Republic of the Philippines

CEBU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BARILI CAMPUS
Cagay, Barili, Cebu City, Philippines
Website: http://www.ctu.edu.ph E-mail: [email protected]

COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, FOOD SCIENCE,

AGRIBUSINESS AND DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION

AG CC 114
PRINCIPLES OF SOIL SCIENCE

LECTURE GUIDE MANUAL

Preface
“If we take time to learn the language of the land, the soil will speak to us.”

~ R. Weil and W. Kroontje, Listening to the Land ~

Soil is a fragile, finite resource that forms at the interface of Earth’s rocky crust and the
atmosphere. It plays unique roles in maintaining air quality, storing water and nutrients for
plants, filtering contaminants from surface waters, and using it as a medium for disposing of
liquid and solid wastes. You can find soil almost anywhere on Earth except on steep, rugged
mountains, areas of perpetual ice and snow, and in extreme deserts. Because soil is so common,
people tend to take it for granted — to forget that life as we know it could not exist without soil.
The study of soils can be both fascinating and intellectually satisfying. The soil is an
ideal system in which to observe practical applications for basic principles of biology, chemistry,
and physics. These principles can be used to minimize the degradation and destruction of one
of our most important natural resources. Hence, a fundamental knowledge of soil science is a
prerequisite to meeting the many natural-resource challenges that will face the humanity in the
21st century.
In this course, students will learn the value of hard work, dedication, patience and
independence as they advance in the acquisition of knowledge and skills in soil science and
provide them with the fundamental information needed to understand the basic principles,
nature and behavior, and properties of soils for a better and sound soil management. This, in
turn, puts them in a position to seek detailed knowledge on the sustainability and productivity
of the land resources while preserving the environment. The knowledge, skills, and attitudes
gained from this course will be a catalyst for success in their future endeavors.

Prepared by:

CLEA ANNE E. VALLEJERA-CORSIGA, Ph.D.

Associate Professor

Bachelor of Science in Agriculture

AG-CC114 – Principles of Soil Science
First Semester, A.Y. 2024-2025
 CHAPTER I
DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF SOILS

Overview

Soil is defined as an independent 3-dimensional natural body occupying the Earth’s

surface and capable of supporting plant growth. Its properties results from integrated effects of
climate and living organisms acting upon a parent material as conditioned by topography and
time. It is a mixture of mineral particles and organic matter of varying size and composition.

Motivation Question

What will happen to land-based forms without a soil? Will there be life?

Pretest

Instructions: Encircle the letter that corresponds with the best correct answer.

1. This refers to the collection of porous natural bodies on the Earth’s surface,
containing living matter, and supporting or capable of supporting plants?
a. Soil c. Silt
b. Sand d. Clay

2. This refers to the envelope of the Earth where soils occur and where soil-forming
processes are active?
a. Lithosphere c. Pedosphere
b. Hydrosphere d. Biosphere

3. This refers to the study of soil from the standpoint of plant growth?
a. Space Concept c. Time Concept
b. Edaphology d. Pedology

4. It is the global scientific organization of soil scientists and soil science practitioners?
a. PSSST c. SSSA
b. USLE d. IUSS
5. This division of Soil Science deals with the weathering of rocks and minerals and
factors and processes of soil formation?
a. Soil Genesis c. Soil Classification
b. Soil Survey d. Soil Taxonomy

6. It is the size range of silt?

a. 2.0 – 0.05 mm c. 0.002 – 0.05 mm
b. <0.002 mm d. 0.02 – 0.05 mm

7. Which below is not a composition of a soil?

a. Soil Water c. Soil Air
b. Soil Nutrients d. Soil Organic Matter

8. This refers to essential nutrients that are relatively needed in smaller quantities?
a. Macronutrients c. Primary Minerals
b. Secondary Minerals d. Micronutrients

9. Which of the elements below is the most abundant in the Earth’s crust?
a. Oxygen c. Silicon
b. Iron d. Aluminum

10. Who developed the equation for factors of soil formation?

a. Liebig c. Jenny
b. Fallou d. Darcy
Lesson 1.1 Soil defined: Pedological and Edaphological Perspectives

Lesson Summary

Soil is a living, dynamic system, which forms at the interface between the atmosphere
and lithosphere in response to forces exerted by climate and living organisms acting on parent
material as conditioned by topography over a period of time. The study of soil as a natural entity
looking on origin, classification, and description is known as Pedology while the study of soil
from the standpoint of plant growth is Edaphology.

Learning Outcome/s
1. Explain comprehensively the definition of soil; and
2. Differentiate Edaphological and Pedological concept of the soil.

Motivation Question

What is soil to you? What is your viewpoint about soil?

Discussion

Fundamental Concepts and Definition

Components of the Global Ecosystem:

1. ATMOSPHERE – air surrounding the Earth

2. BIOSPHERE – environment in which living organisms are found and with which they
interact
3. HYDROSPHERE – total body of water that exist on or close to the surface of the Earth
4. LITHOSPHERE – upper (oceanic and continental) layer of the solid Earth

PEDOSPHERE – the envelope of the Earth where soils occur and where soil-forming
processes are active
Properties of the pedosphere affect the other components of the global ecosystem. For
example, accelerated decomposition of organic matter in the pedosphere causes abnormally
high CO2 levels in the atmosphere (note: CO2 is a greenhouse gas)
SOIL - living, dynamic system which forms at the interface between the atmosphere and
lithosphere in response to forces exerted by CLIMATE and LIVING ORGANISMS acting
on PARENT MATERIAL as conditioned by TOPOGRAPHY/RELIEF over a period of TIME.

Note: underline words are the five factor of soil formation

- collection of porous natural bodies on the Earth’s surface, containing living matter, and
supporting or capable of supporting plants
- an independent 3-dimensional natural body occupying the Earth’s surface and capable
of supporting plant growth. Its properties results from integrated effects of climate and
living organisms acting upon a parent material as conditioned by topography and time

Dimensions involved in the Study of Soils:

1. Classic Concept
Soil is a 3-space dimensional body
 Length
 Breadth
 Depth

2. Modern Concept
Soil is a space-time structure
 Length
 Breadth
 Depth
 Time Dimension

Soil Boundaries:

1. Upper boundary - generally considered as air-solid surface interface or free water-

solid surface interface
2. Lateral Boundary - deep water or barren areas of rock, ice, salt, or shifting desert sand
dunes
3. Lower Limit - difficult to define, but generally thought of as the common rooting
depth (shallow in deserts, deep in humid tropics) of the native perennial plant
Importance of Soil

Ecological Functions of the Soil:

1. Production Function
o Soil acts primarily as a medium for the growth of natural vegetation
o Soil assures the supply of food, feeds, energy and raw materials

2. Ecological Regulator
o Soil resists sudden change in its chemical balance thereby protecting the
multitude of organisms living it
o Soil acts as buffer, filter and transformer of various substances in or that are
added to the soil

3. Habitat and Living Space

o Soil is a habitat of a multitude of flora and fauna
o The largest quantity of organisms on the earth is in the soil

4. Engineering Function
o Support for the building foundations
o Construction materials for roads and dams

5. Cultural Heritage Function

o Conceals and preserves remnants of past civilizations, plants and animal life
which are of great value for understanding history of civilization and history
of the earth
 Figure1. Ecological Roles of Soil

Two Concepts of Soils:

1. PEDOLOGY – study of soil as a natural entity – origin, classification and description

2. EDAPHOLOGY – study of soil from the standpoint of plant growth

A person’s concept of soil depends on his/her viewpoint and experiences:

a. Engineer – “Soil is a loose or broken rock material at the earth’s surface. This
material can be used for building purposes.”
b. Geologist – “Soil is a highly weathered rock. Part of the material that makes up
outer mantle of the earth.”
c. Horticulturist – “Soil is a material that needs sterilizing and modification before
using for plant growth in greenhouses.”
d. Farmer and Agronomist – “Soil is a material at earth’s surface with biological,
chemical, and physical properties that enable it to support plant growth.”
Lesson 1.2 Fields of Specialization in Soil Science

Lesson Summary

Originally, Soil Science is a branch of Geology that developed into an independent natural
science. Starting in the 19th century, Soil Science was already considered as a natural science
that deals with a natural body- the SOIL. Soil Science branch out into different divisions with
specific fields of specialization.

Learning Outcome/s
1. Identify the different fields of specialization in soil science.

Motivation Question

How are the different fields of specialization in Soil Science interrelated?

Discussion
Soil Science in a Nutshell

 Originally a branch of Geology that developed into an independent natural science

 Starting in the 19th century, Soil Science was already considered as a natural science
that deals with a natural body- the SOIL
 Major applications were initially toward addressing agricultural concerns and has
greatly contributed to the increased food production worldwide
 Worsening environmental problems and the increased realization that the soil can
treat contaminants has dramatically changed the focus of soil science

Three Periods in the Development of Soil Science

1. ANCIENT
4, 000 years ago – Chinese attempted to classify the soil
2, 000 years ago – Greeks and Romans started simple soil studies
- THEOPHRASTUS (371-286 BC) –gave the soil the name “edaphos” and described soil
properties that affect growth
- CATO (234-149 BC) – developed a classification system of arable soils and
emphasized the suitability of soils for farming
 2. PRE-SOIL SCIENCE PERIOD
- J. VON LIEBIG (1803-1873) – established agricultural chemistry and formulated
mineral theory of plant nutrition - “The Law of Minimum”
- HENRI DARCY (1803-1927) – developed the key law in Soil Physics (Darcy’s Law)
that describe water flow in soils
- JOSEPH HENRY GILBERT (1817-1901) – established first systematic long-term field
fertilizer experiment in the world-famous Rothamsted Experiment Station

3. EARLY SOIL SCIENCE PERIOD

- F. A. FALLOU (1794-1877) – in his book “Pedology or General and Special Sil Science”
(1862), he argued for the recognition of Soil Science as an independent natural
science; Founder of Modern Soil Science
- V.V DOKUCHAEV (1846-1903) – in his book “Russian Chernozem” (1883), he
discussed the factors of soil formation and he introduced the ABC horizon
nomenclature system; Father of Soil Science
- E.W. HILGARD (1833-1893) – one of the first to apply soil science to solve problems
in agriculture and is considered the “Father of American Soil Science”
- H. JENNY (1899-1992) – in 1941, he published “Factors of soil Formation”
– S=f(c,lo,r,p,t)
- The International Union of Soil Sciences (IUSS) – the global scientific organization
of soil scientists and soil science practitioners; a full member of the International
Council for Sciences (the governing body of the sciences composed of 25
international science unions)

Divisions of Soil Science

1. Soil Genesis and Classification – deals with the weathering of rocks and minerals
and factors and processes of soil formation whereas, soil classification is the
systematic rearrangements of soils into groups or categories on the basis of their
characteristics
2. Soil Survey– the systematic examination of the soils in the field and lab, their
description, classification, mapping and interpretation according to their suitability
for different management systems
3. Soil Physics – concerns with the mechanical behavior of the soil mass, that is, the
physical properties of the soils with emphasis on the state and transport of matter
especially water and energy in the soil
4. Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry/ Soil Ecology – study of soil microorganisms and
biochemical processes in soils; it deals with the microbial communities in the soil,
their roles and characteristics with respect to soil fertility and land reclamation and
 especially it concerns with the nutrition of the plant through root nodulation or
diseases caused by plant pathogenic microbes in the soil.
5. Soil Fertility – ability of a soil to supply the essential nutrients to plants at proper
amounts and proportions for plant growth
6. Soil Mineralogy – the primary and secondary minerals and their contribution to the
chemistry, physics, fertility and biology of soils and their relation to soil genesis;
mineralogical processes that are of agricultural and environmental importance
7. Soil and Water Conservation – science of soil loss and techniques to prevent soil
loss; it deals with the protection of soil from the physical loss by erosion (by wind
and water) or chemical deterioration. Thus, soil conservation is concerned with a
combination of all management and land use method that safeguard the soil against
deterioration by natural or human induced factors.
8. Soil Chemistry – it deals with the chemical constitution, chemical properties and
processes taking place in the soil.
9. Soil Biology – it refers to the soil inhabiting organisms and their biology, functions,
and activities
10. Soil Salinity – concerns with the excess soluble salts present in the soil and their
reclamation and soil management for saline agriculture
Lesson 1.3 Composition of the Soil

Lesson Summary

Soil is a mixture of mineral particles and organic matter of varying size and composition.
The four components of soil are mineral matter (45%), organic matter (5%), soil air (20-30%), and
soil water (20-30%).

Learning Outcome/s

1. Discuss the composition of the soil; and

2. Identify the percentages in each composition.

Motivation Question

What makes up the soil?

Discussion

Four Major Components of the Soil

Soil is a mixture of mineral

particles and organic matter of varying
size and composition (Figure 2). The
particles make up about 50% of the
soil’s volume. Pores containing air
and/or water occupy the remaining
volume.

Figure2. The Four Soil Components and its Percentages

The four major components of the soil are:

1. Mineral Matter (45%) Soil Solids (50%)

2. Organic Matter (5%)

3. Soil Air (20-30%) Pore Space (50%)

4. Soil Water (20-30%)

The relative proportions of these four components greatly influence the behavior and
productivity of the soil.

Mineral constituents: Inorganic part

Soil Particles/Separates:

1. Sand: 2.0~0.05 mm.

2. Silt: 0.05~0.002mm.

3. Clay: < 0.002mm; colloidal properties

Soil Texture: Relative proportions of soil particles

Organic constituents: colloidal properties

• Biomass (living organisms) and metabolic products

Advantages on:

• Soil Physical properties: improves the drainage, structure, and water adsorption

• Soil Chemical properties: increased adsorbed nutrients, contributes to the released

nutrients, and developed a hormone-like stimulatory effect
 Figure3. Soil with organic matter vs. Soil without organic matter

Soil Water

• Reflective of climatic factors and relief

• Hold in pore space

• Dissolve different materials - soil solution

• Contain 18 essential elements (from fine particles)

Soil Air

• Volume varying with the volume of water content

• Differ from atmosphere:

a. Higher in CO2 (0.035%), lower in O2 (5~10%)

b. Higher in moisture

c. Composition vary from place to place

Lesson 1.4 Composition of the Mineral Matter

Lesson Summary

Most of the soil’s solid framework consists of mineral particles. The mineral particles
present in the soils are extremely variable in size. The soil separates or particles were classified
into three classes: Sand, Silt, and Clay. The proportions of particles in these different size ranges
is called Soil Texture. Texture has a profound influence on many soil properties and it affects
the suitability of a soil for most uses.

Learning Outcome/s

1. Discuss the composition of the mineral matter;

2. Classify the three major soil fractions; and
3. Compare the crystalline and non-crystalline clay fractions.

Motivation Question

How mineral matter does affects the nature and behavior of the soil?

Discussion

Three Fractions of Mineral Matter/ Soil Particles/ Soil Separates

Most of the soil’s solid framework consists of mineral particles. The larger soil particles,
which include stones, gravel, and coarse sands are generally rock fragments of various kinds.
That is, larger particles are often aggregates of several different minerals. Most of the smaller
particles tend to be made of a single mineral. Thus, any particular soil is made up of particles
that vary greatly in both size and composition.

The mineral particles present in the soils are extremely variable in size:
1. Sand - largest particles and they fell “gritty”
2. Silt - medium sized, and they feel soft, silky or “floury”
3. Clay - smallest sized particles, and they feel “sticky
 beach ball dime
frisbee

Silt Clay
Sand (feels sticky)
(feels gritty) (feels floury)

(2.00 - 0.05 mm, USDA)

(0.05 - 0.002 mm, USDA) (< 0.002 mm, USDA)
(2.00 - 0.02 mm, ISSS)
(0.02 - 0.002 mm, ISSS) (< 0.002 mm, ISSS)

Figure4.The Three Soil Separates

The proportions of particles in these different size ranges is called Soil Texture. Texture
has a profound influence on many soil properties and it affects the suitability of a soil for most
uses.

Primary vs. Secondary Minerals

• Primary Mineral – minerals

that have persisted with little
change in composition;
include sand and silt

• Secondary Mineral – formed

form the breakdown and
weathering of less resistant
primary minerals; silicate
clay and Fe oxides; some in
silt fraction

Figure5. Relative Abundance of Primary and Secondary Minerals

Crystalline vs. Non-Crystalline Clay Fractions

The colloidal properties (clays and humus) are the seat of most chemical, physical, and
biological properties of soils. One distinct characteristics of clay is their structure.

 Crystalline Clays – these are clays that have crystalline, layer-like structures; the
layer-like structure particle is comprised of a series of layers much like the pages
of the book;
Example: Layer Silicate clays (phyllosilicates)

 Non-Crystalline Clay –these are clays that doesn’t have structure or have irregular
shape; the crystalline structure is not sufficiently ordered to be detected by X-
ryas; dominantly amorphous clays (allophane and imogolite)
Lesson 1.5

Lesson Summary

The Earth's crust is the thin ground layer that we all live on. It consists of approximately
80 elements distributed in around 2000 compounds or minerals, many of which are of variable
composition. 98.4% of the Earth's crust is made up of silicone, oxygen, iron, aluminum,
magnesium, sodium, calcium and potassium.

Learning Outcome/s
1. Summarize the elemental composition of the earth’s crust.

Motivation Question
What are the different elements found in the earth’s crust? Why are these elements important to us?

Discussion
Two Forms of Earth’s Crust

The Earth's crust is the thin ground layer that we all live on. It is one of the Earth’s layers
that has been built from many types of rocks which represents less than 1% of the Earth's
volume. It is divided into tectonic plates that move, allowing heat to escape from the ground up.
The crust temperature rises with depth, usually reaching values within the range from about 200
to 400°C at the boundary with the underlying mantle. The boundary between the crust and the
mantle is traditionally placed at the Mohorovičić discontinuity, which is the boundary
determined by the variation in seismic velocity.

The surface of the planet earth consists of two

different forms:

1. Continental crust: (5 to 10 km thick) and

comprising of slightly density, silicon and
aluminum materials; the most abundant
minerals in the continental crust are feldspar
41%, quartz 12%, and pyroxene 11%.

2. Oceanic crust: (30 to 50 km thick) and is

comprising of heavy silica and magnesium
materials. Figure6. The Layers of the Earth
Chemical Composition: Elements and Compounds

Minerals are substances naturally formed on Earth which have definite structure and
chemical composition. There are more than 4600 known minerals such as gold and diamond
that are rare and precious while others, like quartz, are more ordinary. Minerals, as for other
compounds, are made from elements. There are only about a hundred elements and they can be
found in their pure form or chemically combined with other compound-making elements.

Chemically, the earth's crust consists of approximately 80 elements distributed in around

2000 compounds or minerals, many of which are of variable composition. 98.4% of the Earth's
crust is made up of silicone, oxygen, iron, aluminum, magnesium, sodium, calcium and
potassium. All other elements represent about 1.6% of the Earth's crust volume. Nearly 99% of
the minerals that make up the crust of the Earth consist of just eight elements, those make up
almost all of the Earth's crust. Most of those elements are found as compounds in combination
with other elements. The most abundant minerals in the continental crust are feldspar (41%),
quartz (12%), and pyroxene (11%).

Figure7. Elements in the Earth’s crust

Lesson 1.6 The Essential Nutrient Elements

Lesson Summary

Essential Nutrient is an element necessary for plant growth and reproduction. They were
classified into macro- and micro- nutrients depending on the amount needed by plants. There
were 17 identified essential nutrients which came from air, water, and soil.

Learning Outcome/s
1. Differentiate macronutrient from micronutrient;
2. Enumerate the three criteria of essentiality; and
3. Identify the ionic forms of nutrients/elements.

Motivation Question
Why do plants need essential nutrients?

Discussion
Criteria of Essentiality

Essential Nutrient is an element necessary for plant growth and reproduction. According
to Arnon and Stout (1939), an element is essential to plants when:

a) It is required by plant to complete its life cycle;

b) The action of the element is specific and no other element may be substituted for it; and

c) The element must exert its effect directly on the growth or metabolism.

Classification of Essential Elements:

Although pants can absorb more than 90 elements, only 17 meet the criteria for
essentiality and so are absorbed by plants more than the others. The essential elements are
classified into:

1) Macronutrients - required in relatively large quantities

- includes C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S
- Components of proteins, nucleic acids and wide range of smaller
molecules
 o Primary Macronutrients = N, P, K
o Secondary Macronutrients = Ca, Mg, S

2) Micronutrients - required in small quantities

- Cl, Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu, Mo, Ni
- As enzyme cofactors or components of electron transport proteins wide
range of smaller molecules

 Beneficial Plant Nutrients (Co, Al, Na, Si, Fl, Ba, and I)
- Elements which stimulate growth or which are essential only for certain plant
species; does not fulfill Arnon's criteria of essentiality

Table 1. Essential Elements to Plant Growth, their Sources, and Ionic Forms
Sources Element Chemical Ionic Forms Used
Symbol by Plants
Non-mineral (air Carbon C CO2
and water) Hydrogen H H2O
Oxygen O H2O
Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+
Mineral (soil Primary Macronutrients
solids) Nitrogen N NO3-, NH4+
Phosphorus P H2PO4 , HPO42-
Potassium K K+
Secondary Macronutrients
Calcium Ca Ca2+
Magnesium Mg Mg2+
Sulfur S SO4-
Micronutrients
Iron Fe Fe2+
Boron B H2B03-
Manganese Mn Mn2+
Copper Cu Cu2+
Zinc Zn Zn2+
Molybdenum Mo MoO42-
Chlorine Cl Cl-
Nickel Ni Ni2+
Posttest

Instructions: Encircle the letter that corresponds with the best correct answer.

1. This refers to the collection of porous natural bodies on the Earth’s surface,
containing living matter, and supporting or capable of supporting plants?
a. Soil c. Silt
b. Sand d. Clay

2. This refers to the envelope of the Earth where soils occur and where soil-forming
processes are active?
a. Lithosphere c. Pedosphere
b. Hydrosphere d. Biosphere

3. This refers to the study of soil from the standpoint of plant growth?
a. Space Concept c. Time Concept
b. Edaphology d. Pedology

4. It is the global scientific organization of soil scientists and soil science practitioners?
a. PSSST c. SSSA
b. USLE d. IUSS
5. This division of Soil Science deals with the weathering of rocks and minerals and
factors and processes of soil formation?
a. Soil Genesis c. Soil Classification
b. Soil Survey d. Soil Taxonomy

6. It is the size range of silt?

a. 2.0 – 0.05 mm c. 0.002 – 0.05 mm
b. <0.002 mm d. 0.02 – 0.05 mm

7. Which below is not a composition of a soil?

a. Soil Water c. Soil Air
b. Soil Nutrients d. Soil Organic Matter

8. This refers to essential nutrients that are relatively needed in smaller quantities?
a. Macronutrients c. Primary Minerals
b. Secondary Minerals d. Micronutrients
 9. Which of the elements below is the most abundant in the Earth’s crust?
a. Oxygen c. Silicon
b. Iron d. Aluminum

10. Who developed the equation for factors of soil formation?

a. Liebig c. Jenny
b. Fallou d. Darcy

References
ABDEL RAZEK, M.H. 2020. Composition of the Earth’s Crust. Ain Shams Engineering Journal.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343336295

BRADY, N. C. and R. R. WEIL. 2002. The Nature and Properties of Soils.13th ed. Prentice Hall.
Upper Saddle River, NJ.

BUOL, S. W., R.J. SOUTHARD, R.C. GRAHAM, and P.A. MCDANIEL. 2003. Soil Genesis and
Classification. 5th edition. Iowa State Press, Iowa.

HAVLIN, J.L., J. D. BEATON, S. L. TISDALE and W.L. NELSON. 1999. Soil Fertility and
Fertilizers: An Introduction Nutrient Management. 6th Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
N. J.

LOYNACHAN, T.E., K. W. BROWN, T. H. COOPER, AND M. H. MILFORD. 1999.

Sustaining our Soil and Society. American Geological Institute Alexandria, Virginia.

Answers to Pretest and Posttest

1. a
2. c
3. b
4. d
5. a
6. c
7. b
8. d
9. a
10. c