Characterization of Urban Waste Manageme

Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman
Characterization of urban waste management practices in developing

Asian countries: A new analytical framework based on waste
characteristics and urban dimension
João Aleluia ⇑, Paulo Ferrão
Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, Av. Rovisco Pais 1, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper characterizes municipal solid waste (MSW) management practices in developing Asia, with a
Received 28 February 2016 focus on low and middle-income countries. The analysis that is conducted supports a proposed frame-
Revised 8 May 2016 work that maps out the trends observed in the region in relation to two parameters, waste compositions
Accepted 10 May 2016
and urban dimension, which was prepared based on a set of national and urban case studies. The man-
Available online xxxx
agement of MSW in developing Asian countries is driven, first and foremost, by a public health impera-
tive: the collection and disposal of waste in order to avoid the spread of disease vectors from uncollected
Keywords:
waste. This comes, however, at a high cost, with local government authorities in these countries spending
Developing Asia
Municipal solid waste management
up to 50% of their budgets in the provision of these services. Little or no value is derived from waste,
Urban governance which is typically seen as a liability and not as a resource that can be harnessed. On the other hand, in
Informal waste sector many cities in developing Asia there is an informal sector that ekes out a living from the recovery of recy-
Resource recovery clable materials found in waste. Members of this ‘‘informal waste sector” are especially active in areas
Technology mapping that are not served by formal waste collection systems, such as slums or squatter areas. A distinctive ele-
ment shared among many cities in developing Asian countries concerns the composition of the municipal
solid waste. MSW in those countries tends to be richer in biodegradable organic matter, which usually
accounts for more than 50% of the total waste composition, suggesting that biological methods are more
appropriate for treating this organic fraction. Conversely, thermal combustion technologies, which are
extensively applied in high-income countries, are technically and economically challenging to deploy
in light of the lower calorific value of waste streams which are rich in organics and moisture. Specific
approaches and methods are therefore required for designing adequate waste management systems in
developing Asian countries. In addition, despite some common characteristics shared among cities in
developing Asia, their specific circumstances can significantly vary, even within the same country, calling
for the need for context-specific waste management approaches. Set against this background, this paper
proposes a guiding framework in the form of a matrix that maps out approaches observed in the manage-
ment of municipal solid waste in cities of developing Asian countries as a function of the city dimension,
share of organics on waste streams, and wealth generated by the city. The cities of Surabaya (Indonesia),
Bangalore (India), Quy Nhon (Viet Nam), and Matale (Sri Lanka) are showcased as good practices in the
region in the management of solid waste, with their experiences used to illustrate the framework laid out
in the matrix.
Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction geographical and ethnical diversity, encompassing 30% of the glo-

bal mass land and a combined population of 3.9 billion people, or
The Asian continent is a vast and diverse region, straddling from 56% of the humanity (World Bank, 2014a, 2014b).
the Caucasus at its Western-most extreme, to the territories of Economic and demographic growth in the continent has been
Japan and Indonesia in the Pacific. It is a region of immense accompanied by increased urbanization rates. From 1990 to 2010
the proportion of Asian’s urban population increased from 31.5%
to 42.2%, and by 2010, 1.76 billion people lived in cities in Asia,
⇑ Corresponding author.
which represents more than half of the world’s urban population
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. Aleluia), [email protected]
(P. Ferrão). (UN-Habitat, 2011). High urbanization rates have been pushing
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.05.008
0956-053X/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Aleluia, J., Ferrão, P. Characterization of urban waste management practices in developing Asian countries: A new ana-
lytical framework based on waste characteristics and urban dimension. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.05.008
2 J. Aleluia, P. Ferrão / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
the boundaries of cities, posing significant challenges to national application with good practices identified in cities of lower-
and local governments alike. Amongst these, the increasing quan- middle income countries of the region; Section 5 provides the main
tities of municipal solid waste (MSW) generated is arguably one conclusions.
of the most daunting challenges that city governments have been
facing. As of 2011, cities around the world generated 1.3 billion
tons of solid waste on an annual basis, a volume that is expected 2. Normative and conceptual framework
to reach 2.2 billion tons by 2025 (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata,
2012). It is estimated that municipalities in developing countries Solid waste can be defined as any solid or semi-solid material
currently spend 20–50% of their budgets in managing and dispos- that no longer carries value or use to the individual or entity that
ing solid waste, with little or no value derived from it (World Bank, is responsible for its production, transformation or consumption
2014c). On the other hand, the impacts of unmanaged municipal (OECD, 2001). According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
solid waste extend far beyond city boundaries. A study by mate Change (IPCC, 2006), municipal solid waste (MSW) refers to
Jambeck et al. (2015), for example, estimated that 4.8–12.7 million waste streams that are generated in urban areas and which are col-
ton of plastic waste generated inland in 2010 entered ocean lected and treated by, or for, municipalities or other local authori-
ecosystems. ties. The IPCC definition includes the following waste streams as
Set in this context, the aim of this paper is, firstly, to identify part of MSW: food waste, garden and park waste, paper and card-
and characterize trends in municipal solid management systems board, wood, textiles, nappies (disposable diapers), rubber and
in developing Asian countries. Secondly, based on these trends, a leather, plastics, metal, glass (including pottery and china), and
guiding framework is proposed in the form of a matrix that maps others (e.g. ash, dirt, dust, soil, electronic waste). Waste from con-
out the practices observed in urban systems of these countries as struction and demolition activities is usually excluded from MSW
a function of the urban population, share of organics on waste definitions, as well as industrial and liquid wastes from municipal
streams, and wealth generated by the city. Here municipal systems sewage networks.
refer to urban systems understood at the scale of metropolitan As an important caveat prior to comparing or benchmarking
areas as defined in the context of each country analyzed. While any waste related data is that there is not a consensual or uniform
‘‘developing Asia” is the geographical scope of this paper, its main delimitation of MSW among countries. As shown in Table 1, some
focus is on low-income and lower-middle income countries of the countries consider as part of ‘‘municipal solid waste” streams
region, where the challenges of managing MSW have been more which typically are not included on commonly accepted
severe and therefore, where these issues are considered as a prior- definitions, such as medical waste or construction waste.
ity to both national and local government authorities (UN-Habitat, The existence of different definitions of MSW may pose chal-
2010; UNEP, 2015). The main contribution of the paper is the new lenges in comparing data across regions and countries, and should
guiding framework proposed, which is the first in the literature to serve as caveat for any analysis of the topic. Other possible chal-
depict MSW management trends in developing Asia along a three- lenges in comparing cities or countries may derive from the adop-
dimensional continuum of waste and city characteristics. tion of different surveying methods, gaps in time series, and the
The paper is organized as follows: Section 2 lays out the norma- extent to which informal sector activities are captured in national
tive and conceptual context of the paper; Section 3 identifies key statistics (OECD, 2013).
issues and priority aspects to consider for a more sustainable This paper assigns special attention to ‘‘developing” countries in
MSW management sector in developing Asian countries; Section 4 Asia. These are defined as the countries which rank either as low-
describes the guiding framework proposed, and illustrates its income, lower-middle income or upper-middle income, based on
Table 1
Definitions of municipal solid waste in selected countries. Source: AIT/UNEP (2010), Damanhuri et al. (2014), EPA (2012), Magalang (2014), MOEF (2000), OECD (2013), Tanaka
(2014) and Thai (2014).
Country Coverage and scope Waste types included in the municipal solid waste definition
Domestic/ Commercial Industrial Construction Medical Others
residential and and
demolition hazardous
India Municipal areas Included Included Not Included Not N/A
included included
Indonesia Municipal areas, including commercial zones Included Included Included Included Not Domestic waste excludes human
and industrial estates included fecal matter
Japan Solid waste in Japan is classified either as Included Included Not Included Included N/A
‘‘municipal” or ‘‘industrial” included
Myanmar Waste generated in municipalities, by Included Included Included Included Included Virtually any solid material that is
industries and agricultural facilities discarded is included in the
definition
OECD Waste that is treated by/for municipalities Included Included Not Not included Not Waste from sewage networks is
included included excluded
Philippines Discarded solid waste from households, Included Included Included Included Not Hazardous waste is not included,
institutions, industries and agriculture (non- included as well as waste from mining
hazardous) activities
Singapore Waste from offices, shops, hotels, schools, Included Included Not Not included Not Included waste from street
institutions, markets, hawker centers included included cleaning
United Waste types that historically have been Included Included Not Not included Not E-waste is included as part of MSW
States of handled in the municipal solid waste included included
America streams
Viet Nam Waste that is generated in the daily-life Included Included Not Included Not N/A
activities of individuals, households or at included included
public areas
J. Aleluia, P. Ferrão / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3
Table 2 It is in this context that the concepts of ‘‘integrated solid waste

Income levels of countries in Asia. Source: World Bank (2013, 2014a). management”, and ‘‘sustainable solid waste management” have
Low-income Lower-middle Upper-middle High-income been gaining traction in developing countries, including those in
countries income countries income countries countries the Asian continent. There is a broad, almost universal, consensus
Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Brunei on the need for the adoption of integrated sustainable waste
Bangladesh Bhutan China Darussalam management practices, which are based on a holistic, multi-
Cambodia Georgia Kazakhstan Hong Kong dimensional and multi-stakeholder approach to the design and
D.P.R. Korea India Malaysia (China)
Myanmar Indonesia Maldives Japan
operation of MSW management systems. An integral part of these
Nepal Kyrgyz Republic Thailand Rep. of are the principles of 3R, the prioritization of measures in accor-
Tajikistan Lao P.D.R. Turkmenistan Korea dance with the waste pyramid hierarchy, and the adoption of
Mongolia Singapore life-cycle thinking (Shekdar, 2009; UNEP, 2013, 2015; UN-
Pakistan

Habitat, 2010). Despite the recognized need for such approaches,
Philippines
Sri Lanka few studies are found in the literature that guide or map out
Timor-Leste how cities in developing Asian countries are faring concerning
Uzbekistan the adoption of sustainable waste management practices. The
Viet Nam paper is intended to contribute to filling this gap by proposing a
Note: low-income countries: annual GNI per capita equal or less to 1035 USD; guiding framework in the form of a matrix, whose application
lower-middle income countries: annual GNI per capita between 1036 USD and and usefulness is illustrated with the experiences of concrete
4085 USD; upper-middle income countries: annual GNI per capita between case-studies from cities in the region.
4086 USD and 12,615 USD; high income countries: annual GNI per capita of
12,616 USD or more.
3. Trends and state-of-the-art in municipal solid waste
management in developing Asia
the categories of economic development set by the World Bank
The management of municipal solid waste encompasses a
(2013, 2014a), as presented in Table 2.
multi-dimensional set of activities, where different actors, pro-
It may be observed from Table 2 that, apart from Brunei Darus-
cesses and policies (expressed in laws and regulations) converge
salam, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Singapore and Hong Kong
and interact. In order to better understand key issue and trends
(China), all other countries in Asia are considered as ‘‘developing”.
in developing Asian countries, it is proposed a value chain analysis.
In 2012, these countries corresponded to 53% of the world’s popu-
Fig. 1 lays out a simplified representation of the value chain of the
lation while accounting for just 18% of global Gross Domestic Pro-
MSW sector, which identifies six main stages in a MSW manage-
duct (GDP) (World Bank, 2013, 2014a). These developing Asian
ment system, from waste generation up until final disposal. The
countries are estimated to generate 26% of the world’s municipal
sections that follow analyze and discuss the realities of developing
solid waste (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).
Asian countries for each of the six main stages of this value chain.
The collection and disposal of waste is usually deemed an
Given its active participation in MSW management systems in
essential public service by local governments. Uncollected and
many cities in developing Asia, the role of the informal waste sec-
untreated waste has economic, social and environmental costs
tor is made explicit in the diagram as a different stage of the value
for a city, and a well-functioning MSW management system is a
chain, and its role is discussed separately.
proxy of good and effective governance. This justifies the provision
of a high share of city government’s budgets to the management of
municipal solid waste. The World Bank (2014c) estimates that, in 3.1. Waste generation: characteristics of municipal solid waste
developing countries, the provision of these services accounts for streams in developing Asia
20–50% of local governments’ expenditures, of which 80–95% are
spent in the collection, transfer and transport of waste (Guerrero When considering the most suitable approaches for managing
et al., 2013). There is significant potential to lessen this financial MSW in a city, attention needs to be paid to the characteristics
burden through the adoption of more efficient services (UN- and properties of the waste that is generated. These include
Habitat, 2010), the design of adequate cost recovery mechanisms aspects such as the quantities of waste generated, waste composi-
(Storey et al., 2013), and the implementation of practices that value tion, density, moisture content, and calorific value. As discussed in
the potential for recovering resources from waste (UNEP, 2015; the paragraphs below, waste characteristics can differ significantly
UN-ESCAP, 2015). among developing and developed countries.
An increasingly important aspect related to the impacts of MSW Figs. 2 and 3 relate the income level of countries with MSW gen-
management is that the waste management sector is a contributor eration rates per capita and the share of the organic fraction on
to the anthropogenic emission of methane – a powerful green- waste streams, respectively. While most countries presented in
house gas (GHG) with a global warming effect about 25 times the two graphs are from Asia, a few other high-income countries
higher than carbon dioxide – due to the anaerobic decomposition from outside the region have been included so as to better under-
of the organic fraction of waste in disposal sites. According to the pin the differences observed among developing and developed
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate countries with respect to these characteristics.
Change (IPCC, 2014), in 2010 the waste sector was responsible for The graph in Fig. 2 suggests that the level of economic develop-
2.9% of global GHG emissions. Even though these may appear rel- ment of a country is positively co-related to the per capita gener-
atively small, it should be noted that methane emissions from the ation rate of municipal solid waste. That is, populations tend to
waste sector are responsible for approximately 18% of global generate more waste as they become more affluent. This positive
methane emissions (Menikpura et al., 2012). On the other hand, correlation has been observed and supported by a number of stud-
if lifecycle assessment approaches are applied, it is estimated that ies (e.g. Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012; UN-Habitat, 2010;
the adoption of integrated sustainable waste management prac- Shekdar, 2009; Pariatamby and Fauziah, 2014; UNEP, 2015).
tices based on the principles of Reducing, Reusing and Recycling Another important observation is that high income countries exhi-
(3R) can reduce global GHG emissions in about 15–20% (Wilson bit waste generation rates equal or above 1 kg per capita on a daily
et al., 2010). basis, while most low and middle income developing countries
1 2 3 4 5
Handling Processing and Treatment
Collection, transfer and transportation

Organics
Storage of Biological treatment
Segregation segregated Secondary
waste sorting Inorganics
Recycling
Waste generation
Waste Disposal
Mechanical processes
Storage of
unsegregated
Mechanical biological treatment
waste
Thermal treatment
Treatment
(in situ)
Other processes
Disposal /
Dumping
6
Informal Waste Sector Participation
Fig. 1. Waste management value chain. Source: own elaboration.
70,000
Australia
60,000
Singapore USA
Canada
GNI per capita, 2013 (USD)
50,000
Japan
UK
40,000
Hong Kong
30,000
Rep. Korea
20,000 Portugal
China Malaysia
10,000 Sri Lanka Indonesia
Turkmenistan
Armenia India Philippines Thailand
Pakistan B.desh Viet Nam Georgia
Nepal Lao PDR Tajikistan
-
0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
MSW generation rate per capita (kg.person-1.day -1)
Fig. 2. GNI (Gross National Income) per capita (vertical axis, Atlas method, 2013, in 2013 USD) and MSW generation rates per capita (horizontal axis, kg person 1 day 1). In
red: low-income countries; in yellow: lower-middle income countries; in blue: high-middle income countries; in green: high-income countries. (For interpretation of the
references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Sources: World Bank (2013), Waste Atlas (2015), Thai (2014) and Basnayake
and Visvanathan (2014).
exhibit waste generation rates below that figure. A wide range of India, include construction and demolition waste as part of MSW
waste generation patterns is also observed among lower-middle (Table 1 may be consulted). This may result in higher MSW gener-
income countries, with the lowest being Armenia (0.33 kg day 1 ation rates per capita and a reduced share of organics as part of
person 1), and the highest the Philippines (0.73 kg day 1 per- MSW streams.
son 1). On the other hand, this dispersion can, to a certain extent, A similar analysis can be made in relation to the share of the
be explained based on the different MSW definitions adopted by organic (biodegradable) fraction of municipal solid waste, as pre-
countries. It may be noted that two of the lower-middle income sented in the graph of Fig. 3. In this case, it is observed that as
countries with the lowest share of organics, the Philippines and countries become more affluent, the organic fraction of MSW tends
70,000
Australia
60,000
Singapore USA
Canada
50,000
Japan
UK
40,000
Hong Kong
30,000
Rep. Korea
20,000 Portugal
Malaysia
10,000 Indonesia
China
Armenia Thailand
Philippines
India Viet Nam Sri Lanka Bangladesh
Georgia
Nepal Bhutan Pakistan
-
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90
Organic fracƟon share in municipal solid waste (%)
Fig. 3. GNI per capita (vertical axis, Atlas method, 2013, in 2013 USD) and share of organic fraction of MSW on weight basis (horizontal axis). In red: low-income countries; in
yellow: lower-middle income countries; in blue: high-middle income countries; in green: high-income countries. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Sources: World Bank (2013), Waste Atlas (2015), Thai (2014), Basnayake and Visvanathan (2014), Siriratpiriya
(2014).
to decrease. Indeed, if on the one hand in low-income or lower- developing Asia (e.g. Delhi, Chennai or Ho Chi Minh City), with a
middle income countries such as Bangladesh or Pakistan the low GDP per capita and low waste generation rates. Another zone
organic component is higher than 65%, in high income countries aggregates cities such as London, Singapore or San Francisco,
such as Japan and the Republic of Korea, these shares are typically which exhibit a high GDP and high waste generation rates. Thirdly,
below 30%. An implication to derive is that higher fractions of a group of cities can be identified in the central area of the graph,
organics tend to increase the density and moisture content found mostly from Japan. This can be explained by the fact that GDP fig-
in waste streams, which are characteristics that need to be given ures are adjusted to power purchase parity (generally high living
consideration in the design of waste collection, transport and treat- costs in Japan), as well as the relatively lower waste generation
ment systems (EAWAG, 2008; UNEP, 2015). rates vis-à-vis other high-income countries, which can be ascribed
In developing countries moisture content of waste is 50% or to the steady adoption of waste reduction policies in Japan
higher (on a weight basis), while in developed countries it is usu- (Tanaka, 2014). Fig. 5 is also consistent with the observations made
ally in the range of 20–30% (Mohee and Mudhoo, 2012). Wastes at national level from Fig. 3. Here, too, it can be noted the inverse
with a low calorific value do not easily burn in a self-sustained relation between wealth and the fraction of organic waste present
manner without the support of an external fuel, and are a key fac- in MSW streams.
tor to take into account when considering the suitability of thermal
combustion technologies as a waste treatment option. Further- 3.2. Waste handling and collection in developing Asia
more, waste that is rich in organics and moisture can also impair
the value of (inorganic) recyclables that can be recovered from The second stage of the value chain concerns the activities
waste. related to the way waste is handled from the point of generation
It is also important to analyze whether the findings for aggre- until its collection for subsequent transfer and transport to treat-
gated national figures, as presented in the graphs above, are consis- ment facilities or disposal sites. At this stage a number of aspects
tent with data at city level. One constraint to such analysis is the need to be considered, as they will likely impact subsequent stages
limited availability of data regarding the GDP or income generated of the waste management value chain. One of these aspects is
by cities. While GDP or GNI figures can be found for large cities, whether waste is subject to some sort of segregation. The separa-
especially from high-income countries, such data is usually hard tion of waste significantly influences the amount and value of
to come by for smaller cities, in particular for those located in the resources that can be recovered from the different MSW
low and middle income countries. Other challenges are with streams, and therefore it is the backbone of any approach to the
methodological issues in defining the boundaries of a city and reuse and recycling of waste.
how income or wealth generated can be measured. Despite these The separation of waste at source is a participatory measure
caveats, Figs. 4 and 5 present the findings for GDP per capita in that requires the cooperation of those who generate waste, such
cities and MSW generation rates and compositions, respectively. as individuals, households or commercial establishments. To per-
It may be observed from Fig. 4 that the trends observed at suade these to segregate the waste they generate requires signifi-
national level are more clearly identified at the city level, in that cant efforts on public education campaigns for behavior change,
waste generation rates tend to be positively related with wealth as well as considerable investments in setting-up a supporting
creation. Furthermore, three ‘‘quadrants” or ‘‘zones” can be infrastructure (e.g. different bins for different waste streams)
identified on the graph. One of them clusters together cities from and the design of incentive schemes to ensure the long-term
80,000
San Francisco
70,000
Singapore
60,000
GDP per capita, 2014 (USD, PPP)
Hong Kong
London
50,000 Sydney
Nagoya Melbourne
40,000 Hiroshima Madrid
Okayama
Adelaide
Seoul
30,000
Kumamoto
Bangkok Kuala Lumpur
20,000
Delhi
Manila
10,000 Hyderabad Ho Chi Minh
Mumbai Chennai
Bangalore Kolkaa
-
0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80
MSW generaƟon rate per capita (kg.person-1.day-1)
Fig. 4. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita for cities (vertical axis, USD per capita, expressed in power purchase parity, 2014) and MSW generation rates per capita
(horizontal axis, kg person 1 day 1). Sources: Brookings Institute (2015), Chiemchaisri et al. (2007), CPCB (2005), Greater London Authority (2011), Magalang (2014) and
Waste Atlas (2015).
80,000
70,000
Singapore
GDP per capita, 2014 (USD, PPP)
60,000
London Hong Kong
50,000
Madrid
40,000
Seoul
30,000
Kuala Lumpur
Bangkok
20,000
Delhi
Manila
10,000 Chennai
Bangalore Ho Chi Minh
Kolkaa Mumbai
Hyderabad
-
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90%
Organic fracƟon share in municipal solid waste (%)
Fig. 5. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita for cities (vertical axis, USD per capita, expressed in power purchase parity, 2014) and share of organic fraction of MSW on
weight basis (horizontal axis). Sources: Brookings Institute (2015), Chiemchaisri et al. (2007), CPCB (2005), Greater London Authority (2011), Manaf et al. (2009), Thanh and
Matsui (2011), Waste Atlas (2015) and Yoon and Jo (2002)
sustainability of waste segregation practices (Storey et al., 2013; separated from other waste streams and composted in small
UN-ESCAP, 2015). In developing Asia, waste separation rates are baskets, with the resulting compost being used as a fertilizer. In
typically low (Fujii, 2008), and this can be ascribed to a number the city of Surabaya, the second largest in Indonesia, the wide-
of factors, such as the low-awareness of populations to the benefits spread adoption of the Takakura home composting method, which
and need to segregate waste, and the low willingness to comply converts into compost food and kitchen waste from households,
with segregation practices due to a lack of incentives and/or had the participation of around 40,000 households and was one
penalties. of the approaches that supported the city reducing in 30% the
Waste streams can be treated on site or in close proximity to amount of organic waste being sent to landfills (Kurniawan et al.,
the point of generation, in a decentralized manner. Home compost- 2013). Similar experiences are found in other developing Asian
ing is an example of such an approach: the organic fraction is countries. In the city of Thiruvananthapuram in India, for example,
community based biogas digesters are used to treat food and mar- municipalities, while in smaller cities the collection coverage tends
ket waste (Heeb, 2009). The city of Islamabad, Pakistan’s capital, to be lower, with local governments usually having less human and
neighborhood-based composting plants in the form of ‘‘integrated financial resources to provide those services. In Viet Nam, for
resource recovery centers” are being demonstrated in one of the example, while in the cities of Hanoi or Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC),
sectors of the city, reducing the amount of waste that needs to the largest in the country, waste collection rates are equal or above
be disposed in dumping sites, the prevailing practice not only in 90%, in smaller cities collection coverage can be as low as 50% (e.g.
Islamabad but also nation-wide (UN-ESCAP, 2015). In a low- the cities of Bac Lieu or Tu San), as illustrated in the graph of Fig. 7.
income country like Nepal, a survey conducted in 2012 indicated On smaller municipalities, collection services may not be provided
that on average 30% of households in cities segregate waste at at all, which is for example observed in countries such as Nepal or
source and produce composting using traditional methods (ADB, Cambodia (Shakya and Tuladhar, 2014; Sethy et al., 2014), both
2013b). low-income countries. In another low-income country, Bangla-
Waste that is not treated on site or directly discarded in the desh, it is observed an average waste collection rate of 20%,
environment is subject to some type of collection services. The pro- whereas in the capital city, Dhaka, it is estimated that 40–60% of
vision of regular and reliable waste collection services is key to a the waste generated is collected (CCAC, 2015).
hygienic and clean environment, and is therefore an important A frequently observed situation in developing Asian countries is
public service and a proxy of good governance (UN-Habitat, that the most affluent neighborhoods of cities are usually served by
2010; UNEP, 2015). The graph in Fig. 6 examines the relation formal waste collection services, while low-income and peri-urban
between waste collection coverage observed in developing Asian areas fall short of such services. Waste collection rates can be as
countries with their level of economic development, which is low as 10% in peri-urban areas, and as high as 90% or more in com-
paired alongside the figures of other developed countries outside mercial business centers. This is for instance the case of two of
the region: India’s largest cities, Delhi and Bangalore, where 90% and 70% of
It may be observed from Fig. 6 that waste collection rates in the citizens respectively are covered by formal waste collection
high-income countries are close to 100%, while in developing coun- services, whereas some slum areas do not receive any services at
tries collection rates exhibit large variations, from 20% in a country all (UN-Habitat, 2010). In the case of Bangalore, it is estimated that
such as Bangladesh to 90% in Azerbaijan. While there is a clear-cut 2.5 million people live in slums and squatter settlements, generat-
divide between developed (high income) and developing countries, ing around 25% of the waste in the city, which is either dumped on
within the latter group the positive relation between wealth cre- streets or rivers, or collected by informal waste workers (Gowda
ation and waste collection rates is less evident. It can be observed, et al., 2013).
for example, a high-middle income country, China, paring along- Different stakeholders may be involved in the provision of
side lower-middle income countries such as India, Pakistan or Sri waste collection services in cities of developing Asian countries,
Lanka. Another example is Nepal, a low-income country, whose including municipal workers, community-based groups, non-
waste collection rates are in line with those of lower-middle governmental organizations, micro and small-sized enterprises,
income countries such as Georgia or Pakistan. and the informal sector (UN-Habitat, 2010; Ezeah et al., 2013;
It needs to be noted that national aggregated figures may over- GIZ, 2011; Medina, 2008; ADB, 2011a). In a low-income country
look significant differences among cities of the same country. such as Nepal, road-side collection is the prevailing waste collec-
Waste collection rates are usually higher in larger and wealthier tion method (Shakya and Tuladhar, 2014). In lower-middle income
70,000
Australia
60,000
Singapore
USA
50,000 Canada
Japan
40,000 UK
Hong Kong
30,000
Rep. Korea
Portugal
20,000
China Indonesia Malaysia

10,000
Azerbaijan
Philippines Viet Nam
Sri Lanka Pakistan Armenia
Bangladesh Georgia
India Nepal Bhutan
-
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Municipal solid waste collecƟon coverage (%)
Fig. 6. GNI per capita (vertical axis, Atlas method, 2013, in 2013 USD) and MSW collection coverage (horizontal axis). In red: low-income countries; in yellow: lower-middle
income countries; in blue: high-middle income countries; in green: high-income countries. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the web version of this article.) Sources: ADB (2013a), Basnayake and Visvanathan (2014), Thai (2014), Waste Atlas (2015) and World Bank (2013).
100% 97%
90% 90% 90% 90%
80% 78% 80% 80%
Collection coverage (%) 80%
69% 70%
60%
60% 52% 51%
40%
20%
0%
HCMC Hanoi Da Hue Nha Ca Nam Long Phu Bao Bac Lam Nga Tu Son
Nang Trang Mao Dinh Xuyen Tho Loc Lieu Thao Bay
Fig. 7. Waste collection rates in selected cities in Viet Nam. In blue: special municipalities (cities with a population over 5 million people); in yellow: type 1 cities (cities with
a population over 1 million people for cities under the Central Government and cities over 500,000 people for cities under Provincial authorities); in green: type 2 cities (cities
with a population over 800,000 people for cities under the Central Government and cities over 300,000 people for cities under Provincial authorities); in orange: type 3 cities
(Cities with a population of over 150,000 people); in grey: type 4 cities (cities of which population of over 4000 people). (For interpretation of the references to color in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) Source: JICA (2011).
countries such as Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam, waste is col- be grouped into four main categories, as indicated in Fig. 8 below:
lected door-to-door by community based organizations and subse- (i) thermal conversion; (ii) biological treatment; (iii) material
quently disposed in transfer points (Damanhuri et al., 2014; Thai, recovery and recycling; and (iv) other methods/hybrid treatments.
2014; Basnayake and Visvanathan, 2014). Several techniques exist for the thermal conversion of waste.
The oldest and least preferable option is open burning, which is
3.3. Transfer and transport of waste in developing Asia practiced in many countries in developing Asia, especially when
regular waste collection services are not available. Modern thermal
Transfer and transport of waste includes the activities through conversion methods, which use conventional incinerators, are not
which waste or the different waste streams are collected and trans- widely adopted in developing Asian countries. This is due to the
ported from communal collection points to transfer stations, treat- characteristics of the waste generated in these countries, which
ment facilities and/or final disposal sites. The collection of waste typically exhibit a low calorific value, are high in moisture content
from communal collection points, usually known as ‘‘secondary and, in some countries such as India, display a high presence of
collection”, is a service usually provided by local authorities or pri- inert materials (Zhu et al., 2008; Joseph, 2014), rendering them
vate contractors engaged by them (UN-Habitat, 2010). Unlike the unsuitable for standalone combustion. By the same token,
previous stage of the value chain, the involvement of informal advanced thermal combustion methods, such as pyrolysis and
waste pickers or community-based organizations is less active gasification, are seldom deployed in these countries.
here. As a general pattern, secondary collection and the transport It should be noted, nevertheless, that in developing Asia most
of waste is carried out in larger motorized vehicles, such as trucks incineration plants are found in high-middle income countries of
and compactor trucks, and hence the higher involvement of formal the region, particularly China, Malaysia and Thailand. In China,
waste collection services. incineration is one of the waste treatment options endorsed by
Prior to the transfer to treatment facilities or disposal sites, both national and local governments, and in 2010 there were
waste that is collected may be temporarily kept and aggregated around 160 incinerator plants in operation (Lianghu et al., 2014).
in transfer stations. These are intended to receive the waste of col- In Malaysia and Thailand some incinerators have been deployed,
lection vehicles and transfer it to larger trucks, so as to enable a mainly in touristic areas, although in both countries challenges
more economic long distance transportation. Indeed, as quantities have been reported regarding the low combustibility of the feed-
of waste increase, cities expand, and waste processing/disposal stocks and the emission of dioxins due to incomplete combustion
facilities are located farther away from city centers, costs with processes (Johari et al., 2014; Siriratpiriya, 2014).
the transport of waste tend to increase. As a general trend observed Biological treatment is used to treat the organic component of
in developing Asian countries, the deployment of transfer stations waste through the activity of bacteria. Composting is the most
does not appear to be widely practiced, and the presence of such commonly applied method in developing Asian countries, and it
facilities is mostly observed in larger cities. For example, in Thai- is seen in applications that range from household-scale to large
land only the capital city Bangkok is reported to have such facilities centralized plants. In Sri Lanka, for example, it is estimated that
in place (Chiemchaisri et al., 2007; Siriratpiriya, 2014). 5% of the MSW collected is converted into compost, both in small
and medium-sized settings (Basnayake and Visvanathan, 2014).
3.4. Processing and treatment of waste in developing Asia The anaerobic decomposition or bio-methanation of MSW streams
is much less applied as a treatment method than composting, as it
Several technologies and methods are available for treating and is technically more complex than the latter and as it requires an
processing MSW. Their aim is to reduce the volume of waste and/or effective segregation of the organic component and the pre-
divert waste streams from disposal sites and the natural environ- treatment of the feedstock prior to discharge in a biogas reactor
ment, which are the source of many negative externalities. The (MoEC, 2013). A survey conducted by Vögeli et al. (2014) on the
treatment of waste also offers the potential for recovering application of AD to treat MSW streams in developing countries
resources out of discarded materials, either in the form of energy, indicates that the application of the technology is still marginal,
recycled materials or soil fertilizer. Waste treatment methods can including in developing Asian countries. Yet the potential of the
Waste Processing and

Treatment
Thermal Biological Material recovery Other methods /

Conversion Treatment and recycling hybrid treatments
• Thermal combustion • Composting • Material recovery • Refuse-derived fuel

(incineration) • Anaerobic digestion facilities (MRF) • Densification and
• Advanced thermal • Mechanical • Recycling pelletization methods
combustion methods biological treatment processes/
industries
• Others
Fig. 8. Overview of waste treatment technologies and approaches. Source: own elaboration.
technology as an approach to treat MSW is becoming increasingly et al., 2012) are reported, with the capital city of Viet Nam, Hanoi,
more recognized. For example, Nguyen et al. (2014) estimate that being one such example.
food waste alone could meet up to 4.1% of Viet Nam’s electricity Physical methods encompass a wide range of techniques that
demand if converted into biogas through an anaerobic digestion rely on the physical properties of the materials present in waste
process. Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) methods, some- streams for some degree of processing into a final product, in the
times also known as mixed waste composting, are not frequently form of fuel or construction material. The production of refuse-
applied in developing Asian countries. These are typically capital derived fuel (RDF), which is typically used in industrial facilities
intensive plants, with high upfront and maintenance costs, often on a standalone basis or co-combusted with coal, is one of such
deployed alongside material recovery facilities. India and Thailand methods. The adoption of RDF and other physical treatment tech-
are amongst the countries in the region where MBT facilities can be nologies is still fairly limited in developing Asian countries. Pilot
found (Annepu, 2012; Bengtson et al., 2012). and small-scale RDF facilities exist in Malaysia and Thailand,
Material recovery and recycling of materials is widely prac- respectively (Pariatamby, 2014; Siriratpiriya, 2014), while plans
ticed in developing Asia, with recycling networks and industries for such facilities have been reported in countries in the region
well established in many countries of the region. An important role such as India and Indonesia (Joseph, 2014; Damanhuri et al., 2014).
is played by the informal waste sector in the collection and recov- The graph of Fig. 9 below shows the uptake of waste treatment
ery of recyclable materials, an aspect which is further analyzed in and disposal methods in Asian countries. It may be noted that the
Section 3.6. Recycling rates tend to be higher in high-income coun- disposal of waste, whether in open dumps or landfill sites, is the
tries. Singapore, for example, is estimated to recycle 44% of its common practice in developing Asian countries, with some coun-
waste, while average recycling rates on the remainder Southeast tries recovering and recycling less than 5% of the waste they gen-
Asian countries, which mostly consist of low or middle income erate, such as Bangladesh or Myanmar. It may be noted on the
countries, are of 8–11% (Ngoc and Schnitzer, 2009). Yet, in some other hand that in two developed countries of the region, Japan
cities in developing countries recycling rates of 20–30% (Velis and Singapore, incineration is the dominant method.
MSW Treatment in Asian countries

Singapore
Japan
Hong Kong (China)
Brunei Darussalam
Malaysia
China
Thailand
Indonesia
Philippines
Sri Lanka
Viet Nam
India
Lao PDR
Cambodia
Myanmar
Bangladesh
Nepal
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Open dump (untreated) Landﬁll Composng and Recycling Incineraon Others
Fig. 9. Treatment and disposal methods in selected Asian countries. Note: for Bangladesh, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmar, Nepal, the
Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Viet Nam, the figures reflect only composting activities. Source: ADB (2011a) and Ngoc and Schnitzer (2009).
60,000
Singapore
50,000
GNI per capita, 2013 (USD) Japan
40,000
Hong Kong (China)
Lao PDR
30,000
20,000 Viet Nam
Philippines
Malaysia Thailand Cambodia
10,000
China India Sri Lanka
Nepal
Bangladesh
Indonesia
-
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Share of open dumping (% of total waste generated)
Fig. 10. GNI per capita (vertical axis, Atlas method, 2013, in 2013 USD) and open dumping as percentage of waste generated (horizontal axis, percentage). Source: Ngoc and
Schnitzer (2009) and ADB (2011a).
3.5. Disposal of waste in developing Asia 2009). Yet, if considered in isolation, these activities not only con-
tribute to the economic welfare of these informal members, but
Disposal sites are the final destination of solid wastes that are also directly benefit the economies of local government authorities
not reused or recycled, and these can be categorized as open with savings to municipal budgets in waste collection and recy-
dumps, controlled or engineered landfills, and sanitary landfills. cling. Research indicates that the activities of the informal waste
The disposal of waste in an uncontrolled manner in open dumps sector can save up to 20% of a city’s budget for managing MSW
is still the prevailing practice in most developing Asian countries, (UN-Habitat, 2010). In Delhi, capital of India, 12–15% of MSW is
as may be noted from Fig. 9. That is in striking contrast with collected by the informal sector, saving the city an estimated 4–
high-income countries in the region, where open dumping is 5 million USD per year. In Hanoi, capital of Viet Nam, 18–22% of
barely reported, particularly in Hong Kong (China), Japan or Singa- the waste is collected by informal waste pickers, with estimated
pore. It may also be noted from the graph in Fig. 10 that the share savings to the city reaching 3 million USD per year (UN-Habitat,
of waste that is disposed in open dumps tends to decrease as the 2011). The activities of the informal waste sector are also closely
income level of the country increases. associated with the fact that cities in many developing countries
are able to achieve recycling rates comparable with those of devel-
oped countries (UN-Habitat, 2010; Medina, 2008). Linzer and
3.6. The informal waste sector Salhofer (2014), for example, estimate that informal recycling rates
in the range of 17–38% are achieved in urban China.
A distinctive aspect of developing Asian countries concerns the In short, members of the informal waste sector are important
participation of the informal sector along the waste management stakeholders along the MSW management value chain in many
value chain, especially in the collection of waste and recovery of developing Asian countries. However, usually their role and contri-
recyclable materials (Velis et al., 2012; UN-Habitat, 2010; bution is unduly recognized, with informal waste workers operat-
Medina, 2008; GIZ, 2011; ADB, 2011b). This ‘‘informal waste sec- ing in poor working conditions, earning low wages, suffering from
tor” refers to individuals, families and micro-enterprises that pro- income insecurity, and being unprotected by labor legislation (ILO,
vide MSW management services without being formally 2013). The integration of the informal sector into the formal econ-
recognized for the provision of such services (GIZ, 2011; Kashyap omy can result in many tangible benefits and has been attempted
and Visvanathan, 2014; Aguinaldo et al., 2009). GIZ (2011) and by many local governments of developing Asian countries. Such
World Bank (2014c) estimate that up to 2% of urban populations integration efforts can involve a broad range of actions, from mere
in low and middle income countries are part of the informal waste recognition of the sector by local authorities, for example through
sector, which corresponds to a combined population of at least 15 identification cards to waste pickers, to the complete institutional-
million people. For example, in Dhaka alone, in the early 2000s it ization of informal workers into companies or cooperatives
was estimated that approximately 120,000 waste pickers were in (Shakya and Tuladhar, 2014; Medina, 2005).
activity in the collection of recyclable materials (CCAC, 2015).
The importance of the informal sector in providing primary col-
lection services was noted earlier in the paper, especially in areas
that are not covered by formal municipal services, such as in 4. A framework for analyzing municipal solid waste
low-income settlements, slums and peri-urban areas. On the other management trends and practices in developing Asia
hand, their activity is not restricted to the point of waste genera-
tion, and they can be active anywhere there is potential for recov- The value chain analysis provided in Section 3 showcased the
ering recyclables, such as at dumpsites, transfer stations and diversity of municipal solid waste management practices in devel-
storage containers (Masood and Barlow, 2013; Wilson et al., 2006). oping Asia when compared with those observed in developed
Informal waste sector activities are driven by the need to eke countries. Table 3 below synthetizes the most salient features
out a living rather than out of environmental concerns related to observed in developing Asian countries along the six stages of
the benefits of collecting and recycling waste (Wilson et al., the waste management value chain.
Table 3 recovery of inorganic recyclable materials, such as plastic, glass or

Main features of the MSW management sectors in developing Asian countries. paper. The active participation of the informal waste sector con-
Stage of value Trends and patterns observed in developing Asian tributes to recycling rates as high as 30%, which are reported in
chain countries some cities in developing Asia. Even though recycling practices
1. Generation of Typically high shares of organic waste present in are relatively well established in many cities, recycling rates still
waste MSW streams (above 50% on a weight basis) fall short of those observed in more developed countries. Finally,
Waste generation per capita and share of inorganics most waste in developing Asian countries is not subject to any
in waste streams tends to increase with GNI
treatment and is eventually discharged in final disposal sites, which
2. Handling and Segregation of waste at source typically low or not predominately consist of open dumps and unsanitary landfills.
collection practiced
Waste collection rates are usually well below full ser- In light of the features identified, a matrix for mapping out
vice coverage, unlike most developed countries waste management practices and trends observed in cities based
where coverage approaches 100%, and tend to be on their respective dimension and waste characteristics is pro-
positively related to the GNI of the country. Collec-
posed in Fig. 11. This matrix combines the dimension of a city
tion rates may significantly vary among cities in the
same country population-wise (vertical axis) with the organic fraction present
Several different methods of collecting waste are in MSW waste streams (horizontal axis). The matrix consists of
observed; informal waste sector members and com-
four quadrants, each corresponding to a city type (small to med-
munity based organizations active in waste collec-
tion, especially in areas not formally served by ium; medium to large) and a share of organics on MSW streams
municipal services (below 50%; above 50%1). A clear-cut threshold for transitioning
3. Transfer and These services are usually provided by local govern- from one quadrant to the other with respect to the size of a city
transport ment authorities, with a more limited involvement has not been made explicit. However, it can be assumed that cities
of community based organizations or the informal with a population of 250,000 inhabitants would mark the transition
waste sector
to quadrants 1 or 3. Also indicatively, small-scale facilities are
Transfer stations are usually not deployed, except in
large cities assumed to have a capacity to process less than 20 ton of waste
per day; medium-sized facilities have the capacity to process 20–
4. Processing and MSW streams with high shares of organics negatively
treatment influence the technical and commercial viability of 100 ton of waste per day; and large-size facilities have the capacity
thermal combustion methods, whose deployment is to treat more than 100 ton of waste per day.
limited, especially in low and lower-middle income Another important element of the matrix is that each quadrant
countries of the region. On the other hand, open includes a horizontal axis, which relates the wealth of a city,
burning is practiced where waste collection services
expressed in GDP per capita, with the waste management practices
are infrequent or not available
Significant potential for the large-scale deployment observed. While this matrix aims at systematizing the realities
of biological treatment methods, especially compost- observed in cities in the Asian continent, these quadrants should
ing and anaerobic digestion, in view of the high share be interpreted as illustrative and not as rigid depictions of the real-
of organics in MSW streams. However, deployment
ities and circumstances observed on those cities. Further elabora-
of these technologies largely falls short of the needs
for treating the organic matter present in waste
tion by quadrant is provided in the following paragraphs.
streams Quadrant 1 depicts the realities of medium and large cities
Relatively high recycling rates achieved, to a large whose MSW streams have relatively low shares of organics
extent due to an active informal waste sector in the
(<50%). This category includes large cities in high-income coun-
recovery of recyclable materials
Limited deployment of physical treatment processes, tries, such as Singapore, Hong Kong or Tokyo. For cities with these
such as RDF, although the interest and potential characteristics, almost universal waste collection rates are
exists in several countries of the region observed, with the disposal of waste tending to decrease as cities
5. Disposal Open dumping is the prevailing waste disposal prac- grow richer in favor of the recovery, reuse and recycling of waste.
tice in most developing Asian countries; relatively The activities of informal waste sector members are usually minor
limited deployment of sanitary landfills
or non-existent, while increased segregation of waste, both at the
6. Informal sector Informal waste sector members are present and source and in material recovery facilities, enables the valuation
active along the waste management value chain,
of the resources extracted from the waste. The combustible com-
especially in the collection and recovery of recyclable
materials
ponents present on MSW streams are either converted into bri-
Working conditions of the informal sector are usually quettes or pellets such as RDF, or processed via thermal
precarious and hazardous, and their role is seldom combustion techniques, with advanced thermal conversion pro-
recognized by local government authorities cesses, such as gasification or pyrolysis being deployed in the
wealthiest cities or regions. The organic waste recovered is valued
through biological methods, from small to large scale facilities,
While the circumstances of developing Asian countries are very with anaerobic digestion being applied in circumstances where
diverse, they share among them a few common trends. First and the segregation of waste is better conducted, and where support
foremost are the characteristics of MSW streams, typically rich mechanisms for renewable energies in the form of feed-in tariffs,
in biodegradable organic matter, whose share is usually above for example, are in place.
50% on a weight basis. This suggests the need to adopt suitable Quadrant 2 corresponds to small and medium cities where
approaches for dealing with this high organic fraction. Biological MSW streams are composed of relatively low shares of organics
treatment methods, such as composting and anaerobic digestion, (<50%). Small and medium-sized cities from high-income countries
should be prioritized in these countries (ADB, 2011a; Bengtson would be located on this quadrant. Cities of Central Asian coun-
et al., 2012; UNEP, 2015). tries, where the share of organics may be lower than 50%, for
Another distinctive aspect of developing Asian cities is the role instance due to climatic conditions, and China could also fall under
played by the informal sector along the different stages of the this category (Sim et al., 2013). Cities of developed countries would
MSW management value chain. The informal sector is usually most
active in primary waste collection activities, serving communities
which are not formally covered by such services, and in the 1
On a weight basis and excluding inert materials from the waste composition.
+ Advanced thermal 1 3
Thermal combustion Formal waste collection services provided
combustion
Material recovery facilities, and Briquetting/Pelletization,

briquetting/pelletization (RDF) including RDF production
Dimension of the city (population)
Valuation of the organic fraction through composting

Informal sector active in collection/recycling
and anaerobic digestion, medium to large scale
Segregation of waste at source and recovery of Valuation of the organic fraction, especially
recyclable materials through composting, small to large scale
Waste disposal (landfilling and dumping) Open dumping Controlled disposal
GDP/capita GDP/capita
2 4
Thermal combustion Formal waste collection services provided
Informal sector active in Briquetting/Pelletization, Informal sector active in collection/recycling

collection/recycling including RDF production
Valuation of the organic fraction through Valuation of the organic fraction through
composting, small to medium scale composting, small to medium scale
Waste disposal (landfilling and dumping) Open dumping Controlled disposal
- GDP/capita GDP/capita
- Organic fraction of waste +

Fig. 11. Support matrix that maps out municipal solid waste management practices in relation to the city dimension, organic fraction of waste and city GDP. Source: own
elaboration.
typically fall on the right hand side of the quadrant, while the other recovered and segregated, biodegradable organics are mostly trea-
half would be populated by cities of developing countries. The final ted through composting, with anaerobic digestion seldom applied,
disposal of waste tends to decrease as cities grow wealthier, in a except at very small scale (e.g. households or hospitals). Opportu-
continuum where open dumping gives way to controlled disposal nities for the processing of the combustible components of waste,
approaches. For cities of developing countries in this quadrant, such as RDF production, are observed in some cities, typically in
the informal waste sector is present in the collection and recovery wealthier ones, as a means to treat the non-compostable compo-
of recyclables, whose participation tends to decrease in the inverse nents of waste streams. Given the low calorific value of MSW,
proportion of GDP growth. Given the relatively small share of the application of thermal combustion technologies is, in general,
organics, and typically higher fraction of combustible components, not observed or widely deployed in cities in this quadrant.
thermal combustion and RDF production are deployed when eco- Quadrant 4 corresponds to small and medium-sized cities
nomically and technically feasible. The organic fraction, when seg- where organics account for a high share of the MSW generated
regated and recovered, is typically valued on small-to medium- (>50%). Most cities in developing Asian countries fall under this
sized scale composting facilities. quadrant. Waste management practices observed on these cities
Quadrant 3 corresponds to medium and large cities whose are, on many aspects, similar to those of quadrant 3: the disposal
MSW streams have relatively high shares of organics (>50%). Many of untreated waste is the prevailing practice, with wealthier cities
capital cities of developing Asian countries, such as Dhaka, New leaning towards controlled disposal; provision of formal waste col-
Delhi or Hanoi, would fall under this category. For cities on this lection services tends to be in line with the wealth of the city, while
quadrant, most of the waste generated is disposed into the envi- the informal sector plays an active role in the collection of waste,
ronment, in open dumps. As cities become wealthier and endowed particularly recyclables. With respect to treatment solutions,
with more resources, the trend is to shift from open dumping to smaller-scale approaches are the norm, with composting being
controlled disposal sites, such as semi-engineered and, in some the prevailing practice for addressing the organic fraction of waste,
cases, sanitary landfills. Wealthier populations do also claim for including home-composting. Thermal combustion technologies,
the need for more frequent and reliable waste collection services. and techniques such as RDF production, are not typically observed.
On these cities, the informal waste sector plays a role in waste col- Medium and, in some circumstances, large-scale facilities are
lection, especially the recovery of recyclables. The wealthier the observed when there is the potential for centralizing or clustering
city becomes, the higher the tendency to a lesser involvement of together the treatment solutions of more than one city.
the informal sector, and/or a higher integration of its members into A set of case studies is presented to illustrate the framework
the formal economy. In cities falling onto this quadrant the han- laid out in the matrix. They have been identified as good practices
dling of the organic fraction of waste is amongst the most challeng- of cities that fall into quadrants 3 and 4, which are those where
ing aspects that local authorities have to deal with. When most developing Asian cities fall upon. Furthermore, they illustrate
the continuum suggested along the horizontal axis of each of those Quy Nhon is a port city in south-central Viet Nam, and the eco-
quadrants. The cities selected are Surabaya (Indonesia), Bangalore nomic hub and political center of the Binh Dinh Province in Central
(India), Matale (Sri Lanka) and Quy Nhon (Viet Nam). Viet Nam. It has a population of 270,000 inhabitants, with an aver-
Surabaya is the second largest city in Indonesia, with a popula- age daily generation of 195 ton of MSW per day, 80% of which is
tion of approximately 3 million people. It is located in the East of biodegradable organic. The piloting of a small neighborhood-
Java Island, being the most economically developed city in the based composting facility, which relied on the separation of waste
region. Waste generated in the city is mostly organic, with a share at source, unleashed the adoption of a city-scale segregation pro-
of above 50% of the total, while in 2005 only 50% of the waste gen- gramme. At present, 30–40 ton of organic waste are segregated
erated was collected. Another challenge that the city faced at the on a daily basis by the city’s residents, which is treated in a central-
time was that the final disposal site was quickly reaching full ized composting plant in the outskirts of the city. In parallel, with
capacity, with the local government facing difficulties in identify- the support of the World Bank the city has converted its disposal
ing land for a new disposal site. It was in this context that, in site from a semi-engineered to a sanitary landfill, equipped with
2002, an extended collaboration with the city of Kitakyushu in a leachate treatment system, geotextile cover and landfill gas
Japan was initiated, with the aim of implementing a new MSW recovery system. As a medium-sized city, Quy Nhon falls in
management system in Surabaya. This approach was based in the between quadrants 3 and 4 of the matrix, and it can be regarded
principles of 3R and the adoption of waste separation practices, as a good-practice of a how a city in a lower-middle income coun-
mainly in low-income settlements, which were mostly under- try with this dimension can cope in an effective and sustainable
served by the city’s formal waste collection system. With the sup- manner with the challenges of managing MSW (UN-ESCAP, 2015).
port of a local NGO and community based organizations, Matale is a town in the Central Province of Sri Lanka with a pop-
awareness campaigns were initiated to sensitize communities to ulation of approximately 40,000 inhabitants. It generates on aver-
segregate waste into two components, ‘‘dry” inorganics and wet age of 21 ton of MSW per day, of which 70% is organic, thereby
‘‘organic” waste. Whereas the dry component was given away to falling into quadrant 4 of the matrix. Since 2006 that the city has
waste pickers for subsequent recycling, organic waste was com- been implementing small composting plants in the form of ‘‘inte-
posted in small composting baskets at the household level. The grated resource recovery centers”, which were processing approx-
composting of waste through this method, complemented with imately 70% of the organic waste generated in the city at the end of
the establishment of small composting facilities across the city, 2014. With the commissioning of a new ‘‘recovery center” in 2016,
resulted in a reduction of 30% in the amount of waste transported the share of organics treated is posed to increase to 90%, turning
to the city’s final disposal site in just five years. The programme Matale in the first ‘‘zero-waste” city in developing Asia (Lehmann
also supported the establishment of small and medium sized and Thornton, 2014; Storey et al., 2015). Matale is a paradigmatic
enterprises for the recycling of ‘‘dry” waste, with the recyclables case of a city that has been shifting its waste management prac-
being collected by informal waste sector members tices from ‘‘end-of-the-pipe” to a fully decentralized approach,
(Premakumara, 2012). The case of Surabaya illustrates how a large illustrating the evolution along the horizontal axis of quadrant 4.
developing Asian city can transition towards a higher valuation of Surabaya, Bangalore and Quy Nhon are cities that have experi-
the organic fraction of waste, thereby lessening the stress on exist- enced a period of economic growth over the past 10–15 years, and
ing disposal sites, and contributing to a higher integration of the while this factor cannot alone explain the adoption of the MSW
informal sector. management approaches observed in those cities, it does suggest
Bangalore is the capital of India’s Karnataka state. With a pop- the movement along the GDP/capita continuum mapped out in
ulation of 8.4 million citizens, it is one of India’s most populous the quadrants of the matrix. Matale’s level of economic develop-
cities, generating 4000 ton of waste on a daily basis. It is an ment is less pronounced than that of the three other cities, with
archetypical case of a large and fast growing city which has to cope one of the main drivers to decentralization and treatment through
with the challenges of rapid urbanization, with the management of composting being the severe challenges faced by the municipality
municipal solid waste ranking as one of the priority issues. To in finding available space for waste disposal. On the other hand,
respond to an incoming waste crisis, in 2013 the local government one common thread unifies the four cities: the strong leadership
initiated the implementation of a programme aimed at shifting of their respective local government authorities. In Matale, the
ongoing practices from open dumping to waste processing. One vision of Mayor Hilmy in the creation of a green city has been a
of the pillars of the programme consists in maximizing opportuni- major driving force towards improved waste management prac-
ties for processing waste within the city boundaries, through the tices, while in Surabaya Mayor Tri Rismaharini has been instru-
establishment of ‘‘dry waste” collection centers and bio- mental in transforming the city into one of the most
methanation units. With the gradual uptake of decentralization, environmentally sustainable in South-East Asia.
waste transportation distances were reduced from 40 km to an
average of 10–15 km. Other pillars of the programme were the
intention to reach 100% waste collection coverage in the city, the 5. Concluding remarks
integration of the informal waste sector into formal planning
methods, and an approach for collecting real-time data to enable This paper attempted to characterize municipal solid waste
a better monitoring and control of the waste management system management practices and trends in developing Asian countries,
as a whole. Special attention was paid to the processing of certain and especially in low and lower-middle income countries of the
waste streams, such as low-value plastics, laminates or coconut region. The positive relation between wealth creation and the gen-
waste, which are converted into fuel briquettes when segregated eration of municipal solid waste, both at the country and city level,
and recovered (BBMP, 2015). All in all, as a city located in quadrant was observed. Conversely, it was shown that an increase in wealth
3, Bangalore adequately illustrates the shift along the horizontal generation tends to be accompanied by a decrease in the share of
axis continuum on at least four dimensions: valuation of the organics in municipal solid waste streams. The paper has con-
organic fraction mostly through composting, increased provision firmed that these trends are observed, as a general pattern, in
of formal collection services, gradual integration of the informal developing Asian countries.
sector, and valuation of combustible components through On the other hand, some unevenness and ‘‘dispersion” was
pelletization and briquetting techniques. observed in some waste-related indicators, particularly those
concerning waste generation per capita and the share of organics AIT/UNEP, 2010. Municipal Waste Management Report: Status-quo and Issues in
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approaches that take account of the local context and minimize
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need to adopt incentive schemes that adequately reflect the value Creating Opportunities: Integrating the Informal Sector into Waste
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Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Characterization of urban waste management practices in developing

1. Introduction geographical and ethnical diversity, encompassing 30% of the glo-

Table 2 It is in this context that the concepts of ‘‘integrated solid waste

Collection, transfer and transportation

Fig. 1. Waste management value chain. Source: own elaboration.

China Indonesia Malaysia

Waste Processing and

Thermal Biological Material recovery Other methods /

• Thermal combustion • Composting • Material recovery • Refuse-derived fuel

MSW Treatment in Asian countries

20,000 Viet Nam

Table 3 recovery of inorganic recyclable materials, such as plastic, glass or

Material recovery facilities, and Briquetting/Pelletization,

Valuation of the organic fraction through composting

Waste disposal (landfilling and dumping) Open dumping Controlled disposal

Informal sector active in Briquetting/Pelletization, Informal sector active in collection/recycling

Waste disposal (landfilling and dumping) Open dumping Controlled disposal

- Organic fraction of waste +

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