the same way a person's belief's can influence his/her perception, so can the belief of the experimenter.
If I'm doing an experiment, and really believe my treatment works, or I really want the treatment to work because it will
mean big bucks for me, I might behave in a manner that will influence the subject.
Controlling for Biases

After carefully reviewing our study and determining what might influence our results that are not part of the
experiment, we need to control for these biases. To control for selection bias, most experiments use what's
called 'Random Assignment', which means assigning the subjects to each group based on chance rather
than human decision. To control for the placebo effect, subjects are often not informed of the purpose of
the experiment. This is called a 'Blind' study, because the subjects are blind to the expected results. To
control for experimenter biases, we can utilize a 'Double-Blind' study, which means that both the
experimenter and the subjects are blind to the purpose and anticipate the results of the study. We have
our hypothesis, and we know what our subject pool is, the next thing we have to do is standardize the
experiment. Standardization refers to a specific set of instructions. The reason we want the experiment to
be standardized is twofold.
First, we want to make sure all subjects are given the same instructions, presented with the experiment in
the same manner, and that all of the data is collected exactly the same for all subjects. Second, single
experiments typically cannot stand on their own. To really show that the results are valid, experiments
need to be replicated by other experimenters with different subjects. To do this, the experimenters need to
know exactly what we did so they can replicate it.
9.4.17 STATISTICAL METHODS

Statistical methods are the methods of collecting, summarizing, analyzing, and interpreting variable(s) in
numerical data. Statistical methods can be contrasted with deterministic methods, which are appropriate
where observations are exactly reproducable or are assumed to be so. Data collection involves deciding
what to observe in order to obtain information relevant to the questions whose answers are required, and
then making the observations. Sampling involves choice of a sufficient number of observations
representing an appropriate population. Experiments with variable outcomes should be conducted
according to principles of experimental design. Data summarization is the calculation of appropriate
statistics and the display of such information in the form of tables, graphs, or charts. Data may also be
adjusted to make different samples more comparable, using ratios, compensating factors, etc.
Statistical analysis relates observed statistical data to theoretical models, such as probability distributions
or models used in regression analysis. By estimating parameters in the proposed model and testing
hypotheses about competing models, one can assess the value of the information collected and the
extent to which the information can be applied to similar situations. Statistical prediction is the application
of the model thought to be most appropriate, using the estimated values of the parameters. More recently,
less formal methods of looking at data have been proposed, including exploratory data analysis.
9.5 METHODS OF SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION

Secondary data is the data that is collected from the primary sources which can be used in the current
research study. Collecting secondary data often takes significantly less time than collecting primary data
where you would have to gather every information from scratch. It is thus possible to gather more data
this way.
Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands –
ÿ Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral statistics and other related
databases.
ÿ Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups transcripts, field notes,
Observation records and other personal, research-related documents.
Secondary data is often readily available. After the expense of electronic media and internet the availability
of secondary data has become much easier.
Published Printed Sources: There are varieties of published printed sources. Their credibility depends
on many factors. For example, on the writer, publishing company and time and date when published.
New sources are preferred and old sources should be avoided as new technology and researches bring
new facts into light.
Books: Books are available today on any topic that you want to research. The use of books start before
even you have selected the topic. After selection of topics books provide insight on how much work has
already been done on the same topic and you can prepare your literature review.
Books are secondary source but most authentic one in secondary sources.
Journals/periodicals: Journals and periodicals are becoming more important as far as data collection is
concerned. The reason is that journals provide up-to-date information which at times books cannot and
secondly, journals can give information on the very specific topic on which you are researching rather
talking about more general topics.
Magazines/Newspapers: Magazines are also effective but not very reliable. Newspapers on the other
hand are more reliable and in some cases the information can only be obtained from newspapers as in
the case of some political studies.

Published Electronic Sources: As the Internet is becoming more advanced, fast and accessible to the
masses; It has been seen that much information that is not available in printed form is available on the
internet. In the past the credibility of the internet was questionable but today it is not. The reason is that in
the past journals and books were seldom published on the internet but today almost every journal
And the book is available online. Some are free and for others you have to pay the price.
e-journals: e-journals are more commonly available than printed journals. Latest journals are difficult to
retrieve without subscription but if your university has an e-library you can view any journal, print it and
those that are not available you can make an order for them.
General Websites: Generally websites do not contain very reliable information so their content
should be checked for the reliability before quoting from them.
Weblogs: Weblogs are also becoming common. They are actually diaries written by different people.
These diaries are as reliable to use as personal written diaries.
Unpublished Personal Records: Some unpublished data may also be useful in some cases.
Diaries: Diaries are personal records and are rarely available but if you are conducting a descriptive
research then they might be very useful. The Anne Frank's diary is the most famous example of this.
That diary contained the most accurate records of Nazi wars.
Letters: Letters like diaries are also a rich source but should be checked for their reliability before using
them.
Government Records: Government records are very important for marketing, management,
humanities and social science research.
Census Data/population statistics: Health records; Educational institutes' records etc.
Public Sector Records: NGOs' survey data; Other private companies records.
9.6 METHODS OF LEGAL RESEARCH

In pursuing research for disclosing facts or proving a hypothesis true or false, various kinds of methods
can be applied for the successful research. The following research methods collectively or individually can
be applied for the successful research as the main methods.
Observation: Information can be received by observing, visiting and viewing the place, society, events or
the things pertinent to the study or research. Observation can be taken as primary and reliable source of
information. If a researcher is careful, he/she can get the points that may play the significant role in his/her
research or study. Observation is a method that is common in the research of legal and social science.
Observation should be guided by a specific research purpose, the information received from the
observation should be recorded and subjected to checks on the trail of reliability.
Questionnaire: In questionnaire method, a researcher develops a form containing such questions pertinent
to his/her study. Generally, the researcher prepares yes/no questions or short answer questions. In
questionnaire method, researcher distributes such forms to the people to whom s/he deems appropriate.
The people, to whom the questionnaires have been distributed, should answer that what they have known
by filling out the form and returning it to the researcher.
Sampling: When the subject of research is vague, comprehensive and when each indicator cannot be
taken by virtue of financial constraint, time and complexity, etc. Then the researcher can randomly collect
data/sample depending on the reason. This is called as sampling method. For instance, in a demographic
research, part of population representing various groups can be taken into consideration.
That is why, it is said that sample is a method that saves time and money.

Interviews: A researcher can receive information sought by him/her asking people concerned
through interview. It is a direct method of receiving information. Interview can be generally held
asking questions in face-to-face contact to the person or persons and sometimes through telephone
conversation. This method is common in the research of legal and social science. In this method,
the researcher has to use less skill and knowledge to receive information s/he had sought. Interview
is known as an art of receiving permanent information. Interview can be taken as a systematic
method by which a person enters more or less imaginatively into the life of a stranger.
Case Study: Case study is taken as one of the important and reliable methods for legal research.
Case study can be defined as a method of research where the facts and grounds of each legal issue
are dealt with by taking an individual case. Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the
life of a social unit such as a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the entire
community. Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the utility character of
the social object being studied. Keeping in view to the matters as referred to above, we can state
here that the case study is a method of legal research to explore and analyze the fact and data of a
social unit and to organize social data for description of useful character and society .
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Methodsof Data Collection

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Chapter July 2016

Syed Muhammad Sajjad Kabir

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METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Concept of Data Collection 9.2 Types of Data

9.3 Issues to be Considered

Questionnaire Method 9.4.2 Interviews Method

9.4.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

9.4.7 Survey Method 9.4.8

9.4.10 Principal Component Analysis (PCA)

9.5 Methods of Secondary Data Collection

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 202

9.1 CONCEPT OF DATA COLLECTION

9.2 TYPES OF DATA

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 203

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 204

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 205

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 206

Advantages of Using Secondary Data

9.3 ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED FOR DATA COLLECTION/NORMS IN RESEARCH

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 207

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 208

9.4 METHODS OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION

9.4.1 QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 209

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 210

• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.

Questionnaire Administration Modes: Main modes of questionnaire administration are -

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 211

Disadvantages of Questionnaires: The disadvantages of questionnaires are -

9.4.2 INTERVIEWS METHOD

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 212

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 213

When Use Unstructured Interviews: to Unstructured interviewing is recommended when the

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 214

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 215

Preparation and Process of Conducting Interviews

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 216

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 217

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir

Chapter - 9 Methods of Data Collection Page 218

Basic Guidelines for Research SMS Kabir