Introduction

This book is designed to provide introductory concepts in Financial Ac-

counting. Accounting can be defined as “the process of identifying, measur-
ing and communicating economic information to permit informed judgments
and business decisions by users of the information” 1 and “The provision of
Information to managers and owners so that they can make business deci-
sions.” 2. Indeed, in the business field, the success or failure of a company is
measured in financial terms, and is recorded and reported using accounting
information. Specifically, according to the purpose of the accounting re-
ports, we can define two main categories of “accounting”:
– Financial accounting;
– Management accounting.
Financial accounting is suited to provide general purpose information
about the business to external users such as shareholders, banks, creditors,
government, suppliers, customers, financial advisors, financial press, finan-
cial analysts, etc.
To understand the role of financial accounting, consider a large corpora-
tion such as Google (Alphabet Inc.). The owners of business organisations
can be referred to as shareholders, and Google has several thousand share-
holders. Of course, each shareholder cannot participate and is not involved
directly in the activity of Google; moreover, because Google needs to main-
tain trade secrets, its shareholders are not permitted to access such infor-
mation. Because of this, shareholders delegate most of their decision making
power to the board of directors and managers of the corporation. However,
shareholders require information to evaluate the performance of the business

1
AMERICAN ACCOUNTING ASSOCIATION, Committee to Prepare a Statement of Basic
Accounting: A statement of basic accounting theory, American Accounting Association,
Evanston, IL, 1966.
2
WARREN C.S., REEVE J.M. e DUCHAC J., Accounting, 15th, Cengage Learning, Boston,
MA, 2017, p. 25.
XII Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

and to make decision about retaining their investment or not in the company.
Therefore, financial accounting provides some of the information according
to such decision making processes; furthermore, potential shareholders who
are considering investing into the business may also use this information.
Creditors (i.e. banks, bond holders, suppliers, etc.) are another stakehold-
ers’ category that can use financial accounting information to know about
the probability of seeing back the money they have lent to the company. Fi-
nancial accounting will usually provide at least some of the information
needed by these “external” decision makers.
Therefore, common questions that financial accounting users ask them-
selves are:
– Should I invest money in this business?
– Will the business be able to repay money lent to it?
– What are the business’s earning prospects?
– Is the business financially sound?
– How much income tax has been paid?
Given the typology of external users that can get useful information from
the financial accounting activity, we can see financial accounting as a kind
of service activity that can be useful for companies and corporations, part-
nerships, clubs, associations, the Government and families.

On the other hand, Management Accounting (also known as Managerial

Accounting) provides information primarily to support internal manage-
ment’s decision making 3.
Managers have to deal with a great amount of decisions which may include
for example, whether to purchase new machinery, how much to spend on ad-
vertising, research and development, whether to lease or buy equipment and
facilities, whether to manufacture or buy component parts for inventory pro-
duction, or whether to sell a certain product. Therefore, common questions,
that management accounting procedures are designed to answer are:
– How much profit is being earned?
– What products should be produced?
– What resources are available?
– What is the most efficient production process?
– What is the cost to reduce carbon emissions?

3
HORNGREN C.T., Management accounting: this century and beyond, in Management
Accounting Research, Vol. 6, 1995, pp. 281-286.
 Introduction XIII

– What will be the effect of increasing or decreasing selling prices?

– How much profit is owing to outsiders?
– Will cash be available to pay debts as they fall due?
– What are benefits of owning vs leasing?
Management accounting information is usually more detailed and more
tailor-made than financial accounting information. Furthermore, manage-
ment accounting procedures are proprietary because the information is not
disclosed to external parties outside of the company.
Although separating between financial and management accounting can be
convenient for teaching purposes, practically, the distinction is somewhat
blurred. For example, financial accounting provides information about the
performance of a company to external users but because this information is
essentially a performance’s report on management, indeed managers are inter-
ested in and influenced by the process of preparing such type of information.

The aim of this book is to provide an introduction to financial accounting

procedures with the purpose of understanding the basis of preparation of fi-
nancial statements. Specifically, the focus will be devoted to the following
areas:
• Post/journalize transactions;
• Prepare Trial balance;
• Make Adjustments & Closing;
• Preparation of Financial statements.
Theoretical discussions are supported by case studies, examples and as
well excerpts from real companies’ annual reports. Financial statements’
preparation is discussed according to a common international perspective.

Although this book is the outcome of the authors’ collaborative joint-

work, Chapters 1 and 2 can be mainly referenced to Simone D. Scagnelli,
Chapters 3 and 5 to Melchior Gromis di Trana and Chapter 4 to Francesco
Venuti. The objective of this collective work is to support students, faculty,
and practitioners in understanding, learning and practising the basics of fi-
nancial accounting.

THE AUTHORS
XIV Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises
 1.
The accounting system

The main goal of accounting is to measure, record and classify every

transaction related to the business activity in order to provide useful infor-
mation to interested stakeholders. This requires a systematic approach, re-
gardless of whether the recordings are done by hand or by using computers;
this approach is what we call the “accounting process” and can be defined
by the following steps:
1. identify the business transactions;
2. measure these transactions in monetary terms;
3. record, classify and summarize the data in the accounting books;
4. communicate the information in accounting reports called “financial
statements”;
5. interpret and analyse the information provided in the reports in order to
support one’s decision-making process.
A summary of this process is presented in Exhibit 1.

Exhibit 1 – The Accounting Process

Identification Measurement Recording Communication

Quantification Recording,
Business classification, Financial
in monetary
Transactions Statements
terms summarisation

Decision Analysis and in-

Making terpretation
2 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

Specifically, this chapter clarifies the accounting process by answering

the following questions:
– what to account for?
– how to account for it?
– where to account for it?
– when to account for it?
Generally speaking, recording and classifying business transactions in
a systematic way according to the double-entry method is called
“bookkeeping”. Accounting is a broader term than bookkeeping and en-
compasses bookkeeping procedures. Accounting sets the rules and the
principles that have to be used, the procedures that have to be followed in
bookkeeping. Bookkeeping is the day-by-day recording and classification
of the transactions according to the methods and the principles determined
by accounting. The designing of the whole system, the presentation of the
financial statements, its analysis and interpretation are all functions of ac-
counting.

1. What to account for?

As stated previously, the role of accounting is to systematically record

and track business transactions in order to provide information which will be
used in the preparation of financial statements (composed by documents
such as the balance sheet, the income statement, the statement of cash flow
and the notes). Accounting information is expressed and, consequently, rec-
orded in monetary terms. However, there is not a need to account everything
that happens in the business activity of a company. Therefore, to understand
which business’ transaction should be accounted let us examine the In-
puts/Outputs diagram that depicts the relationships between a business entity
(i.e. a company) and its environment/market.
 The accounting system 3

Exhibit 2 – The company and the market’s exchanges

MARKET MARKET

INPUTs OUTPUT
GOODs/SERVICEs GOODs/SERVICEs
• Raw materials • Goods
• Capital Company • Service
• Word force € • Innovation
€
•… •…

Business transactions

In the previous exhibit, the relationships between the company and its
markets’ input/outputs show what we can call “business transactions” or
“market exchanges”. These transactions involve an exchange of what the
company gives and what the company receives from the markets in its busi-
ness activity. In order to purchase (receive) production elements from the
market, a company needs to give (pay) money; on the other hand, a compa-
ny also needs to collect money in order to sell (give) goods and services to
the market 1.
Let us take an example about our personal life; in order to take notes dur-
ing the lectures you need stationary, so you go to your local retailer to pur-
chase a pencil which price is 1,00 Euro. You look into your wallet and with
your right hand you take out a 1,00 Euro coin and give it to the retailer, with
your left hand you take the pencil. Clearly, an exchange takes place, because
if you want the goods you must pay, and specifically, you pay right away.
But what happens if you forgot to bring your wallet with you? Let us as-
sume you have known the retailer for many years and, therefore, you take
the pencil with your left hand and consequently you say “Tomorrow I will
pay and bring you 1 Euro”; from this moment on, you owe money to the re-
tailer, that is what we call “account payable”, in other words, it reminds you
that you are committed to giving money to someone.
This example can be transferred to the business activity, where compa-
nies and other organisations buy and sell “on credit”, which means they do
not pay right away for what they purchase, but agree to pay in the future the
supplier and, on the other hand, they don’t collect right away the amounts

1
When goods/services are exchanged for other goods/services and not for money, a his-
torical process called a “barter” system takes place.
4 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

related to what they have sold but agree with the client to collect it later.
When a company makes a purchase and does not pay right away the sup-
plier but agrees to pay the amount in the future (before or on a certain date),
an account payable arises. When a company sells something and its custom-
er does not pay straight away, the company owns the right to collect the
amount in the future (before or on a certain date), an account receivable
arises.
To summarise:
– accounts payable are money due to suppliers;
– accounts receivable are money customers owe to the company.
According to such credit perspective, we can start structuring of the main
flows involved in basic market exchanges/transactions, please see the fol-
lowing Exhibit.

Exhibit 3 – Typical business transaction flows

BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS

PURCHASES SALES

PAY RECEIVE
COST REVENUE
MONEY MONEY

Present Future Present Future

Cash Accounts Cash Accounts

payment payable receipt receivable

FINANCIAL VIEW
FINANCIAL FLOWS

ECONOMIC VIEW
ECONOMIC FLOWS

In the previous Exhibit you can see that if we focus on the term of pay-
ment of the exchange, we are dealing with the financial view of the transac-
tion, if we focus on the goods/services exchanged (purchased or sold) we are
dealing with the economic (or income) view of the transaction. The financial
 The accounting system 5

view is related to the financial flows interesting the company business while
the economic view is related to the income flows. The accounting system
must measure and record the information related to these two different
views.
In general, business transactions involve at least one financial flow (cash
flow, change in accounts receivable or accounts payable, debts, etc.). Specif-
ically, in order to account for transactions during the activity we need to
identify and measure the amounts involved within the financial flows –
namely, the exchange of money – as well as the amounts related to the flows
that affect the income – namely exchange of good, services and other eco-
nomic resources.
Business transactions that do not involve financial flows (i.e. moving
goods from inventory stock to the production process within the same com-
pany) shall not be accounted under this accounting perspective.
Hence, the following business events can be related to business transac-
tions that shall be recorded by the accounting system:
– purchases/sales of goods and services;
– payments/receipts of cash;
– payment of salaries;
– purchase of assets;
– financing operations;
– tax payments;
– etc. …

2. How to account for? The double entry method

Almost every company in the World adopts a specific methodology to

account for such business transactions, a process called “double entry meth-
od”. This method has a long history and its roots date back to the Assyrians
and Babylonians empires; however, the first “modern” book which docu-
mented the double-entry method was written in 1494 by an Italian monk
called Luca Pacioli.
The name “double entry” relates to the fact that each transaction is ana-
lysed under at least two different perspectives and, consequently, is en-
tered at least twice, recognizing both the “giving” and “receiving” aspects
of the exchange according to the different types of views and flows that
can be identified and measured. In other words, the double-entry method
recognizes the two-fold character of every single transaction, in other
6 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

words, the two different views we have discussed in the previous section.
Every entry is posted into an “account”, it is like a “T” drawn on a piece
of paper, identifying two different sections. It is regarded as the main de-
vice/tool of financial accounting (“T-account”). The name of the account is
written across the top, and each side of the account is used to contain
amounts measured in local currencies, for example, the Euro (€) 2.

Exhibit 4 – The “T Account”

T-Accounts are kept in a book called the “ledger book” (see next part of
this chapter). Therefore, each business transaction is posted in at least two
separate accounts in a simultaneous and opposite way into the accounts of
the ledger book. The sum of the amounts posted on the left-hand side of one
or more T accounts (“debit” side) shall always be equal to the sum of the
amounts posted on the right-hand side of one or more T accounts (“credit”
side). This means you enter figures into different accounts (at least two), but
you must remember to achieve a balance between the total sums you have
posted within the accounts.

2
Amounts presented in Euro in the following examples and cases use a comma as a dec-
imal separator and a dot as a thousand separator (Latin European system).
 The accounting system 7

In order to understand this logic, the following are examples regardless of

the real meaning of the transactions:
– transaction nr.1: € 100 on the left-hand side of the account “A”, € 100
on the right side of the account “B”, total balance = 100;
– transaction nr.2: € 100 on the left side of the account “C”, € 70 on the
right-hand side of the account “D”, € 30 on the right side of the account “E”
total balance = € 100;
– transaction nr.3: € 5 on the right-hand side of the account “B”, € 2 on
the left-hand side of the account “A”, € 3 on the left-hand side of the ac-
count “C” total balance = € 5.
The graphical and numerical effects of the previous 3 transactions on the
T accounts are presented below:

Account “A” Account “B”

nr. 1 100 100 nr. 1
nr. 3 2 5 nr. 3

Account “C” Account “D” Account “E”

nr. 2 100 70 nr. 2 30 nr. 2
nr. 3 3

Now, we have learned how the double entry logic works, we still need to
understand what kind of accounts should be used and how they should be
posted according to the different types of transactions.
The purpose of accounting is to measure and record the flows/amounts
recognizable in a business transaction knowing that each flow/amount shall
be recorded in a separate account. Therefore, the accounts to be posted ac-
cordingly depend on the type of views/flows involved within the transaction:
– financial flows (i.e. cash payment/receipt) related to the financial in-
formation/view recognizable in the transaction shall be posted into “finan-
cial” T accounts;
– economic flows (i.e. costs, revenues) related to the economic infor-
mation/view recognizable in the transaction shall be posted into economic T
accounts.
Economic flows represent the increase or decrease in the company wealth
(the Equity), which can be provided by different types of transactions and
for this motivation, they can be divided into:
8 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

– income flows: increases/decreases of company wealth, related to the

business and operations, and due to revenues or gains and costs or losses;
– equity flows: increases/decreases of company wealth related to opera-
tions of the shareholder Equity, for example, increase in company capital by
issuing of new shares, retained profits of the periods;
In the financial statements at the end of the year, the difference between
revenues and costs, called the profit or loss of the period, is entered using an
equity account as an increase of Equity.
The relationship between the type of information to record and the type
of T accounts to be used for is reported in the following Exhibit 5.

Exhibit 5 – Type of information and use of accounts

Usually financial accounts are named to state the way in which the pay-
ment was made (i.e. cash/bank) or to remember the area the company needs
to pay/receive money (i.e. accounts receivable, accounts payable, loans,
etc.); economic accounts are named according to the nature or typology of
the economic resource purchased and sold (i.e. cost of goods, costs for raw
materials, services expense , merchandise, workforce salaries, sales of fin-
ished products revenue, interest expense, tax expense, etc.).
Now, we need to learn which of the different types of flows/information
of a business transaction shall be posted on the left-hand side and which
ones on the right-hand side of a T account. These are simply conventional
rules related to what the merchants were doing in ancient days during the
commerce activity. The main and first conventional rule is that the cash re-
ceipt is entered on the left-hand side and the cash paid on the right hand side
of the T account entitled to cash, therefore, as a consequence all other entries
 The accounting system 9

are made knowing that each posting shall involve at least two accounts and
it shall be a balance between the amounts posted on the left and the amounts
posted on the right-hand side of the T accounts.
Some examples of applying the conventional rules follow:

1) Sale of 100 Euro of finished products, outright cash collection:

Cash
100 Sales revenues
100

In the previous transaction, as stated by the main conventional rules, we

have posted € 100 to the left-hand side of the financial account called
“Cash” to record the financial flow/information relating to the cash collec-
tion; on the other hand, to record the economic flow/information and, in or-
der to achieve a balance, we have posted the value of the finished being
goods € 100 to right-hand side of the Sales revenue account.

2) Purchase of 80 Euro of raw materials, immediate cash payment:

Cash
80 Purchase costs
80

In previous transaction 2), as stated by the main convention, we have

posted € 80 to the right-hand side of the financial account entitled “Cash” to
record the financial flow/information relating to the cash payment; on the
other hand, to record the economic flow/information, and in order to achieve
the balance, we have posted the value of the raw materials purchased, €80 as
expense, to the left-hand side of an economic/income account entitled “Pur-
chase costs”.
As a rule of thumb we can say that everything received (or is going to be
received in the future) or used by the company in its activity (i.e. cash re-
ceipt, accounts receivable, costs for raw materials, services, workforce, ma-
chinery, plant, trademarks, etc.) should be accounted for in the left hand side
(debit side) of an account; whilst on the other hand everything that is given
10 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

out (or is going to be given in the future) by the company (i.e. cash payment,
accounts payable, sales of goods/services, etc.) should be accounted for in
the right-hand side (credit side) of an account.
Hence, the following Exhibit 6 reports a table encompassing the rules of
how the double entry method should be applied according to the different
types of information involved in business transactions.

Exhibit 6 – The DOUBLE ENTRY bookkeeping method

Type of Type of ENTRIES
Information Flows
accounts LEFT HAND SIDE RIGHT HAND SIDE
+ Cash – Cash
+ Bank – Bank
Financial Financials Financial accounts
+ Accounts receivable – Accounts receivable
– Accounts payable + Accounts payable
+ Cost + Revenue
Income Accounts
Economic Economics – Revenue – Cost
Equity Accounts – Equity + Equity

3. Where to account for?

Once we learned how the double entry method works, we need to under-
stand where to record the entries and where to find all the accounts a com-
pany can use.
Nowadays, financial accounting is almost totally based on computer sys-
tems, and accounts are simply stored in electronic databases; however, due
to specific countries’ regulations, the use of accounting books is mandatory
in most companies and these books are softcopies visible on PC’s monitors
or hardcopies periodically printed.
The typical accounting books a company uses, despite the support, are:
– General Ledger book;
– Journal book;
– Inventory book;
– Fixed assets book;
– VAT books;
– etc.
Given the aim of this course, we will focus only on the general ledger and
Journal books, of which the following paragraphs present the basics.
 The accounting system 11

3.1. General Ledger book

As we have seen before each business transaction shall be recorded using
at least two different T accounts. During handwritten accounting days, all T
accounts were written into one book which was called the “Ledger book”.
The use of computer-based accounting systems dematerialized paper and to-
day ledger books are simply electronic databases which can be dis-
played/printed on the employees PC monitors. All the available accounts a
company can use are listed in the chart of accounts which is a support ex-
plained later.
Therefore, business transactions are recorded in the General ledger book
on a systematic way and every account describes what had happened accord-
ing to a different business item (i.e. cash, bank, accounts payables, purchas-
es of raw materials, etc.).

Exhibit 7 – Ancient ledger book’s view

12 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

Exhibit 8 – Modern ledger view

Applying the double entry method to record transactions in the ledger

book is called “posting”.
Furthermore, is important to understand how to compute the “balance” of
an account which means answering how much is the amount in it (i.e. how
many Euros are in cash?); specifically, the process to figure out the balance
of an account is:
a) find all the amounts on the left-hand side (debit side) and sum them to
get the left-hand side total;
b) find all the amounts on the right-hand side (credit side) and add them
to obtain the right-hand side total;
c) compare the two totals, and subtract the larger one with the smaller,
that is the account balance; cross a line on the account and post this differ-
ence on whichever side the larger amount was.
Below is an example of this process.
 The accounting system 13

Exhibit 9 – Computing the balance of a T account

How much is there in cash?
Cash Cash
100 100
200 200
60 60
20 20
30 Figuring out the 30
Total Balance 1) 320 90 2)
3) 230

3.2. Journal book

In order to post transactions into the accounts, it is necessary to transform
them into a form that can be captured by the financial accounting system and
to really understand what accounts we need to move to the left/right-hand
sides and for what amounts. This process is called “journalizing” as it is
done in an accounting book called the “Journal book”. On each page of the
journal you can find a summary of all the transactions that have occurred on
a day to day basis, pointing out which accounts were posted in the ledger
and for what amounts.
A Journal book entry normally use the following structure or some varia-
tion of it:

The structure of the journal book is explained in the following Exhibit 10.
14 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

Exhibit 10 – Journal Book Structure

Therefore, the transactions presented in the previous section shall be rec-

orded with the following journal entries:

1) Sale of 100 Euro of finished products, outright cash collection:

Left (DR) Right (CR)
A. Cash 100,00
R. Sales Revenues 100,00

This journal recording states that on May 23rd we had a cash receipt for €
100 that had been posted to the left-hand side of the account entitled “Cash”
and, on the other hand, we had a revenue for selling products valued € 100
which had been posted on the right-hand side of an account entitled “Sales
Revenues”; the total balance (total amount posted on the left-hand side equal
to total amounts posted on the right-hand side) is € 100.

2) Purchase of 80 Euro of raw materials, immediate cash payment:

Left (DR) Right (CR)
A. Cash 100,00
R. Sales Revenues 100,00

This journal states that on May 24th we had paid € 80 cash which had
been posted to the right-hand side of the account entitled “Cash” and on the
 The accounting system 15

other hand we sustained the cost, or expense, for purchasing raw materials
of € 80 which had been posted on the left-hand side of an account entitled
“Purchase Cost”; the total balance (total amount posted on the left-hand side
equal to total amounts posted on the right side) is € 100.

The data/information which is journalized is the same data posted in the

ledger book but presented in a different way; in the journal the key is the
business transaction indeed you will find recording for each business trans-
action in chronological order, while in the ledger there is a change of per-
spective, indeed the key is the account and you will find the effects
produced by these business transactions account by account. In practice, a
transaction is first of all journalized and then reported in the ledger accord-
ing to hand-written bookkeeping.

4. Chart of accounts

The chart of accounts is the list of all the accounts an organization can
use to record its business transactions. To find the proper account to use,
each account available in the list is identified by a unique number which
is called a “code” (somewhat like an address book of all the accounts
that can be used by the company). However, when accounting was ad-
ministered by hand, the unique number was referred to by the page of the
ledger book, but nowadays with computer-based bookkeeping, the num-
ber is a code usually referred to the positioning of the account in finan-
cial statements.
Usually, in Europe, each company can develop its own chart of accounts,
although companies belonging to a Group may find it useful to use a com-
mon system to aid the consolidation and budgeting process. For instance, in
France companies have to use a regulated chart of accounts depending on
the incorporation type and industry sector.
Only for the purpose of this book and in order to facilitate the under-
standing of the bookkeeping process, we will use a classification where
the “initial or prefix” codes of the T accounts refer to their position in fi-
nancial statements. The following exhibit provides this type of codifica-
tion.
16 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

Exhibit 11 – Initial codes used in the following book’s chapters

Initial Account
Referring to..
prefix code
Accounts representing Assets to be included in the
A…
Balance sheet
Accounts representing Liabilities to be included
L…
on the Balance sheet
Accounts representing Equity components to be
E…
included in the Balance sheet
Accounts representing Revenues to be included in
R…
the Income Statement
Accounts representing Costs to be included in the
C…
Income Statement

Initial/prefix codes are entered in the two first rows of the journal entry.

5. When to account for?

In order to post/journalize entries related to business events, we need to un-

derstand when a particular transaction is settled; therefore, we need a definitive
proof which provides information about it. Hence, business transactions shall be
recorded when the company issues or receives a proofing document and most
common accounting documents used as proofs are listed below:
– bills;
– receipts;
– invoices;
– checks;
– bank statements;
– customs declarations;
– income tax returns;
– etc.

6. The accounting cycle

The process of collecting, recording, processing and disclosing the account-

ing information of a company can be described as a cyclical series of steps that
is called “the accounting cycle”. It’s called a cycle because it is a circular pro-
cess, starting again every accounting period. The accounting cycle begins with
identifying and analyzing business transactions and events. As discussed in pre-
 The accounting system 17

vious chapters, not all transactions are entered into the accounting system. Ac-
counting transactions may include the sale of a product, the purchase of sup-
plies, a bank transfer or another payment or any other activity that involves the
exchange of the company’s assets, liability or equity with external parties.
The accounting process starts with the collection of source documents that
provide evidence and identify the business transactions. The accounting infor-
mation is based on the receipt of invoices, bills, bank statements, recognition of
a sale or completion of other economic events. Each business transaction has to
be analyzed in order to define which aspect is involved and to make sure that
the basic accounting equation is kept in balance after each transaction.
After collecting and analyzing the information, it is entered in the journal
and posted to the ledger, which is organized by account. At the end of the ac-
counting period, unadjusted trial balance is prepared to check that the books are
in balance (the total debits must equal the total credits in the financial records).
Then, adjusting entries are made, creating a worksheet. Adjusting entries are
made in order to prepare the financial statements. With the preparation of finan-
cial statements, the entity closes all the accounts. Then, with the preparation of
financial records for the start of a new period, the cycle starts again.
18 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

7. Financial Statements

The accounting information, which is collected, analyzed, processed and

recorded thanks to the double-entry method, is finally presented in a set of
financial statements. General purpose financial statements are a set of re-
ports, tables and explanatory notes presented periodically by the manage-
ment of the company to disclose information about the performance and the
financial position of the business.
Financial statements are the final product of the entire financial account-
ing process. Thousands of business transactions occurred during the ac-
counting period (i.e. one year) are collected and processed, then assembled,
summarized and presented in a synthetic way in specific reports called fi-
nancial statements. These financial statements are the principal source of in-
formation for external stakeholders about a company’s operations and finan-
cial position. Therefore, the information has to be presented accurately, fair-
ly, truly and understandably.
Financial statements constitute probably the most important part of ac-
counting. Here they are illustrated and discussed very briefly, just to provide
the basic elements and intuitions underlying the entire accounting process.
The objective of this part is to give a general overview of the end products
of bookkeeping and the “accounting process”.
The form and the accounting principles adopted to disclose financial in-
formation in the financial statements may differ according to the selected set
of rules (accounting principles and financial reporting standards) as well as the
legal form of the business organization. Individual proprietorships, partner-
ships and corporations are required to provide different types of financial
statements. At the same time, there are widely accepted theories, principles,
rules, standards and practices concerning the form and content of the financial
statements, often named General Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAPs).
Business organizations may prepare their financial statements according
to local GAAPs or to other accounting standards (i.e. the IFRS – Interna-
tional Financial Reporting Standards) that provide a common set of rules
and principle concerning the recognition, measurement, presentation and
disclosure requirements of business transactions 3.
No matter what set of rules is adopted, organizations are usually required
to prepare three basic periodic reports:

3
ZEFF S.A., The evolution of the IASC into the IASB, and the challenges it faces, 2012;
ZEFF S.A., Forging Accounting Principles in Five Countries, in, pag. -1, 2015
 The accounting system 19

1. the statement of financial position, usually referred to as the balance

sheet (BS);
2. the income statement, also referred to as the profit and loss state-
ment (P&L);
3. the statement of cash flow.
Additionally, companies have to publish also the explanatory notes, that
provide detailed information on accounts, criteria and evaluation methods,
and other documents (such as the management report and the auditors’ re-
port - if required).
Many companies (for example all the company listed on stock exchanges)
have to publish annual and interim financial reports. These reports are usually
available through the internet as they can be downloaded directly from the
companies’ websites (typically in the “Investor relations” area), from the
regulators websites (like the SEC in US), from financial websites (Bloomberg,
Yahoo Finance, Morningstar ...) or from the website of the stock exchange
where the company is listed (for example, for Italy, Borsa Italiana spa).

7.1. The Balance Sheet

The balance sheet (or statement of financial position) is a list, at a

specific date of the ASSETS owned or controlled by the organization,
the LIABILITIES, namely the claims against the business’ assets by
creditors (payables, loans, etc.), and the EQUITY, the owner residual
claims’ into the business organization.

The balance sheet reports amounts of financial items as at a specified

date. The balance sheet is like a snapshot of the financial position of the
company. It discloses information about the amount and the types of re-
sources and obligations of the company at a specified moment of time (usu-
ally the end of the year).
The balance sheet can be presented in two alternative formats, the ac-
count format (a table with two sides) or a list (vertical) format, where li-
abilities are subtracted from the assets in order to show the Equity
amount.
The following table presents the balance sheet of Google (Alphabet Inc.)
at December 31st 2017 (source: http://financials.morningstar.com), which
uses an account format.
20 Introduction to Financial Accounting. Concepts, Cases and Exercises

Alphabet Inc. (Google)

Balance Sheet @ December 31st, 2017 - USD in Million
Assets Liabilities and Equity
NON-CURRENT ASSETS EQUITY
Goodwill 16.747 Common stock 40.247
2.692
Intangible assets Retained earnings 113.247
Property, plant and
42.383 – 992
equipment Other comprehensive income
Investments 7.813 Total Stockholders’ equity 152.502
Other long-term assets 3.352
Total non-current assets 72.987 NON-CURRENT LIABILITIES
Long-term debt 3.969
CURRENT ASSETS Deferred taxes liabilities 430
Inventories 749 Deferred revenues 340
Receivables 18.336 Other long-term liabilities 15.871
Other current assets 3.352 Total non-current liabilities 20.610
Cash 101.871
Total current assets 124.308 CURRENT LIABILITIES
Accounts payable 3.137
Taxes payable 881
Accrued liabilities 18.733
Deferred revenues 1.432
Total current liabilities 24.183
TOTAL LIABILITIES AND
TOTAL ASSETS 197.295 OWNERS’ EQUITY 197.295

Observe that the heading of the balance sheet shows the name of the
company, the name of the statement and the date. Alphabet is a corporation
and this is evident because the balance sheet shows in the equity the amount
of “Common stock” (or Share Capital, as only corporations issue capital
stock and, consequently, their owners are called stockholders). Owners’ eq-
uity is suitable as a general term (sometimes it is also called “net equity” or
“net worth”), but if the business is a corporation, stockholders’ equity would
be more suitable.
The assets are the resources (objects, claims and other rights) owned by
the company. These resources represent potential sources of future revenues
for the company. On the right side of the balance sheet the sources that pro-
vided the company’s assets are displayed. There are two general types of
funds sources: liabilities (amounts owed to creditors) and owners’ equity.
The fact that total assets must equal (balance) total liabilities plus own-
ers’ equity provides the name “balance sheet” to this statement. This is an-
other way to express the basic accounting equation:
ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNERS’ EQUITY
This equality always exists, unless a mistake has been made in recording