WHAT IS A NETWORK?

A computer network is a collection of autonomous computers, communication devices and

peripheral devices connected together with or without cables with the prime objective of
allowing them to communicate with each other and share information and resources.
BENEFITS OF NETWORKING?
The ability to share resources in a network, brings a number of advantages:

1.Users can share expensive peripherals, such as printers and scanners. In a network, all the
computers can access the same printer.

2.Data can be passed between users without using disks or tapes. This transfer of files over the
network eliminates time wasted moving from one place to the other trying to copy files on other
backing storage devices.

3.Key application programs used in the organization can be centralized and managing such
applications will be more cost effective while security can be enforced on access to data stored
in the central database.

4. Automatic backup procedures can be setup with time schedules and comprehensive
protection thus saving time and ensuring that all your work is safe.

In a Wide Area Network where information and resources can be shared over a greater
geographical area, more benefits can be derived which include:
1.Sending and receiving e-mail from all over the world, communicating messages and
announcements to many people, in many different areas, quickly and inexpensively.

2.Transfer of files to and from colleagues in other locations, or access the company
network from home or even when in transit.

3.Access the vast resources of the Internet and the World Wide Web.

4.Cheap call rates for all users on the network and the use of various chatting facilities
enhancing effective collaboration between users.

5.Efficient dissemination of information and deployment of e-learning facilities though video

conferencing and associated application.

NETWORK CONFIGURATIONS
The way and manner in which a network is configured determines to a great extent, how
resources will be accessed and managed in such a network.Basically, networks can be
configured as either a client/server network or a peer-to- peer network.
A Server is a computer designed to process requests and deliver data to other
computers over a network.

ADVANTAGES OF THE CLIENT SERVER ARCHITECTURE

1. Cost Effectiveness

The centralization of resources in a client/server environment makes the long-term

cost of the entire network infrastructure more cost effective than the peer-to-peer
architecture..

2. Increased Performance

Network performance is increased without much effort when a client/server

architecture is employed. An organization might opt for a particular system due to its
configuration and trust in the equipment manufacturer to increase performance.

3. Ease Of Effort And Maintenance

Since the servers and the clients are independent of each other, maintenance of any
component that malfunctions, is easier sine that component can be isolated and
handled as an independent entity.
4. Accessibility

Servers can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

5. Scalability

New technology can be easily integrated into system without any need for altering or
reconfiguring the entire network. Since all networking devices are expected to comply
to certain defined ISO standard, integrating new technology into an existing one can
be done with ease.

6. Centralized Security

The centralization of resources in a client/server system makes it easier to ensure

efficient and effective security procedures and processes.

DISADVANTAGES OF A CLIENT/SERVER NETWORS

1. Expense
Dedicated servers usually require huge initial investment in terms of acquisition and
deployment. Though this cost will eventually be recovered over time, not all
organizations will accept to invest such initial capital.
 2. Maintenance
Large networks will require all sorts of professionals to ensure efficient operations

3. Dependence
Most times depending on the network wiring technique, when a server goes down,
operations will cease across the network.
PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKING
In a peer-to-peer network, the computers are linked but have no central server or hierarchical
relationship. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have the
same abilities to use the resources available on the network.

ADVANTAGES OF PEER-TO-PEER NETWORKS

1.The main advantage of a peer-to-peer network is that it is easier to set up and use than a
client/server network with a dedicated server.
2.Peer-to-peer networks can be less expensive than server-based networks. This is simply because you
may not need expensive server licenses, dedicated servers with the much-expected performance
capacity and the need for specialized professionals to man the systems.

DISADVANTAGES OF A PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK

1.Decentralized
The fact that there is no centralized management in a peer-to-peer network creates a huge
deficiency.
.

2.Long-term Cost
Savings are relative. Although a peer-to-peer network may have a lower cost per computer for
smaller networks, the cost difference between peer-to-peer networks and NetWare or Windows
Server is less significant in larger networks (say, 10 or more clients).

3.Management
Larger networks are hard to manage without a dedicated server. Peer-to-peer networks don’t
work well when your network starts to grow.

THE NETWORK ADMINISTRATOR

This is a highly technical position requiring a person who will be responsible for the maintenance
of all the computer hardware, software and other relevant networking devices that comprises
the computer network. The primary duties of the administrator include deploying, configuring,
maintaining and monitoring active network equipment, as well as ensuring the overall integrity
of the network, server deployment, security, and ensuring that the network connectivity
throughout a company's LAN/WAN infrastructure is maintained and downtime kept at a
reasonable minimum.

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
The term information technology generally refers to all electronically-based procedures and processes
involved in the handling of data and the production of the needed information.

BANDWIDTH
Bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data that can be sent through a data-transmitting
medium, such as a computer network, telephone line, or coaxial cable, in a given amount of
time.

ATTENUATION
This is the reduction in amplitude of a signal when it passes through medium that dissipates energy.

ANALOG
Many older telecommunications systems are analogue; the electrical signals conveying information vary
continuously in harmony with the sounds they represent.
BAUD
Baud Rate is a measure of transmission speed. In telecommunications, it is commonly a reference to the
speed at which a modem can transmit data.

DATA COMPRESSION
The continual desire to push more data signals across a communication channel than the channel
can carry at a given time has led to the search for more sophisticated methods of compressing the
data and moving them across the Although there's no way of increasing the number of bits that
can cross the link.

DUPLEX COMMUNICATION
Communications are supposed to be a two-way thing. Information is supposed to flow in both
directions. With modems, such a two-way exchange of information is called duplex communication or
full duplex communication.

HALF DUPLEX
The alternative to duplex communications is half duplex. In half duplex transmission, only one
signal is used. To carry on a two-way conversation, a modem must alternately send and receive
signals. Half duplex transmission allows more of the channel bandwidth to be put to use but
slows data communications.
ECHOPLEX
In echoplex mode, a modem sends a character down the phone line, and the distant modem
returns the same character, echoing it. The echoed character is then displayed on the originating
terminal as confirmation that the character was sent correctly.
Synchronous operations can be defined as relationship between two or more processes such that
one process cannot proceed beyond a particular point until another process has reached a
particular point.
Asynchronous transmission system requires a control timing in which a specific operation is
begun upon receipt of an indication that the preceding operation has been completed.
MULTIPLEXING
This is technique of combining multiple channels of information over a single circuit or
transmission path. The device that merges information from multiple input channels to a single
output channel is referred to as a Multiplexer.
NETWORK DOWNTIME
The term downtime is used to refer to periods when a system is unavailable. Downtime or outage
duration refers to a period of time that a system fails to provide or perform its primary function.
THE INTERNET
An “Intranet” can also be referred in generic term to mean a collection of private computer
networks within an organization. The internet is a global network that connects millions of
computers and networks worldwide.
WHAT IS ETHERNET?
Ethernet is a physical and data link layer technology for local area networks (LANs).
ETHERNET CABLES: Among the data cables we will be discussing include: 1. Straight-
Through Cables 2. Cross-Over Cables 3. Rolled Cables 4. The Dongle.
STRAIGHT-THROUGH CABLE: This is the normal Ethernet cable in which the smaller cables
inside the Ethernet cable on both ends will be in the same order of colors, from left to right.
They are basically used to interconnect: -Host to Switch, -Host to Hub,
-Router to Switch, -Router to Hub
CROSSOVER CABLE
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of Ethernet cable, that is used to connect computing devices
together, without the use of a hub or switch.
Crossover cables are used to connect: -Hub to Hub, -Switch to Switch, -Host to Host, -Bus to Switch, -
Router to Host.
THE ROLLED CABLE
A rolled cable is a cable used to manage a router or switch from the console port of that router or switch.
This kind of cable though it is not an Ethernet cable, is mostly used when configuring your devices for the
first time.
THE DONGLE
A dongle is a short network cable that joins a PCMCIA adapter to a network cable. Dongles
typically attach to either a RJ-45 connector for Ethernet networking or an RJ-11 connector for
dial-up networking. Dongles tend to run no longer than about six inches.
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
Transmission media refers to a medium through which information or data is transmitted between
the source and its destination.
WHAT IS A TOPOLOGY?
Topology can be considered as a virtual shape or structure of a network. The physical topology
refers to how the cables are laid out to connect many computers to one network.
CLASSIFICATION OF PHYSICAL TOPOLOGIES
1.Linear Bus, 2. Star, 3. Star-Wired Ring, 4. Tree, 5. Meshed.
THE LINEAR BUS TOPOLOGY: In the Bus Topology, all the nodes making up the network
are connected to a single cable referred to as the BUS. This BUS can also be referred to as the
backbone, or trunk.
ADVANTAGES OF A LINEAR BUS TOPOLOGY: 1. Easy to connect a node to the bus. 2. Since all
nodes receive a signal in parallel, failure is localized. 3. Requires less cable length since you only need
enough to get to any part of the bus.
DISADVANTAGES OF A LINEAR BUS TOPOLOGY: 1. Entire network goes down if there is a
break on the bus. 2.Terminators are required at both ends of the bus. 3. Difficult to identify the problem if
the entire network shuts down.
STAR TOPOLOGY: This is the most common type of network topology that is used in modern homes
and offices. In the Star Topology there is a central connection point called the hub or concentrator or
sometimes a switch depending on the network designers design strategy or plan.
ADVANTAGES OF A STAR TOPOLOGY: 1. Easy to install and wire. 2. No disruptions to the
network when connecting or removing devices. 3.Easy to detect faults and to remove/replace parts.
DISADVANTAGES OF A STAR TOPOLOGY: 1. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
2. If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. 3. More expensive than linear bus
topologies because of the cost of the concentrators. 4.The total communication capacity is often
limited by the speed of the central switch.
TREE TOPOLOGY: A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It
consists of groups of star- configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
ADVANTAGES OF A TREE TOPOLOGY: 1. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
2.Supported by several hardware and software venders. 3.All the computers have access to the larger and
their immediate networks.
DISADVANTAGES OF A TREE TOPOLOGY: 1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the
type of cabling used. 2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. 2. More difficult to
configure and wire than other topologies.
THE RING TOPOLOGY: The ring configuration is designed as a circular architecture with each node
directly connected to two other nodes. All network traffic passes through each node in series until it
reaches the intended receiver.
ADVANTAGES OF THE RING TOPOLOG: 1 . Every device has access to the token and the
opportunity to transmit. 2. Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load. 3. Does not
require a server or central controlling computer to manage the network connectivity.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE RING TOPOLOGY: 1. One malfunctioning workstation or bad port in
the MAU can create problems for the entire network. 2. Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect
the network. 3.Network adapter cards and MAU's (Multistation Access Unit) are much more expensive
than Ethernet cards and hubs. Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load since data can
may sometimes need to travel over 90% of the ring before getting to its destination.
THE MESH TOPOLOGY: Mesh topology is a type of computer network setup, where each of
the computers and devices in the network are interconnected to one another. Every node is connected to
other nodes on the network through hops.
FULL MESH TOPOLOGY: In this type of networking topology, every node has a circuit, which
connects to every other node in the network. It is very expensive to implement and also yields greatest
amount of redundancy.
PARTIAL MESH TOPOLOGY: As opposed to full mesh topology, partial mesh is less expensive and
also there is less redundancy.
ADVANTAGES OF MESH TOPOLOGY: 1. There are dedicated links used in the topology, which
guarantees, that each connection is able to carry its data load, thereby eliminating traffic problems. 2. It
is a robust topology. When one link in the topology becomes unstable or unavailable, it does not cause the
entire system to halt. 3.Addition of nodes to the network can be done without causing any disruption
to the network. 4. It is possible to transmit data, from one node to a number of other nodes simultaneously
5. This topology ensures data privacy and security, as every message travel along a dedicated link.
DISADVANTAGES OF MESH TOPOLOGY: 1. This topology requires a lot more hardware (cables,
etc.) as compared to other Local Area Network (LAN) topologies. 2. The implementation (installation
and configuration) of this topology is very complicated. 3. The cost of installation and
maintenance is high, which is a major deterrent.
CONSIDERATIONS WHEN CHOOSING A TOPOLOGY:
Money: A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not
have to purchase concentrators.
Length of cable needed: The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
Future growth: With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
Cable type: The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with
star topologies.
REPEATERS: A repeater is simply a device that retransmits the network signal exactly as it was
originally transmitted.
HUBS AND SWITCHES: Hubs and switches are used to connect computers, printers and other devices
in the network. Though they physically look alike, hubs differ from switches in the way that they pass on
the network traffic. The term “hub” is sometimes used to refer to any piece of network equipment that
connects PCs together, but actually serves as a repeater. “Switches” use the address information in each
packet to control the flow of network traffic.
MODEMS: A (MODEM) which is an acronym for Modulator-Demodulator is a device that makes
transmission of signals via telephone lines possible.
BRIDGES: A network bridge, also known as a layer 2 switch, is a hardware device used to create a
connection between two separate computer networks or to divide one network into two .
ROUTERS: A router is a network interconnection device that intercepts signals on a computer network
and determines the path or channel to push the signal on its way to its destination. Each signal it receives
is called a data packet and these packets contain address information that the router uses to divert signals
appropriately.
Some of the commonly used policies employed by these routers in the management of traffic
congestion include: 1. Random Early Detection. 2. Tear Drop. 3. Weighted Random Early
Detection.
GATEWAY: Gateway describes the “Gate” to the Internet. The Gateway controls traffic that travels from
the inside network to the Internet and provides security from traffic that wants to enter the inside network
from the Internet.
A Gateway is used when: 1. Enterprises using IP for internal communications want to communicate
with other external enterprises that are using ISDN 2. An enterprise is moving from an ISDN to IP
environment or uses a combination of ISDN and IP internally 3. The enterprise wants to leverage an
existing IP network to make global calls via ISDN 4. IP video callers would like to bypass the public
Internet when calling other IP systems.
INTERNETWORKING MODELS: Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model
developed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984, as a conceptual framework of
standards for communication in the network across different equipment and applications by different
vendors.
Advantages of using the OSI layered model include: 1. Allows multiple-vendor development through
standardization of network components. 2 . Allows various types of network hardware and software to
communicate 3. Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper
development.
The OSI reference model has seven layers: 7. Application layer. 6.Presentation layer. 5. Session layer.
4. Transport layer. 3.Network layer. 2. Data Link layer. 1. Physical layer.
7. Application Layer: The Application layer of the OSI model marks the spot where users actually
communicate to the computer. In this layer, both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly
with the software application. File, Print, Message and Application Services.
Three most primary functions of the application layer protocols include: 1. Identifying
Communication Partners. 2. Determining Resource Availability. 3.Synchronizing Communication.
Some examples of application layer implementations include: 1. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP), 3. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), 4. Simple Network
Management Protocol (SNMP), 5. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
6. Presentation Layer: It presents data to the Application layer and is responsible for data
translation and code formatting, Data Encryption, Compression and Transmission Services.
The following serve to direct graphic and visual image presentation: 1.
PICT A picture format used by Macintosh programs for transferring QuickDraw graphics. 2. TIFF
Tagged Image File Format; a standard graphics format for high-resolution, bitmapped images. 3. JPEG
Photo standards brought to us by The Joint Photographic Experts Group. 4. MIDI Musical Instrument
Digital Interface (sometimes called Musical Instrument Device Interface), used for digitized music. 5.
MPEG Increasingly popular Moving Picture Experts Group standard for the compression and coding of
motion video for CDs. It provides digital storage and bit rates up to 1.5Mbps.
Some of the TCP/IP protocols used in this layer include: 1. External Data
Representation (XDR). 2.Transport Layer Security (TLS). 3. Secure Socket Layer (SSL). 4. Multipurpose
Internet Mail Extensions (MIME).
5. Session Layer: The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and then tearing
down sessions between Presentation layer entities. This layer also provides dialogue control
between devices, or node
4. Transport Layer: The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a data stream.
Services located in the Transport layer both segment and reassemble data from upper-layer
applications and unite it onto the same data stream. The Transport layer can be connectionless, or
connection-oriented. Some of the technologies used to ensure reliability of the TCP protocol
include: 1. Flow Control, 2. Connection-Oriented Communication, 3. Windowing, 4.
Acknowledgments. The two most common protocols used at the Transport Layer are: 1.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), 2. User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The Transport layer can
be connectionless, or connection-oriented. Some of the technologies used to ensure reliability of
the TCP protocol include:
Flow Control: Data integrity is ensured at the Transport layer by maintaining flow control and by
allowing users to request reliable data transport between systems. Flow control prevents a sending host on
one side of the connection from overflowing the buffers in the receiving host an event that can result in
lost data.
Windowing TCP windowing concept is primarily used to avoid congestion in the traffic. It controls the
amount of unacknowledged data a sender can send before it gets an acknowledgment back from the
receiver that it has received it.
Acknowledgments: Reliable data delivery ensures the integrity of a stream of data sent
from one machine to the other through a fully functional data link. It guarantees
that the data won’t be duplicated or lost. 3. Network Layer: The Network Layer
provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length data
sequences from a source to a destination via one or more networks, while
maintaining the quality of service requested by the Transport Layer. Common protocols
used at this layer include: 1. Internet Protocol (IP), 2. Internetwork Packet Exchange (IPX), 3. Internet
Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
2. Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer provides the functional and
procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that
may occur in the Physical Layer. The data link layer provides: 1. Link establishment and
termination: establishes and terminates the logical link between two nodes. 2.Frame
traffic control: tells the transmitting node to "back-off" when no frame buffers are available. 3. Frame
sequencing: transmits/receives frames sequentially. 4. Frame delimiting: creates and recognizes
frame boundaries. 5. Frame error checking: checks received frames for integrity.
Some protocols used in this layer include:
1. Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)
2. Layer2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP).
3. Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP).
4. Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)

1. Physical Layer: The physical layer, the lowest layer of the OSI model, is concerned with the
transmission and reception of the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium. It
describes the electrical/optical, mechanical, and functional interfaces to the physical medium, and
carries the signals for all of the higher layers.
NETWORK PROTOCOLS: TCP/IP protocols map to a four-layered conceptual model: Application,
Transport, Internet, and Network Interface. TCP/IP has four layers. 1. Application, 2. Transport, 3. Internet,
4. Network device.
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE: Defined within the four layers of TCP/IP are protocols that dictate
how computers connect and communicate. The most common of these protocols are Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Internet Protocol (IP), Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), and Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP).
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL (TCP): The most common higher-level protocol in the
suite is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It provides a reliable, connection-oriented packet delivery
service on top of (or encapsulated within) IP.
USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP): If reliability is not essential, User Datagram Protocol
(UDP), a TCP complement, offers a connectionless datagram service that guarantees neither delivery nor
correct sequencing of delivered packets (much like IP).
INTERNET PROTOCOL: Internet Protocol (IP) provides packet delivery for all other protocols within
the suite. It provides a best-effort, connectionless delivery system for computer data.
ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (ARP): The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is one of the
maintenance protocols that supports the TCP/IP suite and is usually invisible to users and applications.
REVERSE ADDRESS RESOLUTION PROTOCOL (RARP): Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP) discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines by sending out a packet that
includes its MAC address and a request for the IP address assigned to that MAC address.
INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL: Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a
maintenance protocol that allows two systems on an IP network to share status and error information.
DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCP): This is an auto configuration protocol
used on IP networks. Computers that are connected to IP networks must be configured before they can
communicate with other computers on the network.
SIMPLE MAIL TRANSFER PROTOCOL (SMTP): This is an Internet standard for electronic mail
(e-mail) transmission across Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (FTP): This is a standard network protocol used to copy a file from
one host to another over a TCP- based network, such as the Internet.
TRIVIAL FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL (TFTP)This is a file transfer protocol, with the
functionality of a very basic form of File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
THE DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS): This is a hierarchical naming system built on a distributed
database for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network.
TELNET: Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive text-oriented communications facility using a virtual terminal connection.
THE HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL (HTTP)
HTTP is a networking protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems. HTTP is
the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.
HTTP functions as a request-response protocol in the client-server computing model.
HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL SECURE (HTTPS): This is a combination of the Hypertext
Transfer Protocol with the SSL/TLS protocol to provide encrypted communication and secure
identification of a network web server.
NETWORK FILE SYSTEM (NFS): Network File System (NFS) is a jewel of a protocol specializing in
file sharing. It allows two different types of file systems to interoperate. It works like this: Suppose the
NFS server software is running on an NT server, and the NFS client software is running on a Unix host.
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP): Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true
distance-vector routing protocol. It sends the complete routing table out to all active interfaces every 30
seconds.
OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST (OSPF): Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an open-standards
routing protocol that’s been implemented by a wide variety of network vendors, including Cisco.
INTRODUCTION TO IP ADDRESSES: An IP address is a number that uniquely identifies every host
on an IP network.
CLASSIFYING IP ADDRESSES: Class A = 0 to 127
The Valid Class A Host Addresses Are:
All host bits turned off producing the network address: 10.0.0.0.
All host bits turned on producing the broadcast address: 10.255.255.255. The valid hosts are the addresses
in between the network address and the broadcast address: 10.0.0.1 through 10.255.255.254.
Reserved Class A Host addresses
These are addresses in Class A that cannot be given to hosts in the Class A network. They are: 10.0.0.0 -
10.255.255.255
Class B: = 128 to 191
The Valid Class B Host Addresses Are:
All host bits turned off producing the network address: 162.181.0.0.
All host bits turned on producing the broadcast address: 162.181.255.255.
The valid hosts are the addresses in between the network address and the broadcast address: 162.181.0.1
through 162.181.255.254.
Reserved Class B Host Addresses
These are addresses in Class B that cannot be given to hosts in the Class B network. They are: 172.16.0.0
- 172.31.255.255
Class C: = 192 to 223
The Valid Class C Host Addresses Are:
All host bits turned off producing the network address: 192.174.122.0.
All host bits turned on producing the broadcast address: 192.174.122.255.
The valid hosts are the addresses in between the network address and the broadcast address: 192.174.122.1
through 192.174.122.254.
Reserved Class C Host Addresses
These are addresses in Class C that cannot be given to hosts in the Class C network. They are:
192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255.
Class D – This class of addresses ranging from 224 to 239 are used for multicasting.
Multicasting enables multiple recipients to receive messages without flooding the messages to all hosts on a
broadcast domain. It works by sending messages or data to IP multicast group addresses. Routers then
forward copies of the packet out every interface that has hosts subscribed to that group address. The list of
valid address range for this class is between 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255.
Class E – consisting of addresses in the range of 240 to 255 are reserved for
scientific purposes.
SUMMARY OF IP ADDRESS TABLE
The first four bits of the IP address are used to determine into which class a particular address belongs:
If the first bit is a zero, the address is a Class A address.
If the first bit is one, and if the second bit is zero, the address is a Class B address.
If the first two bits are both one, and if the third bit is zero, the address is a Class C address.
If the first three bits are all one, and if the fourth bit is zero, the address is a Class D address.
If the first four bits are all one, the address is a Class E address.
CLASSLESS INTER-DOMAIN ROUTING (CIDR)
IP Addresses can be generally classified into two different groups. These include:
1.Classfull Addresses consisting of the Public and private/Reserved addresses discussed in the previous
sections.
2.Classless Addresses which consist of VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masks), CIDR (Classless Inter-
Domain Routing), And Subnetting ). CIDR is a way to allocate and specify the Internet addresses used in
inter-domain routing more flexibly than with the original system of Internet Protocol (IP) address classes

What is a wide area network (WAN)? A wide area network (WAN) is a large computer network that
connects groups of computers over large distances. WANs are often used by large businesses to connect
their office networks; each office typically has its own local area network, or LAN, and these LANs
connect via a WAN.
What is a LAN? A local area network (LAN) is a network confined to a small, localized area.
Home WiFi networks and small business networks are common examples of LANs. Typically,
whoever manages the LAN also manages the networking equipment it uses. A small business, for
instance, will manage the routers and switches involved in setting up the LAN.
WAN vs. LAN
LANs typically exist in a contained area and usually share a single central point of Internet
connection. WANs are designed to provide network connectivity over long distances. They are
usually made up of several connected LANs. An organization that sets up its own WAN will
almost always rely on network infrastructure that is outside their control: for example, a company
with an office in Paris and an office in New York will have to send data between these offices
over undersea cables that cross the Atlantic Ocean.
Usually a WAN will include multiple routers and switches. A LAN only needs one router for
connecting to the Internet or other LANs, although it may use switches as well.
What’s the Difference Between Wide Area Network (WAN) and Local Area Network
(LAN)?
There are many different forms of area networks, but one of the most common networks outside
of WANs is the local area network, or LAN. Whereas WANs can exist globally, without ties to a
physical location through the use of a leased network provider, LANs exist within a limited area.
LANs can be used to access a greater WAN (such as the internet), but only within the area where
the LAN’s infrastructure can reach.
Two common examples of LANs are ethernet and wireless networks. Wireless LANs are also
known as WLANs. Other forms of telecommunication networks include the following:
Personal area networks (PAN)
Metropolitan area networks (MAN)
Cloud or internet area networks (IAN)
What Is the Purpose of a WAN Connection?
If WAN connections didn’t exist, organizations would be isolated to restricted areas or specific
geographic regions. LANs would allow organizations to work within their building, but growth to
outside areas — either different cities or even different countries — would not be possible
because the associated infrastructure would be cost prohibitive for most organizations.
As organizations grow and become international, WANs allow them to communicate between
branches, share information and stay connected. When employees travel for work, WANs allow
them to access the information they need to do their job. WANs also help organizations share
information with customers, as well as partner organizations, such as B2B clients or customers.
However, WANs also provide an essential service to the public. Students at universities might
rely on WANs to access library databases or university research. And every day, people rely on
WANs to communicate, bank, shop and more.
What is a leased line?
One of the ways that organizations connect their LANs to form a WAN is by using something
called a leased line. A leased line is a direct network connection rented from a large network
provider such as an ISP (MTN, GLO, Airtel or Smile). Building their own physical network
infrastructure — including cables, routers, and Internet exchange points across hundreds or
thousands of miles — would be an almost impossible task for most organizations. So instead,
they lease a direct, dedicated connection from a company that already has this infrastructure.
What is tunneling? What is a VPN?
If a company does not want to pay for a leased line, they can connect their LANs using tunneling.
In networking, tunneling is a method for encapsulating data packets* within other data packets so
that they go somewhere that they would not go otherwise. Imagine mailing an envelope inside
another envelope, with both envelopes having a different address, so that the internal envelope
gets mailed from the external envelope's destination address. That is the general idea of tunneling,
except data is contained within packets instead of envelopes.
Some network tunnels are encrypted in order to protect the packets' contents from anyone who
might intercept them en route. Encrypted tunnels are called VPNs, or virtual private networks.
VPN connections between WANs are more secure than unencrypted tunneling connections. IPsec
is one common VPN encryption protocol.
The main drawback of using tunneling to connect LANs is that tunneling increases overhead; it
takes more computing power, and thus more time, to send packets in this way. Encapsulating and
encrypting each packet slows down communications, just as stuffing an envelope twice instead of
once slows down how quickly it can be placed in the mail. Additionally, encapsulated packets
may end up larger than some routers on the network can handle, resulting in fragmentation and
adding more delays.
How does a WLAN benefit a business?
By allowing work to happen anywhere, wireless networks don't simply increase productivity and
provide convenience. They can redefine enterprise goals and how they are achieved—not just in
offices but also in factories, healthcare facilities, and schools.

How does a WLAN work?

Like broadcast media, a WLAN transmits information over radio waves. Data is sent in packets.
The packets contain layers with labels and instructions that, along with the unique MAC (Media
Access Control) addresses assigned to endpoints, enable routing to intended locations.

How is a WLAN created?

A WLAN can be configured in one of two ways:

Infrastructure
A home or office Wi-Fi network is an example of a WLAN set up in infrastructure mode. The
endpoints are all connected and communicate with each other through a base station, which may
also provide internet access.
A basic infrastructure WLAN can be set up with just a few parts: a wireless router, which acts as
the base station, and endpoints, which can be computers, mobile devices, printers, and other
devices. In most cases, the wireless router is also the internet connection.
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Ad hoc
In this setup, a WLAN connects endpoints such as computer workstations and mobile devices
without the use of a base station. Use of Wi-Fi Direct technology is common for an ad hoc
wireless network. An ad hoc WLAN is easy to set up and can provide basic peer-to-peer (P2P)
communication.
An ad hoc WLAN requires only two or more endpoints with built-in radio transmission, such as
computers or mobile devices. After adjusting network settings for ad hoc mode, one user initiates
the network and becomes visible to the others.

Advantages of WLANs
• They provide clutter-free homes, offices and other networked places.
• The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the network
at greater ease than wired LANs.
• The system is portable within the network coverage. Access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
• Installation and setup are much easier than wired counterparts.
• The equipment and setup costs are reduced.
Disadvantages of WLANs
• Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
• Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors.
So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
• WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

WLAN SECURITY
Wireless local are network security (WLAN security) is a security system designed to protect
networks from the security breaches to which wireless transmissions are susceptible. This type of
security is necessary because WLAN signals have no physical boundary limitations, and are
prone to illegitimate access over network resources, resulting in the vulnerability of private and
confidential data. Network operations and availability can also be compromised in case of a
WLAN security breech. To address these issues, various authentication, encryption, invisibility
and other administrative controlling techniques are used in WLANs. Business and corporate
WLANs in particular require adequate security measures to detect, prevent and block
piggybackers, eavesdroppers and other intruders.
What Does Wireless Local Area Network Security Mean?
Security has remained a major concern in WLANs around the globe. While wireless networks
provide convenience and flexibility, they also increase network vulnerability. Security threats
such as unauthorized access, denial of service attacks, IP and MAC spoofing, session hijacking
and eavesdropping can all be problems for WLANs. To counter these threats, various standard
authentication and encryption techniques are combined with other access control mechanisms.
These protocols, devices and techniques collectively secure the WLAN a level that equals and
even exceeds wired LAN security.
Some of the technologies employed in WLAN security include:
• Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP): An old encryption standard used to overcome security
threats. WEP provides security to WLAN by encrypting the information transmitted over the air
so that only the receivers with the correct encryption key can decrypt the information.
• WPA/WPA2 (WI-FI Protected Access): Improved on WEP by introducing Temporal Key
Integrity Protocol (TKIP). While still using RC4 encryption, TKIP uses a temporal encryption
key that is regularly renewed, making it more difficult to steal. In addition, data integrity was
improved through the use of a more robust hashing mechanism.
• Wireless Intrusion Prevention Systems/Intrusion Detection Systems: Intrusion detection
and prevention focuses on radio frequency (RF) levels. This involves radio scanning to detect
rogue access points or ad hoc networks to regulate network access.
INTRUSION DECTECTION SYSTEM
An intrusion detection and prevention system (IDPS) monitors a network for possible threats to
alert the administrator, thereby preventing potential attacks.

How IDPS Functions

Today’s businesses rely on technology for everything, from hosting applications on servers to
communication. As technology evolves, the attack surface that cybercriminals have access to also widens.
A 2021 Check Point research reported that there had been 50% more attacks per week on corporate
networks in 2021 as compared to 2020. As such, organizations of all industry verticals and sizes are
ramping up their security posture, aiming to protect every layer of their digital infrastructure from cyber
attacks.
A firewall is a go-to solution to prevent unwanted and suspicious traffic from flowing into a system. It is
tempting to think that firewalls are 100% foolproof and no malicious traffic can seep into the network.
Cybercriminals, however, are constantly evolving their techniques to bypass all security measures. This is
where an intrusion detection and prevention system comes to the rescue. While a firewall regulates what
gets in, the IDPS regulates what flows through the system. It often sits right behind firewalls, working in
tandem.
An intrusion detection and prevention system is like the baggage and security check at airports. A ticket
or a boarding pass is required to enter an airport, and once inside, passengers are not allowed to board
their flights until the necessary security checks have been made. Similarly, an intrusion detection system
(IDS) only monitors and alerts bad traffic or policy violations. It is the predecessor of the intrusion
prevention system (IPS), also known as an intrusion detection and prevention system. Besides monitoring
and alerting, the IPS also works to prevent possible incidents with automated courses of action.
Network-based intrusion prevention system (NIPS):
Network-based intrusion prevention systems monitor entire networks or network segments for malicious
traffic. This is usually done by analyzing protocol activity. If the protocol activity matches against a
database of known attacks, the corresponding information isn’t allowed to get through. NIPS are usually
deployed at network boundaries, behind firewalls, routers, and remote access servers.
Wireless intrusion prevention system (WIPS):
Wireless intrusion prevention systems monitor wireless networks by analyzing wireless networking
specific protocols. While WIPS are valuable within the range of an organization’s wireless network, these
systems don’t analyze higher network protocols such as transmission control protocol (TCP). Wireless
intrusion prevention systems are deployed within the wireless network and in areas that are susceptible to
unauthorized wireless networking.

Network behavior analysis (NBA) system:

 While NIPS analyze deviations in protocol activity, network behavior analysis systems identify threats by
checking for unusual traffic patterns. Such patterns are generally a result of policy violations, malware-
generated attacks, or distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks. NBA systems are deployed in an
organization’s internal networks and at points where traffic flows between internal and external
networks.

Host-based intrusion prevention system (HIPS):

Host-based intrusion prevention systems differ from the rest in that they’re deployed in a single host.
These hosts are critical servers with important data or publicly accessible servers that can become
gateways to internal systems. The HIPS monitors the traffic flowing in and out of that particular host by
monitoring running processes, network activity, system logs, application activity, and configuration
changes.

The type of IDP system required by an organization depends on its existing infrastructure and how its
plans to scale up in the future. The techniques used by intrusion detection and prevention solutions are
also an important consideration.

How to Identify Network Security Threats and Vulnerabilities

Anyone who operates a computer network is susceptible to security threats and vulnerabilities. Hackers,
criminals, and other malicious actors often exploit these weaknesses to steal data or disrupt service. To
protect your network from these threats, it is important to be able to identify them and take appropriate
steps to mitigate risks. Here we will provide an overview of some of the most common security threats
and vulnerabilities as well as tips on how to detect them.

What Is a Network Threat?

A network threat is when an attacker targets a computer network or the computers and devices connected
to it. Network threats can cause significant damage to data, systems, and networks and lead to downtime
or even complete system failure.
There are many different types of network threats, but some of the most common include:
 Denial-of-Service (DoS) Attacks: A DoS attack is an attempt to make a computer or network resource
unavailable to users. They can be carried out using various methods, including flooding the target with
requests or traffic or exploiting vulnerabilities in the network or system.
 Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) Attacks: A DDoS attack is similar to a DoS attack, but
multiple computers or devices, known as zombies, are used to carry out the attack. A large number of
requests or traffic from the zombies can overwhelm the target, thus denying access to legitimate users.
 Malware: Malware or malicious software refers to any type of software that is designed to damage or
disrupt a computer system. Viruses, worms, and Trojans are some examples of malware.
 Phishing: Phishing is a type of social engineering attack that attempts to trick users into revealing
sensitive information, like passwords or credit card numbers. Such attacks are often carried out by
email and may include links to fake websites that look identical to the real website (SecurityScorecard,
2021).
 What Are Network Vulnerabilities?
Network vulnerabilities are weaknesses in a computer network that malicious actors can exploit to gain
unauthorized access, launch DoS attacks, or spread malware. While some vulnerabilities are
unintentionally introduced during the design and implementation of a network, others may be deliberately
introduced by attackers.
Common types of network vulnerabilities include unpatched software flaws, weak passwords, and open
ports. To protect a network from attack, it is important to regularly scan for vulnerabilities and take steps
to remediate them. Network administrators can use a variety of tools to perform vulnerability scans,
including open source and commercial products.
Once a vulnerability has been identified, it is essential to fix the loophole based on the potential impact of
an exploit. For example, a vulnerability that could allow an attacker to gain administrative access to a
server should be addressed urgently. In contrast, a less critical vulnerability may be patched at a later
time.
Network vulnerabilities can have a wide range of impacts, from causing minor disruptions to leading to
complete system compromise. In some cases, attackers may exploit vulnerabilities to launch DoS attacks
or steal sensitive data. In other cases, they may use vulnerabilities to gain control of systems and use them
for malicious purposes such as sending spam or launching attacks against other targets.

Types of Attacks in Network Security Threats

While there are many different types of attacks in network security threats out there, some of the most
dangerous ones include:
 Viruses and Malware: Viruses and malware are malicious software programs that can infect your
computer or network and cause serious damage. They can delete important files, steal confidential
information, or even shut down your entire system.
 SQL Injection Attacks: SQL injection attacks exploit vulnerabilities in web applications that use
Structured Query Language (SQL) to communicate with databases. By injecting malicious SQL code
into these vulnerable applications, attackers can gain access to sensitive data or even take control of the
entire database.
 OnPath Attacks: OnPath attacks occur when an attacker intercepts communication between two
parties and impersonates each party to the other. This allows the attacker to eavesdrop on the
conversation or modify the data being exchanged.
 Password Attacks: Password attacks are common types of network attacks because they are very
effective. There are many types of password attacks, but some of the most common include brute force
attacks, dictionary attacks, and rainbow table attacks (EasyDmarc, 2022).

What Are the Main Types of Security Vulnerability?

In computer security, a vulnerability is a weakness that can be exploited by a threat actor, usually for
malicious purposes. Vulnerabilities can be found in many different areas of a system, including hardware,
software, networks, and even people.
There are four main types of security vulnerabilities:
 Misconfigurations: Incorrectly configured systems and applications are often the weakest links in an
organization’s security posture. A poorly configured firewall in cybersecurity, weak passwords, and
leaving default accounts active are all examples of common misconfigurations that can lead to serious
security vulnerabilities.
 Unsecured APIs: Many modern applications rely on application programming interfaces (APIs) to
function properly. However, if APIs are not properly secured, they can be a serious security vulnerability.
Attackers can exploit unsecured APIs to gain access to sensitive data or even take control of entire
systems.
 Outdated or Unpatched Software: Software vulnerabilities are often the root cause of major security
breaches. Outdated software is especially vulnerable, as attackers can exploit known weaknesses that
have already been patched in newer versions. Unpatched software is also a major security risk, as many
organizations fail to apply critical security updates in a timely manner.
 Zero-Day Vulnerabilities: A zero-day vulnerability is a previously unknown security flaw exploited by
attackers before the vendor has patched it. These types of vulnerabilities are extremely dangerous, as
there is usually no way to defend against them until after they have been exploited (CrowdStrike, 2022).