BASIC CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT I: Basics of Civil Engineering: Role of Civil Engineers in Society- Various Disciplines
of Civil Engineering- Structural Engineering- Geo-technical Engineering- Transportation
Engineering - Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering - Environmental Engineering-
Scope of each discipline - Building Construction and Planning- Construction Materials-Cement
- Aggregate - Bricks- Cement concrete- Steel. Introduction to Prefabricated construction
Techniques.
CIVIL ENGINEERING
Civil engineering is that branch of engineering which aims to provide a comfortable and safe
living for the people. Shelter, one of the primary needs of mankind, is provided by civil
engineers. The efficient planning of water supply and irrigation systems increases the food
production in a country. Shelters, apart from just being shelters, have been constructed by civil
engineers to provide a peaceful and comfortable life.
The engineering marvels of the world, starting from the pyramids to today’s thin shell
structures, are the results of the development in civil engineering. Communication lines like
roads, railways, bridges, etc., without which development is impossible, are fruits of civil
engineers’ work.
Role of Civil Engineers in Society
Civil engineering incorporates activities such as construction of structures like buildings, dams,
bridges, roads, railways, hydraulic structures, water supply and sanitary engineering. Various
functions of a civil engineer are listed below.
1. Investigation The first function of a civil engineer is to collect the necessary data that is
required before planning a project.
2. Surveying The objectives of surveying is to prepare maps and plans to locate the various
structures of a project on the surface of earth.
3. Planning Depending on the results obtained from investigation and surveying, a civil
engineer should prepare the necessary drawing for the project with respect to capacity, size and
location of its various components. On the basis of this drawing, a preliminary estimate should
be worked out.
4. Design After planning, the safe dimension of the components required are worked out. With
this dimension a detailed drawing is prepared for various components and also for the whole
structure and a detailed estimate is also calculated.
5. Execution This function deals with the preparation of schedules for construction activities,
floating of tenders, finalisation of contracts, supervision of construction work, preparation of
bills and maintenance.
6. Research and Development In addition to the above-mentioned works, a civil engineer has
to engage himself in research and development to achieve economy and to improve the
efficiency to meet the present and future needs.
Various Disciplines of Civil Engineering
Any discipline of engineering is a vast field with various specialisations. The major
specialisations of civil engineering are listed below:
• Structural Engineering
• Geotechnical Engineering
• Transportation Engineering
• Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines
• Irrigation & Water Resource Engineering
• Environmental Engineering
• Building Construction and Planning
Structural Engineering
Structural engineering is the most important specialisation in civil engineering. The
construction of a structure needs efficient planning, design and method of construction to serve
the purpose fully. Generally there are five major steps in any construction project. These
include the following:
1. Positioning and arranging the various parts of the structure into a definite form to
achieve best utilisation.
2. Finding out the magnitude, direction and nature of various forces acting on the
structure.
3. Analysing the structure to know the behaviour of the various parts of the structure
subjected to the above forces.
4. Designing the structure such that its stability under the action of various loads is
ensured.
5. Executing the work with selected construction materials and skilled workers
Geotechnical Engineering
For the efficient functioning of any structure built on earth, the behaviour of soil must be
known.
Geotechnical engineering gives the basic idea about the soil. This branch also deals with the
following aspects:
• The properties and behaviour of soil as a material under “soil mechanics”.
• The various types of foundations for a structure, for a machine, etc. and their suitability.
Geotechnical engineering also deals with the analysis, design and construction of
foundation.
Geotechnical engineering uses principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to
investigate soil and subsurface conditions. It deals with determination of the relevant
physical/mechanical and chemical properties of the soil systems; evaluates stability of natural
and man-made slopes.
Soil investigation includes collection and testing of soil samples. Soils are considered
as three-phase system comprised of soil solids, water and air. The voids of soil are intern filled
with either air, water or both.
Geotechnical engineering is important in civil engineering, but it also has applications
in other engineering disciplines.
Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineering is that branch of civil engineering which deals with planning,
designing and construction of roads, bridges, railways, tunnels, harbors, ports, docks, runways,
and airports.

As for the development of any nation, good transportation network is of prime importance.

Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the

planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of
transportation in order to provide for safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods. It is a sub-
discipline of civil engineering.

Providing good and economical road links is an important duty of civil engineers. It involves
design and construction of base courses, suitable surface finishes, cross drainage works,
intersections, culverts, bridges and tunnels, etc.
Railways is another important long-way transport facility. Design, construction and
maintenance of railway lines are parts of transportation engineering.

The different branches of transportation engineering include the following: highway

engineering deals with the planning and designing of roads, railway engineering deals with
laying of railway lines, station yards and other facilities, harbour engineering deals with ports,
harbours and ducts and airport engineering deals with the design and construction of airport
pavements, runways etc.,
Hydraulics and Water Resources Engineering
Water is an important need for all living beings. Study of mechanics of water and its flow
characteristics is another important field in civil engineering and it is known as hydraulics.
Requirement of water in cities for domestic purpose and for industries is continuously
increasing.
The design of hydraulic structures, such as dams and regulators, require the force
exerted by water and the behaviour of water under pressure. Machines which utilise the
hydraulic energy are called hydraulic machines. For example, turbines use potential energy of
water to generate power. Pumps are devices which utilise mechanical energy to lift water. The
efficient working of the above machines depends upon the fluid behaviour which is dealt with
in this discipline.
Water resource engineering means measurement, utilization and development of water
resources for agriculture, municipal and power generation purpose. Rural areas need water for
agricultural field also. Hence, civil engineers have to look for new water resources and for
storing them.
It involves the design of new systems and equipment that help manage human water
resources. Water resource engineering deals with planning, designing and developing water
resources by constructing several hydraulic structures like dams, barrages, hydropower
stations, canal and pipe networks, etc.
Environmental engineering
Environmental engineering deals with pollution control and public health engineering.
Different types of pollutions are water, air, noise and others.
Due to large scale industrialization, population growth, rapid urbanization and several
other human activities like construction, mining, transportation, etc., environment gets
polluted. Environmental engineering deals with technologies and facilities which are engaged
in reducing pollution.
 It includes design, construction and maintenance of water treatment plant, waste water
treatment plant, water distribution network and sewerage system; it also deals with solid waste
management in towns and cities.
Public health engineering includes water treatment, water distribution network and
solid waste management.
Environmental engineering is concerned with the application of scientific and
engineering principles for protection of human population from the effects of adverse
environmental factors; protection of environments, both local and global, from potentially
deleterious effects of natural and human activities; and improvement of environmental quality.
Building Construction and Planning
Construction Engineering is a professional discipline that deals with the designing, planning,
construction, and management of infrastructures such as roads, tunnels, bridges, airports,
railroads, facilities, buildings, dams, utilities and other projects.
It is considered a professional sub-practice area of civil engineering or architectural
engineering. The following stages are carried out for any type of project:
• In the beginning, technical feasibility, environmental impact assessment and
economical viability of the project are studied.
• Soil investigation includes collecting data regarding soil and bearing capacity of soil.
Soil investigations are done for the purpose of foundation design.
• Surveying includes preparing site plan, contour map and measurement of field
dimensions and levels.
• On the basis of the data collected, planning and designing are carried out and drawings
are prepared. Buildings are planned according to the fundamental principles of planning
and by laws of local municipal bodies. Building planning also requires basic knowledge
of principles of architecture.
• Estimates are prepared to know the probable cost of completion of work and detailed
planning and scheduling are prepared to carry out different activities in time without
any delay.
Construction Materials
As an engineer, one must know about the materials used in the construction site. All structures
are constructed of materials known as engineering materials or building materials. It is
necessary for an engineer to be conversant with the properties of such materials.
 The service conditions of buildings demand a wide range of materials with specific
properties. Hence the properties of the materials are to be studied properly to select suitable
building materials.
In this section and in the subsequent sections, the properties and uses of some building
materials, such as bricks, cement, concrete and steel are discussed.
Cement
Cement is obtained by burning at a very high temperature a mixture of calcareous and
argillaceous materials. The calcined product is known as clinker. A small quantity of gypsum
is added to the clinker and is pulverised into very fine powder known as cement. On setting,
cement resembles a variety of sandstone found in Portland in England and is, therefore, called
Portland cement.
Good Qualities of Cement
1. The colour should be uniform.
2. Cement should be uniform when touched. Cement should be cool when felt with hand.
If a small quantity of cement is thrown into a bucket of water, it should sink.
3. Cement should be free from lumps.
4. Cement mortar at the age of three days should have a compressive strength of
11.5 N/mm2 and tensile strength of 2 N/mm2. Also, at the age of seven days,
compressive strength should not be less than 17.5 N/mm2 and tensile strength should
not be less than 2.5 N/mm2.
5. In cement, the ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide should not be less
than 0.66.
6. When ignited, cement should not loose more than 4 per cent of its weight.
7. The total sulphur content of cement should not be greater than 2.75 per cent.
8. The weight of insoluble residue in cement should not be greater than 1.5 per cent.
9. Weight of magnesia in cement should not exceed 5 per cent.
10. The specific surface of cement as found from the fineness test should not be less than
2250 mm2 /gm.
11. The initial setting time of cement should not be less than 30 minutes and the final setting
time shall be around 10 hours.
12. The expansion of cement should not be greater than 10 mm when soundness test is
conducted.
Uses of Cement
1. Cement mortar, a mixture of cement and sand, is used for masonry work, plastering,
pointing and in joints of pipes, drains, etc.
2. Cement is the binding material in concrete used for laying floors, roofs and constructing
lintels, beams, weather sheds, stairs, pillars, etc.
3. Construction of important engineering structures, such as bridges, culverts, dams,
tunnels, storage reservoirs, light houses and docks needs cement.
4. The manufacture of precast piles, pipes, garden seats, artistically designed urns, flower
pots, dust bins, fencing post, etc., requires cement.
5. For underwater construction, quick setting cement is used. Rapid hardening cement is
used for structures requiring early strength.
6. White and coloured cements are used for imparting coloured finishes to the floors,
panels and exterior surfaces of buildings.
7. Expansive cements, which expands while setting, can be used in repair works of cracks.
Grade of Cement

1. M33 grade Cement M refers to the mix, 33 refers the compressive strength of 70.6 mm
size cube at the age of 28 days—used for plastering work.
2. M43 grade Cement M refers to the mix, 43 refers the compressive strength of 70.6 mm
size cube at the age of 28 days—used for bricks or stone masonry walls constructions.
3. M53 grade Cement M refers to the mix, 53 refers the compressive strength of 70.6 mm
size cube at the age of 28 days —used for concreting works.

Aggregate
Aggregates are the materials basically used as filler with binding material in the production of
mortar and concrete. They are derived from igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks or
manufactured from blast furnace slag, etc. Aggregates form the body of the concrete, reduce
the shrinkage and effect economy.
They occupy 70-80 per cent of the volume and have considerable influence on the
properties of the concrete. It is therefore significantly important to obtain right type and quality
of aggregates at site. They should be clean, hard, strong, durable and graded in size to achieve
utmost economy from the paste.
Classification of Aggregates
On the Basis of Geological Origin
The aggregates may be classified into natural aggregates and artificial aggregates.
Natural Aggregates: These are obtained by crushing from quarries of igneous, sedimentary or
metamorphic rocks. Gravels and sand reduced to their present size by the natural agencies also
fall in this category. The most widely used aggregate are from igneous origin. Aggregates
obtained from pits or dredged from river, creek or sea are most often not clean enough or well
graded to suit the quality requirement. They therefore require sieving and washing before they
can be used in concrete.
Artificial Aggregates: Broken bricks, blast furnace slag and synthetic aggregates are artificial aggregates.
Broken bricks known as brick bats are suitable for mass concreting, for example, in foundation
bases. They are not used for reinforced concrete works. Blast furnance slag aggregate is obtained
from slow cooling of the slag followed by crushing. The dense and strong particles as obtained
are used for making precast concrete products. The specific gravity of these range between 2–

2.8 and bulk density 1120–1300 kg / m3. The blast furnace slag aggregate has good fire resisting
properties but are responsible for corrosion of reinforcement due to Sulphur content of slag.
Synthetic aggregates are produced by thermally processed materials such as expanded clay and
shale used for making light weight concrete.

On the Basis of Size

According to size aggregates are classified as coarse aggregate, fine aggregate and all-in- aggregate.
Corase Aggregate: Aggregate retained on 4.75 mm sieve are identified as coarse. They are obtained
by natural disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks. The maximum size of aggregate can
be 80 mm. The size is governed by the thickness of section, spacing of reinforcement, clear
cover, mixing, handling and placing methods.
Fine Aggregate: Aggregate passing through 4.75 mm sieve are defined as fine. They may be natural
sand—deposited by rivers, crushed stone sand—obtained by crushing stones and crushed gravel
sand. The smallest size of fine aggregate (sand) is 0.06 mm. Depending upon the particle size,
fine aggregates are described as fine, medium and coarse sands. On the basis of particle size
distribution, the fine aggregates are classed into four zones; the grading zones being
progressively finer from grading zone I to grading zone IV (IS: 383).

On the Basis of Shape

Aggregates are classified as rounded, irregular, angular, and flaky.
Rounded aggregates These are generally obtained from river or sea shore and produce minimum
voids (about 32 per cent) in the concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area to the
volume, and the cement paste required is minimum. Poor interlocking bond makes it unsuitable
for high strength concrete and pavements.
Irregular Aggregates: They have voids about 36 per cent and require more cement paste as compared
to rounded aggregate. Because of irregularity in shape they develop good bond and are suitable
for making ordinary concrete.
Angular Aggregates: They have sharp, angular and rough particles having maximum voids (about
40 per cent). Angular aggregate provide very good bond than the earlier two, are most suitable
for high strength concrete and pavements; the requirement of cement paste is relatively more.
Flaky Aggregates: These are sometimes wrongly called as elongated aggregate. However, both of
these influence the concrete properties adversely. The least lateral dimension of flaky aggregate
(thickness) should be less than 0.6 times the mean dimension. For example, the mean sieve size
for an aggregate piece passing through 50 mm and retained on 40 mm sieve is (50 + 40) / 2 =
45.0 mm. If the least lateral dimension is less than 0.6 × 45 = 27.0 mm, the aggregate is classified
as flaky. Elongated aggregate are those aggregate whose length is 1.8 times its mean dimension.
Flaky aggregate generally orient in one plane with water and air voids underneath. They
adversely affect durability and are restricted to maximum of 15 per cent.
Bricks
The common brick is one of the oldest building materials and it is extensively used at present
because of its durability, strength, reliability, low cost, etc. Bricks are obtained by moulding
clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size, then by drying and burning these blocks in brick
kilns.
A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with one hand.
The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below:

• Length of brick = 2 × width of brick + thickness of mortar

• Height of brick = width of brick

Size of a standard brick (also known as modular brick) should be 19 × 9 × 9 cm and 19 × 9 × 4 cm.
When placed in masonry the 19 × 9 × 9 cm brick with mortar becomes 20 × 10 × 10 cm.
Constituents of a Brick
1. Alumina It is the chief constituent of clay. A good brick should have 20–30 per cent of
alumina. This imparts plasticity to the earth.
2. Silica It exists in clay in a free or combined form. A good brick earth should contain about
50–60 per cent of silica. The presence of silica prevents cracking, shrinking and warping
of raw bricks. It imparts uniform shape to bricks. The durability depends on proper
proportion of silica.
3. Lime Up to 5 per cent of lime is desirable in good brick earth. It prevents shrinkage in raw
bricks. Sand alone is infusible, but it fuses at kiln temperature due to the presence of lime.
Bricks may melt and lose their shape due to excess of lime content.
4. Oxide of iron This gives the red colour to bricks. A small quantity of iron oxide up to 5 or
6 per cent is desirable.
5. Magnesia This imparts yellow tints to bricks and it reduces shrinkage.
Characteristics Of Good Brick

The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing, regularity
in size, a proper suction rate, and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.
Size and Shape: The bricks should have uniform size and plane, rectangular surfaces with
parallel sides and sharp straight edges.
Colour: The brick should have a uniform deep red or cherry colour as indicative of
uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the brick.
Textuxe and Compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause slipping of
mortar. The brick should have precompact and uniform texture. A fractured surface should
not show fissures, holes grits or lumps of lime.
Hardness and Soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by a finger nail
no impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a metallic sound should be
produced.
Water absorption should not exceed 20 per cent of its dry weight when kept immersed in
water for 24 hours.
Crushing Strength should not be less than 10 N/mm2 for First-class bricks.
Brick Earth should be free from stones, kankars, organic matter, saltpetre, etc

Classification of Bricks
Bricks are classified based on the manufacturing process adopted. The classification is given
as follows:
1. First-class bricks are table-moulded and of standard shape. These comply with all good
qualities of bricks and are used for superior and permanent works.
2. Second-class bricks are ground-moulded and burnt in kilns. The surfaces of such bricks
are rough and are slightly irregular in shape. Such bricks are used with a coat of plaster.
3. Third-class bricks are ground-moulded and are burnt in clamps. These bricks are not
hard but rough with irregular and distorted edges. These give a dull sound when struck
with each other. They are used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places
where there is less rainfall.
4. Fourth-class bricks: overburnt bricks with irregular shape and dark colour are
classified as the fourth class bricks. These are used as aggregates for concrete in
foundations, floors, roads, etc.
Qualities of Good Bricks
1. Bricks should have perfect edges, well-burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from
cracks with proper rectangular shape and of standard size (19 × 9 × 9 cm).
2. Bricks should give a clear ringing sound when struck with each other.
3. Bricks must be homogeneous and free from voids.
4. The percentage absorption of water by weight should not be greater than 20 per
cent for first-class bricks and 22 per cent for second-class bricks when soaked in
cold water for 24 hours.
5. Bricks should be sufficiently hard, i.e., no nail impression must be present when
scratched. The average weight of bricks should be 3–3.5 kg.
6. Bricks should not break when dropped from a height of 1 m.
7. Bricks should have low thermal conductivity and should be soundproof.
8. Bricks should not show deposits of salts when immersed in water and dried.
9. The minimum crushing strength of normal bricks must be 3.5 N/mm2.
 Uses of Bricks
1. Bricks are mainly used for the construction of walls.
2. Bricks when moulded in the shape of a gutter can be used as drains.
3. Bricks with cavities known as hollow bricks can be used for insulation purposes and
because of their light weight they are more useful in speedy constructions.
4. Paving bricks prepared from clay containing higher percentage of iron can be used
for pavements, since they resist abrasion in a better way.
5. Bricks with holes are used in multi-storied framed structures.
6. Fire bricks made of fire clay can be used as a refractory material.
7. Sand-lime bricks are used for ornamental work.
8. Bricks are used in the construction of compound walls, columns, etc. Broken pieces
of bricks are used as aggregates in concrete.
9. Bricks of superior quality can be used in the facing of a wall.
10. Bricks are used in the construction of chimneys and other special works.

Cement concrete
Cement concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, crushed rock and water which when placed in
the skeleton of forms and allowed to cure, becomes hard such as stone. Concrete has attained
the status of a major building material in all branches of modern construction and hence it is
necessary to know the properties and uses of concrete.
Properties of Concrete
The cement concrete possesses the following important properties:
1. It has a high compressive strength and its strength depends on the proportion in which
cement, sand, stones and water are mixed.
2. It hardens with age the process of hardening continues for a long time after the
concrete has attained sufficient strength. It is this property of cement concrete which
gives it a distinct place among building materials.
3. Concrete is a non-corrosive in nature and highly like to get affected by atmospheric
agencies.
4. Under the following two conditions, it has a tendency to shrink:
a) There is initial shrinkage of cement concrete which is mainly due to the loss of
water through forms, absorption by surfaces of forms etc.
b) The shrinkage of cement concrete occurs as it hardens. This tendency of cement
concrete can be minimized by proper curing of concrete.
 5. It has a tendency to be porous. This is due to the presence of voids which are formed
during and after its placing. The two precautions necessary to avoid this tendency are
as follows:
a) There should be proper grading and consolidating of the aggregates.
b) The minimum water-cement ratio should be adopted.
6. It forms a hard surface, capable of resisting abrasion.
7. It should be remembered that apart from other materials, the concrete comes to the
site in the form of raw materials only. It’s final strength and quality depend entirely
on local conditions and persons handling it. However, the materials which concrete is
composed may be subjected to rigid specifications.
8. It binds rapidly with steel and as it is weak in tension, the steel reinforcement is
placed in cement concrete at suitable places to take up the tensile stresses. This is
termed as the reinforced cement concrete or simply as R.C.C.
Uses of Concrete
1. Concrete can be made impermeable by using hydrophobic cement.
2. Coloured concrete is used for ornamental finishes in buildings, park lanes, separating
lines of road surfaces, underground pedestrian crossings, etc.
3. Light weight concrete is used in multi-storeyed constructions.
4. No-fines concrete is one in which sand is eliminated. This can be used for cast-insitu
external load bearing walls of single and multi-storey houses, retaining walls, damp-
proofing material, etc.
5. Concrete is mainly used in floors, roof slabs, columns, beams, lintels, foundations and
in precast constructions.
6. It is used in massive structures, such as dams and bridges.
7. Concrete is used in the construction of roads, runways, playgrounds, water tanks and
chimneys.
8. It is used in the construction of sleepers in railways.
9. Prestressed concrete is a relatively new type of concrete which is used in many
constructions particularly in the construction of bridges.
10. Concrete trusses are also used in factory constructions.
11. Concrete is used in the construction of bunkers, silos, etc.
12. It finds a place in the construction of nuclear reactors because of its high shielding
capacity for the radioactivity.
13. Thin economical shell construction are possible with the use of concrete.
Reinforced Concrete
Plain concrete is very weak in tension and cannot be used in the construction of lintels, roof
slabs, beams, etc. in which the bottom fibres of them are subjected to tensile stresses. Fig.1
explains how a loaded beam or a slab is subjected to a flexural action when it is laid over an
opening known as span. The top portion is compressed while the bottom portion is stretched.
As concrete withstands compression but not tension, steel rods are embedded in the bottom
portion to withstand the tension. A combination of concrete and steel is known as reinforced
cement concrete and is widely used in various situations. Reinforcing bars are available from
6–32 mm diameter and of 22 feet length. They may be of mild steel or Tor steel and may be
plain or twisted.

Fig. 1.1 Flexure action

Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

1. Reinforced concrete is a versatile building material and can be used for casting
members of any shape.
2. It has good resistance to fire, temperature and weathering actions.
3. RCC construction is cost effective.
4. The component materials used for preparing RCC are easily available.
5. Monolithic construction is possible with the use of RCC. This increases the stability
and rigidity of the structure.
6. RCC is tough and durable.
7. Maintenance of RCC construction is very cheap.
8. With proper cover, RCC can be made free from rusting and corrosion.
Types of Concrete
1. Light-weight concrete
2. High-density concrete
3. Polymer Concrete
4. Fibre-reinforced concrete
Steel
Steel is very ductile and has elastic properties. Mild steel having a carbon content of 0.1 – 0.25
per cent is used for structural work. To be used in construction works steel must be available
in a certain forms. These are called market forms and are discussed below:

Bars
Bars are the common form of steel in building construction. These may have either round or
square cross sections. Square sections of size 5 – 32 mm are commonly used in building works.
These square bars are used as railings in buildings and for grillwork. Square bars are designated
as ISSQ (an acronym for Indian Standard Square) bars. Bars are available in lengths varying
from 10 – 12 m. HYSD (High Yield Strength Deformed) bars having slight projections on its
surface are used as reinforcement in construction of RCC roofs. These are called as deformed
bars. Their size generally varies from 8 – 32 mm.
Plates
Rolled plates have a maximum area of 30 m2 . The thickness of the plates varies from 5 – 28
mm. Plates thinner than 5 mm are called sheets. Larger plates are thicker at the centre than at
the edges. These plates are used as webs and flanges for deep beams, column flanges, column
bases, etc.
Flats
These are rolled as in the case of plates but are much longer and have shorter width. The width
varies from 18 – 500 mm and the thickness varies from 3 – 80 mm. Flats are costlier than plates.
These are also used in grill works and railings.
Angle Sections
Angle sections may be of equal legs or unequal legs as shown in Fig.2. Equal angle sections
are available in sizes varying from 20 mm × 20 mm × 3 mm to 200 mm × 200 mm × 25 mm.
The corresponding weights per metre length are 9.0 N and 736.0 N respectively. Unequal angle
sections are available from 30 mm × 20 mm × 3 mm to 200 mm × 150 mm × 18 mm. The
weights per metre length are 11.0 N and 469.0 N respectively.
 Fig 2: Angle sections
Angle sections are used in the construction of steel roof trusses, filler joist floors, steel columns,
steel beams and as stiffeners in huge girders. They are mainly used in the construction of steel
bridges.

Channel Sections
A channel section consists of a web with two equal flanges as shown in Fig. 3. Typically a
channel section is designated by the height of web and the width of flange. These sections are
available from 100 mm × 45 mm to 400 mm × 100 mm with weight per metre length of 58.0
N and 494.0 N respectively.
Channel sections are widely used as structural members of the steel-framed structures. These
are used in the construction of built-in columns, crane girders, beams and steel bridges.

Fig:3 Channel section

I-sections
These are popularly known as rolled steel joists (RS joists) or beams. An I-section consists of
two flanges connected by a web as shown in Fig. 4(a). It is designated by overall depth, width
of flange and weight per metre length. These are available in various sizes from 75 mm × 50
mm at 61 N/m to 600 mm × 210 mm at 995 N/m. Wide flange beams are available in sizes
varying from 150 mm × 100 mm at 170 N/m to 600 mm × 250 mm at 1451 N/m. Sections
suitable for columns are available in H-sections which vary in sizes from 150 mm × 150 mm
at 271 N/m to 450 mm × 250 mm at 925 N/m.
 FIG 4(a) I-Section Fig 4(b): H- Section
RS joists are economical in material and are suitable for floor beams, lintels, columns,
etc. The economic use of material is achieved by concentrating the material in the two flanges
where bending stresses are maximum. Heavy weights with unequal I-sections are used as rails.
T -sections
A T-section consists of a web and a flange. It is designated by its overall dimensions and
thickness. The sections are available in sizes varying from 20 mm × 20 mm × 3 mm to 150 mm
× 150 mm × 10 mm with corresponding weights of 9.0 N/m and 228.0 N/m respectively.
Special T-sections with unequal sides, bulbs at the bottom edge of web, etc. are also available.
T-sections are widely used as members of steel roof trusses and to form built-up sections. These
are also used in T-connections in steel water tanks. These sections are used in steel chimneys,
steel bridges, etc. In addition to the above sections, miscellaneous sections such as acute and
obtuse angle sections, trough sections and Z-sections are also available. These sections are used
to a limited extent in the structural steel work.
Steel as a reinforcing material
Reasons for steel to be considered as a good reinforcing material
• It develops a good bond with concrete and hence the stresses are transferred from one
material to another.
• It has high tensile strength.
• It has high modulus of elasticity.
• Its temperature coefficient of expansion and contraction is same as that of concrete and
so thermal stresses do not develop.
• It is cheap and readily available.

Introduction to Prefabricated construction Techniques.

Principles of Prefabricated Construction
The basic principle behind the prefabricated construction is as explained below:
• Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or
other manufacturing site and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the
construction site where the structure is located.
• It is combination of good design with modern high-performance components and
quality-controlled manufacturing procedures.
• This work is carried out in two stages, manufacturing of components in a place other
than final location and their erection in position.
• Prefabricated sections are produced in large quantities in a factory and then shipped to
various construction sites.
• This procedure may allow work to continue despite poor weather conditions and should
reduce any waste in time and material at the site.
• Precast concrete units are casted and hardened before being used for construction.
• Sometimes builders cast components at the building site and hoist them into place after
they harden. This technique permits the speedy erection of structures.
Construction of Prefabricated Structures
The prefabrication as defined will be done in two stages Manufacturing at factory condition
and erection of components at the required location. This requires certain stages of preparation.
They are

1. Casting
2. Curing
3. Transportation and erection
1. Casting
Precast components are casted with controlled cement concrete in moulds of required shape
and sizes. The vibrator is used to vibrate concrete and this removes any honeycombing inside
the components.

2. Curing
After 24 hour of casting, the casted components are released from the mould and transported
to curing tanks. Certain special components like railway sleepers where high strength is
required are steam cured.

3. Transportation and Erection

After complete curing is done the components are transported to the site with heavy trucks and
erection will be done using cranes with skilled labour force.

Advantages of Prefabricated Construction

Following are most prominent advantages of prefabricated construction practices:
✓ Saving in cost, material, time & manpower.
✓ Shuttering and scaffolding is not necessary.
✓ Installation of building services and finishes can be done immediately.
✓ Independent of weather condition.
✓ Components produced at close supervision, so quality is good.
✓ Clean and dry work at site.
✓ Possibility of alterations and reuse.
✓ Correct shape and dimensions and sharp edges are maintained.
✓ Very thin sections can be entirely precast with precision.

Disadvantages of Prefabricated Construction

Following are most common disadvantages of prefabricated construction practices:
 Handling and transportation may cause breakages of members during the transit and
extra provision is to be made.
 Difficulty in connecting precast units so as to produce same effect as monolithic. This
leads to non-monolithic construction.
 They are to be exactly placed in position, otherwise the loads coming on them are likely
to get changed and the member may be affected.
 High transport cost.
 Need of erection equipment.
 Skilled labour and supervision is required.