Computer Network Lab Manual-6th Sept 2022-ZSdt0i13

MGM’s
Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College

Aurangabad
MGM University, Aurangabad
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
LAB MANUAL
____________________________________________
Program (UG/PG): UG
Year : Third Year
Semester :V
Course Code : 20UCS510L
Course Title : Computer Network Lab
Prepared By : Ms. A. B. Shahin (Husain)
____________________________________________
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
2022-23
FOREWORD
It is my great pleasure to present this laboratory manual for Third year engineering
students for the subject of Computer networks.
As a student, many of you may be wondering with some of the questions in your mind
regarding the subject and exactly what has been tried is to answer through this manual.
As you may be aware that MGM has already been awarded with ISO 9001:2000 certifications
and it is our duty to technically equip our students taking the advantage of the procedural
aspects of ISO 9001:2000 Certification.
Faculty members are also advised that covering these aspects in the initial stage itself will
greatly relieve them in future as much of the load will be taken care of by the enthusiasm
energies of the students once they are conceptually clear.
Dr. H. H. Shinde
Principal
LABORATORY MANUAL CONTENTS
This manual is intended for the Third year students of Computer Science and Engineering
in the subject of Computer Network. This manual typically contains practical/Lab Sessions
related Computer Network covering various aspects related to the subject to enhanced
understanding.
Students are advised to thoroughly go through this manual rather than only topics
mentioned in the syllabus as practical aspects are the key to understanding and conceptual
visualization of theoretical aspects covered in the books.
Good Luck for your Enjoyable Laboratory Sessions
Prof. V. B. Musande Mrs. Asma B. Shahin(Husain)

HOD, CSE Asst. Prof., CSE Dept.
MGM’s
Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College, Aurangabad

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Vision of CSE Department:
To develop computer engineers with necessary analytical ability and human values who can
creatively design, implement a wide spectrum of computer systems for welfare of the
society.
Mission of the CSE Department:
I. Preparing graduates to work on multidisciplinary platforms associated with

their professional position both independently and in a team environment.
II. Preparing graduates for higher education and research in Computer Science
and Engineering enabling them to develop systems for society development.
Programme Educational Objectives:
Graduates will be able to
I. To analyze, design and provide optimal solution for Computer Science

and Engineering and multidisciplinary problems.
II. Topursue higher studies and research by applying knowledge of mathematics

and fundamentals of computer science.
II. To exhibit professionalism, communication skills and adapt to current trends

by engaging in lifelong learning.
Programme Outcomes (POs): Engineering Graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the
information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
Course Code: 20UCS510L

Course Title: Computer Networks Lab
Sr. No Name of the experiment Page No.
1 Configure of network - Assigning IP Address, Subnet Mask, Gateway

& Testing Basic Connectivity.
2 Study of Networking Devices.
3 Study transmission media.
4 Creating a networking cable using crimping tool & study different

connectors
5 Use basic networking commands in Linux.
6 Implement different topologies using Cisco packet tracer.
7 Implement Unicast Routing Algorithm. (Distance Vector Routing

Algorithm)
8 Implement Unicast Routing Algorithm. (Link State Routing Algorithm)
9 Implementation of Congestion Control Algorithm (Leaky Bucket

Algorithm.)
10 Implementation of Multicast Routing Algorithm.
11 Implementation ofDijkstra's Shortest Path Algorithm.
12 Simulation or Implementation of DHCP.
13 Simulation or Implementation of FTP.
14 Implementation of Client- server program using iterative TCP server.

LABORATORY OUTCOMES
The practical/exercises in this section are psychomotor domain Learning Outcomes (i.e., subcomponents of
the COs), to be developed and assessed to lead to the attainment of the competency.
CO-1: Identify and use various networking components.
CO2 - Understand different transmission media anddesign cables for establishing a network.
CO-3:Use of basic networking commands in Windows/ Linux
CO-4: Able to design and implement various network applications such as FTP, DHCP.
CO-5: Understand the various routing protocols/ algorithms and internetworking.

DOs and DON’Ts in Laboratory:
1. Make an entry in the Log Book as soon as you enter the Laboratory.
2. All the students should sit according to their roll numbers starting from their left to right.
3. All the students are supposed to enter the terminal number in the log book.
4. Do not change the terminal on which you are working.
5. All the students are expected to get at least the algorithm of the program/concept to be
implemented.
6. Strictly follow the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor.
Instruction for Laboratory Teachers
1. Submissions related to whatever lab work has been completed should be done during the next
lab session.
2. The immediate arrangements for printouts related to submission on the day of practical
assignments.
3. Students should be taught totake the printouts under the observation of the lab teacher.
4. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and evaluation
patterns that will benefit the sincere students

Lab Exercise :01
Exercise No 1: ( 2 Hours) – 1 Practical
AIM: Configure of network –Assigning IP Address, Subnetmask, gateway and Testing basic
connectivity.
Objective: Students should be able to configure the network by assigning IP Address, Subnet mask,
gateway and Testing Basic Connectivity.
Theory:
✔ IP ADDRESS :
Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be used efficiently

in various situations as per the requirement of hosts per network. Broadly, the IPv4 Addressing
system is divided into five classes of IP Addresses. All the five classes are identified by the first
octet of IP Address. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers is responsible for
assigning IP addresses.
The first octet referred here is the left most of all. The octets numbered as follows depicting
dotted decimal notation of IP Address:
The number of networks and the number of hosts per class can be derived by this formula:
When calculating hosts' IP addresses, 2 IP addresses are decreased because they cannot be
assigned to hosts, i.e. the first IP of a network is network number and the last IP is reserved for
Broadcast IP.
● Class A Address:
The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero). Thus the first octet ranges from 1 – 127,
i.e.
Class A addresses only include IP starting from 1.x.x.x to 126.x.x.x only. The IP range
127.x.x.x is reserved for loopback IP addresses.
The default subnet mask for Class A IP address is 255.0.0.0 which implies that Class A
addressing can have 126 networks (27-2) and 16777214 hosts (224-2).
Class A IP address format is

thus: 0NNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
● Class B Address:
An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to 10, i.e.
Class B IP Addresses range from 128.0.x.x to 191.255.x.x. The default subnet mask for Class B
is 255.255.x.x.
Class B has 16384 (214) Network addresses and 65534 (216-2) Host addresses. Class B IP
address format is: 10NNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH.HHHHHHHH
● Class C Address:
The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, that is:
Class C IP addresses range from 192.0.0.x to 223.255.255.x. The default subnet mask for Class
C is 255.255.255.x.
Class C gives 2097152 (221) Network addresses and 254 (28-2) Host addresses. Class C IP
address format is: 110NNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.HHHHHHHH
● Class D Address:
Very first four bits of the first octet in Class D IP addresses are set to 1110, giving a range of:
Class D has IP address rage from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255. Class D is reserved for
Multicasting. In multicasting data is not destined for a particular host, that is why there is no
need to extract host address from the IP address, and Class D does not have any subnet mask.
● Class E Address:
This IP Class is reserved for experimental purposes only for R&D or Study. IP addresses in this
class ranges from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254. Like Class D, this class too is not equipped
with any subnet mask.
Class 1st 1st Network/Host Default Subnet Number Hosts per

Octet Octet ID Mask of Network
Decimal High (N=Network, Networks (Usable
Range Order H=Host) Addresses)
Bits
A 1-126* 0 N.H.H.H 255.0.0.0 126(27 - 16,777,214
2) (224 - 2)
B 128- 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 65,534

191 (214 - 2)
(216 - 2)
C 192- 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 254(28 - 2)

223
(221 - 2)
D 224- 1110 Reserved for Multicasting

239
E 240- 11110 Experimental; used for research
254
SUBNET MASK:
The 32-bit IP address contains information about the host and its network. It is very necessary to
distinguish both. For this, routers use Subnet Mask, which is as long as the size of the network address
in the IP address. Subnet Mask is also 32 bits long. If the IP address in binary is ANDed with its Subnet
Mask, the result yields the Network address. For example, say the IP Address is 192.168.1.152 and the
Subnet Mask is 255.255.255.0 then:
This way the Subnet Mask helps extract the Network ID and the Host from an IP Address. It can be
identified now that 192.168.1.0 is the Network number and 192.168.1.152 is the host on that
network.
GATEWAY:
A network gateway is an internetworking system capable of joining together two networks that use
different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented completely in software, completely in
hardware, or as a combination of both. Depending on the types of protocols they support, network
gateways can operate at any level of the OSI model.
In enterprises, the gateway node often acts as a proxy server and firewall. The gateway is also
associated with both a router, which use headers and forwarding tables to determine where packets are
sent, and a switch, which provides the actual path for the packet in and out of the gateway. A computer
system located on earth that switches data signals and voice signals between satellites and terrestrial
networks.
TESTING BASIC CONNECTIVITY:
The ping Command
The basic format of the ping command on a Solaris system is: [2]
[2] Check your system's documentation. ping varies slightly from system to system. On Linux, the
format shown above would be: ping [-c count] [-s packetsize] host
ping host [packetsize] [count]

host….
The hostname or IP address of the remote host being tested. Use the hostname or address
provided by the user in the trouble report.
Packetsize……
Defines the size in bytes of the test packets. This field is required only if the count field is going
to be used. Use the default packetsize of 56 bytes.
Count……
The number of packets to be sent in the test. Use the count field, and set the value low.
Otherwise, the ping command may continue to send test packets until you interrupt it, usually by
pressing CTRL-C (^C). Sending excessive numbers of test
packets is not a good use of network bandwidth and system resources. Usually five packets are
sufficient for a test.
To check that ns.uu.net can be reached from almond, we send five 56-byte packets with the following
command:
% ping -s ns.uu.net 56 5
PING ns.uu.net: 56 data bytes
64 bytes from ns.uu.net (137.39.1.3): icmp_seq=0. time=32.8 ms 64
bytes from ns.uu.net (137.39.1.3): icmp_seq=1. time=15.3 ms 64 bytes
from ns.uu.net (137.39.1.3): icmp_seq=2. time=13.1 ms 64 bytes from
ns.uu.net (137.39.1.3): icmp_seq=3. time=32.4 ms 64 bytes from
ns.uu.net (137.39.1.3): icmp_seq=4. time=28.1 ms
----ns.uu.net PING Statistics----

5 packets transmitted, 5 packets received, 0% packet loss round-
trip (ms) min/avg/max = 13.1/24.3/32.8
The -s option is included because almond is a Solaris workstation, and we want packet-by- packet
statistics. Without the -s option, Sun's ping command only prints a summary line saying "ns.uu.net is
alive." Other ping implementations do not require the -s option; they display the statistics by default.
The statistics displayed by the ping command can indicate low-level network problems. The key
statistics are:
● The sequence in which the packets are arriving, as shown by the ICMP sequence number
(icmp_seq) displayed for each packet.
● How long it takes a packet to make the round trip, displayed in milliseconds after the string
time=.
● The percentage of packets lost, displayed in a summary line at the end of the ping
output.
If the packet loss is high, the response time is very slow, or packets are arriving out of order, there
could be a network hardware problem. If you see these conditions when communicating over great
distances on a wide area network, there is nothing to worry about. TCP/IP was designed to deal with
unreliable networks, and some wide area networks suffer a lot of packet loss. But if these problems are
seen on a local area network, they indicate trouble.
The results of a simple ping test, even if the ping is successful, can help you direct further testing
toward the most likely causes of the problem. But other diagnostic tools are needed to examine the
problem more closely and find the underlying cause.
Conclusion:
IP Addresses to be used as per the requirement of hosts per network . Subnet Mask
helps extract the Network ID and the Host from an IP Address.
A network gateway is an internetworking system capable of joining together two networks.
Lab Exercise:02
AIM: Study of Networking Device
Objective: To provide a basic understanding of how our computers are connected together via a network.
Theory:-Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and
correct way over same or different networks. Network devices may be inter-network or intra -network.
Types of Network Devices

There are different types of network devices used in a computer network which include the following.
• Network Hub
• Network Switch
• Modem
• Network Router
• Bridge
• Repeater
Network Hub
The network hub is one kind of networking device in a computer network, used to communicate with
various network hosts and also for data transferring. The transferring of data in a computer network can be
done in the form of packets. Whenever the data processing can be done from a host to a network hub, then
the data can transmit to all the connected ports. Similarly, all the ports identify the data path which leads to
inefficiencies & wastage. Because of this working, a network hub cannot be so safe and secure. In addition,
copying the data packets on all the ports will make the hub slower which leads to the utilize of the network
switch.
Network hubs are classified into two types like active hub & passive hub.
Active Hub
These hubs have their own power supply and these hubs are used to clean, increase & transmit the signal
using the network. It works as a wiring center & repeater. Active hubs play a key role in extending the
distance between nodes.
Passive Hub
These hubs collect wiring from the power supply and different nodes of an active hub. These hubs transmit
the signals over the network without improving & cleaning them. These hubs are not suitable for extending
the distance between nodes like an active hub.
Network Switch
Similar to a hub, this is also working at the layer in the LAN and a switch is more clever compare with a
hub. As the hub is used for data transferring, whereas a switch is used for filtering & forwarding the data.
So this is the more clever technique to deal with the data packets.
Whenever a data packet is obtained from the interfaces in the switch, then the data packet can be filtered &
transmits to the interface of the proposed receiver. Due to this reason, a switch maintains a content
addressable memory table to maintain system configuration as well as memory. This table is also named as
FIB (forwarding information base) otherwise forwarding table.
Modem
A modem is the most important network device and it is used daily in our life. If we notice the internet
connection to homes was given with the help of a wire. then wire carries internet data from one place to
another. But, every computer gives digital or binary data in the form of zeros & ones
The full form of the modem is a modulator and a demodulator. So it modulates as well as demodulates the
signal among the computer and a telephone line because the computer generates digital data whereas the
telephone line generates an analog signal.
Network Router
A network router is one kind of network device in a computer network and it is used for routing traffic
from one network to another. These two networks could be private to a public company network. For
example, here a router is considered as traffic police at the junction, he directs dissimilar traffic networks to
dissimilar directions.
Bridge
A Bridge in the computer network is used to unite two or more network segments. The main function of a
bridge in network architecture is to store as well as transmit frames among the various segments. Bridges
use MAC (Media Access Control) hardware for transferring frames. These are also used for connecting two
physical local area networks to a larger logical local area network. In the OSI model, bridges work at the
data link & physical layers to divide the networks from larger to smaller by controlling the data flow
between the two. In recent years, bridges are replaced by switches to provide more functionality.
Repeater
The operating of a repeater can be done at the physical layer. The main function of this device is to
reproduce the signal on a similar network before the signal gets weak otherwise damaged. The significant
point to be noted regarding these devices is that they do not strengthen the signal. Whenever the signal gets
weak, then they reproduce it at the actual strength. A repeater is a two-port device.
Gateway
Generally, a gateway performs at the session & transport layers in the OSI model. Gateways offer
conversion between networking technologies like OSI (Open System Interconnection) & TCP/IP. Because
of this, these are connected to two or many autonomous networks, where each network has its own domain
name service, routing algorithm, topology, protocols, and procedures of network administration & policies
Gateways execute all the functions of routers. Actually, a router with additional conversion functionality is
a gateway, so the conversion between various network technologies is known as a protocol converter.
Router
The router is also called a bridging router and the main function of this is to combine the features of both
router & bridge and router. It performs either at the network layer or the data link layer. When it works as a
router, it is used for routing packets across networks whereas it works as a bridge; it is used for filtering
LAN’s traffic.
Conclusion: -A network is two or more computers connected together using a telecommunication system
for the purpose of communicating and sharing resources.
Lab Exercise: 03
Title: To study Transmission media
Objective:
To study the various transmission media used for electrical communication.
To study the characteristics and advantages of eah for practical communication systems.
Theory:
A transmission medium is something that can mediate the propagation of signals for the purposes
of telecommunication. Signals are typically imposed on a wave of some kind suitable for the chosen
medium. For example, data can modulate sound, and a transmission medium for sounds may be air, but
solids and liquids may also act as the transmission medium. Vacuum or air constitutes a good transmission
medium for electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves. While material substance is not required
for electromagnetic waves to propagate, such waves are usually affected by the transmission media they
pass through, for instance, by absorption or reflection or refraction at the interfaces between media.
Technical devices can therefore be employed to transmit or guide waves. Thus, an optical fiber or a copper
cable is used as transmission media.
Types of Transmission Media

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and
the receiver i.e it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media
is broadly classified into the following types:
1. Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being transmitted are directed and
confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

(i) Twisted Pair Cable –
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally, several such pairs
are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used Transmission Media. Twisted
Pair is of two types:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for
this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.
Advantages:
• Least expensive
• Easy to install
• High-speed capacity
• Susceptible to external interference
• Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
• Short distance transmission due to attenuation
3. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):
This type of cable consists of a special jacket to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate
Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages:
4.
• Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
• Eliminates crosstalk
• Comparatively faster
• Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
• More expensive
• Bulky
(ii) Coaxial Cable –
It has an outer plastic covering containing 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection
cover. The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth)
and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog television
networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
• High Bandwidth
• Better noise Immunity
• Easy to install and expand
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages:
• Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network
(iii) Optical Fibre Cable –
It uses the concept of reflection of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The core is surrounded
by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used for the transmission of large volumes
of data.
The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports
two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages:
• Increased capacity and bandwidth
• Lightweight
• Less signal attenuation
• Immunity to electromagnetic interference
• Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages:
• Difficult to install and maintain
• High cost
• Fragile
•
(iv) Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by Robert M. Barrett of
the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is the earliest form of the planar
transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit high-frequency waves it is also called a
waveguide. This conducting material is sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are
usually shorted to provide EMI immunity.
(v) Microstripline
In this, the conducting material is separated from the ground plane by a layer of dielectric.
2. Unguided Media:
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media.No physical medium is required for the
transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features:
• The signal is broadcasted through air
• Less Secure
• Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:

(i) Radiowaves –
These are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and receiving antennas need
not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios and cordless phones use Radiowaves
for transmission.
Further Categorized as (i) Terrestrial and (ii) Satellite
(ii) Microwaves –
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly aligned with
each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. These are majorly used for mobile phone communication and
television distribution.
(iii) Infrared –
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate through obstacles.
This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz – 400THz. It is used in TV
remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Conclusion: In summary, transmission media are essential for communication systems. Signals that carry
information can be transmitted on a transmission medium for communication purposes. Thetransmission
characteristics of the medium in use are important because they directly affect the communication quality.
Lab Exercise: 04
Title: Creating a networking cable using crimping tool & Study different connectors
Objective: Study different types of networking cables, connectors and other network components.
Theory:
There are three specific types network cables, and the connectors associated with each, that you
must know for this exam: fiber, twisted pair, and coaxial. ... The two most regularly
used connectors are F-connectors (television cabling) and BNC (10Base2, and so on).
Networking cables are networking hardware used to connect one network device to other network
devices or to connect two or more computers to share printers, scanners etc. Different types of network
cables, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber cable, and twisted pair cables, are used depending on the
network's physical layer, topology, and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g.
via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).
There are several technologies used for network connections. Patch cables are used for short
distances in offices and wiring closets. Electrical connections using twisted pair or coaxial cable are
used within a building. Optical fiber cable is used for long distances or for applications requiring
high bandwidth or electrical isolation. Many installations use structured cabling practices to improve
reliability and maintainability. In some home and industrial applications power lines are used as
network cabling.
Twisted Pair
Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which pairs of wires (the forward and return
conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic
interference (EMI) from other wire pairs and from external sources. This type of cable is used for home
and corporate Ethernet networks. Twisted pair cabling is used in short patch cables and in the longer
runs in structured cabling.
An Ethernet crossover cable is a type of twisted pair Ethernet cable used to connect computing
devices together directly that would normally be connected via a network switch, Ethernet
hub or router, such as directly connecting two personal computers via their network adapters. Most
current Ethernet devices support Auto MDI-X, so it doesn't matter whether you use crossover or
straight cables.
Fiber Optics
An optical fiber cable consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of
protective material. Optical fiber deployment is more expensive than copper but offers higher
bandwidth and can cover longer distances.[2] There are two major types of optical fiber cables: shorter-
range multi-mode fiber and long-range single-mode fiber.
Coaxial
Coaxial cables form a transmission line and confine the electromagnetic wave inside the
cable between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line occurs totally
through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and
twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports
without inducing unwanted currents in them.
Early Ethernet, 10BASE5 and 10BASE2, used baseband signaling over coaxial cables. In the 20th
century the L-carrier system used coaxial cable for long-distance calling.
Coaxial cables are commonly used for television and other broadband signals. Although in most
homes coaxial cables have been installed for transmission of TV signals, new technologies (such as
the ITU-T G.hn standard) open the possibility of using home coaxial cable for high-speed home
networking applications (Ethernet over coax).
Conclusion: In this experiment we have studied that various networking cable using crimping tool.
Lab Exercise: 05
Title:Use basic networking commands.
Objective:
• To get familiar with different networking commands.
Theory:
1 - Tracert / traceroute :
Determines the path taken to a destination by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) Echo
Request messages to the destination with incrementally increasing Time to Live (TTL) field values. The
path displayed is the list of near-side router interfaces of the routers in the path between a source host and a
destination. The near-side interface is the interface of the router that is closest to the sending host in the
path. Used without parameters, tracert displays help.
This diagnostic tool determines the path taken to a destination by sending ICMP Echo Request messages
with varying Time to Live (TTL) values to the destination. Each router along the path is required to
decrement the TTL in an IP packet by at least 1 before forwarding it.
Effectively, the TTL is a maximum link counter. When the TTL on a packet reaches 0, the router is
expected to return an ICMP Time Exceeded message to the source computer. Tracert determines the path
by sending the first Echo Request message with a TTL of 1 and incrementing the TTL by 1 on each
subsequent transmission until the target responds or the maximum number of hops is reached. The
maximum number of hops is 30 by default and can be specified using the -h parameter.
The path is determined by examining the ICMP Time Exceeded messages returned by intermediate routers
and the Echo Reply message returned by the destination. However, some routers do not return Time
Exceeded messages for packets with expired TTL values and are invisible to the tracert command. In this
case, a row of asterisks (*) is displayed for that hop.
Examples:
To trace the path to the host named www.google.co.in use following command
tracert www.google.co.in
To trace the path to the host named www.google.com and prevent the resolution of each IP address to its
name, type:
tracert -d www.google.com
To trace the path to the host named www.google.com and use the loose source route 10.12.0.1-10.29.3.1-
10.1.44.1, type:
tracert -j 10.12.0.1 10.29.3.1 10.1.44.1 www.google.com
2 - Ping :
IP-level connectivity to another TCP/IP computer by sending Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Echo Request messages. The receipt of corresponding Echo Reply messages are displayed, along with
round-trip times. Ping is the primary TCP/IP command used to troubleshoot connectivity, reachability, and
name resolution.
You can use ping to test both the computer name and the IP address of the computer. If pinging the IP
address is successful, but pinging the computer name is not, you might have a name resolution problem. In
this case, ensure that the computer name you are specifying can be resolved through the local Hosts file, by
using Domain Name System (DNS) queries, or through NetBIOS name resolution techniques.
To test a TCP/IP configuration by using the ping command:
• To quickly obtain the TCP/IP configuration of a computer, open Command Prompt, and then
type ipconfig . From the display of the ipconfig command, ensure that the network adapter for the
TCP/IP configuration you are testing is not in a Media disconnected state.
• At the command prompt, ping the loopback address by typing ping 127.0.0.1
• Ping the IP address of the computer.
• Ping the IP address of the default gateway. If the ping command fails, verify that the default
gateway IP address is correct and that the gateway (router) is operational.
• Ping the IP address of a remote host (a host that is on a different subnet). If the ping command fails,
verify that the remote host IP address is correct, that the remote host is operational, and that all of
the gateways (routers) between this computer and the remote host are operational.
• Ping the IP address of the DNS server. If the ping command fails, verify that the DNS server IP
address is correct, that the DNS server is operational, and that all of the gateways (routers) between
this computer and the DNS server are operational.
3 - Arp :
Displays and modifies entries in the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) cache, which contains one or more
tables that are used to store IP addresses and their resolved Ethernet or Token Ring physical addresses.
There is a separate table for each Ethernet or Token Ring network adapter installed on your computer.
Syntax
arp [-a [InetAddr] [-N IfaceAddr]] [-g [InetAddr] [-N IfaceAddr]] [-d InetAddr [IfaceAddr]] [-s
InetAddrEtherAddr [IfaceAddr]]
4 - Netstat :
Displays active TCP connections, ports on which the computer is listening, Ethernet statistics, the IP
routing table, IPv4 statistics (for the IP, ICMP, TCP, and UDP protocols), and IPv6 statistics (for the IPv6,
ICMPv6, TCP over IPv6, and UDP over IPv6 protocols).
Netstat provides statistics for the following:

• Proto - The name of the protocol (TCP or UDP).
• Local Address - The IP address of the local computer and the port number being used. The name of
the local computer that corresponds to the IP address and the name of the port is shown unless the -
n parameter is specified. If the port is not yet established, the port number is shown as an asterisk
(*).
• Foreign Address - The IP address and port number of the remote computer to which the socket is
connected. The names that corresponds to the IP address and the port are shown unless the -n
parameter is specified. If the port is not yet established, the port number is shown as an asterisk (*).
(state) Indicates the state of a TCP connection. The possible states are as follows:
• CLOSE_WAIT
• CLOSED
• ESTABLISHED
• FIN_WAIT_1
• FIN_WAIT_2
• LAST_ACK
• LISTEN
• SYN_RECEIVED
• SYN_SEND
• TIMED_WAIT
Syntax
Netstat [-a] [-e] [-n] [-o] [-p Protocol] [r] [-s] [Interval]
5 - Ipconfig :
Displays all current TCP/IP network configuration values and refreshes Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) and Domain Name System (DNS) settings. This command is most useful on computers
that are configured to obtain an IP address automatically. This enables users to determine which TCP/IP
configuration values have been configured by DHCP, Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA), or an
alternate configuration.
• If the Adapter name contains any spaces, use quotation marks around the adapter name (that is,
"Adapter Name").
• For adapter names, ipconfig supports the use of the asterisk (*) wildcard character to specify either
adapters with names that begin with a specified string or adapters with names that contain a
specified string.
• For example, Local* matches all adapters that start with the string Local and *Con* matches all
adapters that contain the string Con.
Syntax
Ipconfig [/all] [/renew [Adapter]] [/release [Adapter]] [/flushdns] [/displaydns] [/registerdns]

[/showclassid Adapter] [/setclassid Adapter [ClassID]]
6 - Winipcfg :
This utility allows users or administrators to see the current IP address and other useful information about
your network configuration. You can reset one or more IP addresses. The Release or Renew buttons allow
you to release or renew one IP address. If you want to release or renew all IP addresses click Release All or
Renew All. When one of these buttons is clicked, a new IP address is obtained from either the DHCP
service or from the computer assigning itself an automatic private IP address.
To use the winipcfg utility:
• Click Start, and then click Run and type winipcfg

• Click More Info.
• To see the addresses of the DNS servers the computer is configured to use, click the ellipsis (...)
button to the right of DNS Servers.
• To see address information for your network adapter(s), select an adapter from the list in Ethernet
Adapter Information.
7 - Nslookup :
Nslookup (Name Server lookup) is a UNIX shell command to query Internet domain name servers.
Definitions
• Nameserver: These are the servers that the internet uses to find out more about the domain. Usually
they are an ISP's computer.
• Mailserver: Where email is sent to.
• Webserver: The domains website.
• FTPserver: FTP is file transfer protocol, this server is where files may be stored.
• Hostname: The name of the host as given by the domain.
• Real Hostname: This is hostname that you get by reverse resolving the IP address, may be different
to the given hostname.
• IP Address: Unique four numbered identifier that is obtained by resolving the hostname.
Conclusion :
Hence, we studied different networking commands.
Lab Exercise: 06
Title: To study different topologies in Cisco packet tracer
Objective:Study various topologies.

Theory:-
Network topology is the geometric representation of relationship of all the links connecting the
devices or nodes. Network topology represent in two ways one is physical topology that define the way in
which a network is physically laid out and other one is logical topology that defines how data actually flow
through the network. In this paper we have discuss how to design bus, star and mesh topology network and
provide interfacing and simulation between end points using packet tracer software.
Bus Topology:-
Bus Topology In local area network, it is a single network cable runs in the building or campus and
all nodes are connected along with this communication line with two endpoints called the bus or backbone.
In other words, it is a multipoint data communication circuit that is easily control data flow between the
computers because this configuration allows all stations to receive every transmission over the network. For
bus topology we build network using three generic pc which are serially connected with three switches
using copper straight through cable and switches are interconnected using copper cross over cable.
Star Topology:-
In star topology, all the cables run from the computers to a central location where they are all
connected by a device called a hub. It is a concentrated network, where the end points are directly
reachable from a central location when network is expanded. Ethernet 10 base T is a popular network based
on the star topology. For star topology we build network using five generic pc which are centrally
connected to single switch 2950-24 using copper straight through cable.
Mesh Topology:-
In mesh topology every device has a dedicated point to point link to every other device. The term
dedicated stand for link carries traffic only between two devices it connects. It is a well-connected
topology; in this every node has a connection to every other node in the network. The cable requirements
are high and it can include multiple topologies. Failure in one of the computers does not cause the network
to break down, as they have alternative paths to other computers star topology, all the cables run from the
computers to a central location.
Ring Topology:-
A ring topology is a network configuration where device connections create a circular data path.
Each networked device is connected to two others, like points on a circle. Together, devices in a ring
topology are referred to as a ring network.
In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device to the next until they reach their destination. Most
ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a unidirectional ring network. Others
permit data to move in either direction, called bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection in the ring is broken, the
entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either LANs (local area networks) or WANs (wide area networks).
Depending on the network card used in each computer of the ring topology, a coaxial cable or an RJ-
45 network cable is used to connect computers together.
Conclusion:
In this experiment we have to studied that various topologies and implementation.
Lab Exercise: 07
AIM: Implement Unicast Routing Algorithm. (Distance Vector Routing Algorithm).
Objective: Students should be able to develop a program on Distance Vector Routing Algorithm.
Theory:
✔ Distance vector :
Routing algorithm is a part of network layer software which is responsible for deciding which
output line an incoming packet should be transmitted on. If the subnet uses datagram internally, this
decision must be made anew for every arriving data packet since the best route may have changed
since last time. If the subnet uses virtual circuits internally, routing decisions are made only when a
new established route is being set up. The latter case is sometimes called session routing, because a
rout remains in force for an entire user session (e.g., login session at a terminal or a file).
Routing algorithms can be grouped into two major classes: adaptive and nonadaptive. Non
adaptive algorithms do not base their routing decisions on measurement or estimates of current
traffic and topology. Instead, the choice of route to use to get from I to J (for all I and J) is
computed in advance, offline, and downloaded to the routers when the network ids booted. This
procedure is sometimes called static routing.
Adaptive algorithms, in contrast, change their routing decisions to reflect changes in the
topology, and usually the traffic as well. Adaptive algorithms differ in where they get information
(e.g., locally, from adjacent routers, or from all routers), when they change the routes (e.g., every
∆T sec, when the load changes, or when the topology changes), and what metric is used for
optimization (e.g., distance, number of hops, or estimated transit time).
Two algorithms in particular, distance vector routing and link state routing are the most popular.
Distance vector routing algorithms operate by having each router maintain a table (i.e., vector)
giving the best known distance to each destination and which line to get there. These tables are
updated by exchanging information with the neighbors.
The distance vector routing algorithm is sometimes called by other names, including the
distributed Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm, after the researchers
who developed it (Bellman, 1957; and Ford and Fulkerson, 1962). It was the original ARPANET
routing algorithm and was also used in the Internet under the RIP and in early versions of DECnet
and Novell’s IPX. AppleTalk and Cisco routers use improved distance vector protocols.
In distance vector routing, each router maintains a routing table indexed by, and containing one
entry for, each router in the subnet. This entry contains two parts: the preferred out going line to
use for that destination, and an estimate of the time or distance to that destination. The metric used
might be number of hops, time delay in milliseconds, total number of packets queued along the
path, or something similar.
The router is assumed to know the “distance” to each of its neighbor. If the metric is hops, the
distance is just one hop. If the metric is queue length, the router simply examines each queue. If the
metric is delay, the router can measure it directly with special ECHO packets that the receiver just
time stamps and sends back as fast as possible.
The Count to Infinity Problem.

Distance vector routing algorithm reacts rapidly to good news, but leisurely to bad news.
Consider a router whose best route to destination X is large. If on the next exchange neighbor A
suddenly reports a short delay to X, the router just switches over to using the line to A to send
traffic to X. In one vector exchange, the good news is processed.
To see how fast good news propagates, consider the five node (linear) subnet of the following
figure, where the delay metric is the number of hops. Suppose A is down initially and all the other
routers know this. In other words, they have all recorded the delay to A as infinity.
A B C D E A B C D E
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ Initially 1 2 3 4 Initially
1 ∞ ∞ ∞ After 1 exchange 3 2 3 4 After 1 exchange
1 2 ∞ ∞ After 2 exchange 3 3 3 4 After 2 exchange
1 2 3 ∞ After 3 exchange 5 3 5 4 After 3 exchange
1 2 3 4 After 4 exchange 5 6 5 6 After 4 exchange
7 6 7 6 After 5 exchange
7 8 7 8 After 6 exchange
:
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
Many ad hoc solutions to the count to infinity problem have been proposed in the literature, each one
more complicated and less useful than the one before it. The split horizon algorithm works the same
way as distance vector routing, except that the distance to X is not reported on line that packets for X are
sent on (actually, it is reported as infinity). In the initial state of the right figure, for example, C tells D
the truth about distance to A but C tells B that its distance to A is infinite. Similarly, D tells the truth to E
but lies to C.
Algorithm:
• c(x,v) = cost for direct link from x to v
–Node x maintains costs of direct links c(x,v)

• Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
–Node x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y _ N ]

• Node x maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors
– For each neighbor v, x maintains Dv = [Dv(y): y _ N ]
• Each node v periodically sends Dv to its neighbors
– And neighbors update their own distance vectors
–Dx(y) _ minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ε N

• Over time, the distance vector Dx converges
Output:
A sample run of the program works as:-

Enter the number of nodes :
3
Enter the cost matrix :
027
201
710
For router 1
node 1 via 1 Distance 0
For router 2
For router 3
Conclusion:
The least-cost route between any two nodes is the route with minimum distance.
Each node maintains a vector of minimum distances to every node
Lab Exercise: 08
AIM: Implement Unicast Routing Algorithm. (Link State Routing Algorithm)
Objective: Students should be able to develop a program on Link State Routing Algorithm.
Theory:
Link State Routing:
A link-state routing protocol is one of the two main classes of routing protocols used in
packet switching networks for computer communications (the other is the distance-vectorrouting
protocol). Examples of link-state routing protocols include open shortest pathfirst (OSPF) and
intermediate system to intermediate system.
The link-state protocol is performed by every switching node in the network (i.e., nodes that
are prepared to forward packets; in the Internet, these are called routers). The basic concept of link-
state routing is that every node constructs a map of the connectivity to the network, in the form of a
graph, showing which nodes are connected to which other nodes. Each node then independently
calculates the next best logical path from it to every possible destination in the network. The
collection of best paths will then form the node's routingtable.
This contrasts with distance-vector routing protocols, which work by having each node share
its routing table with its neighbors. In a link-state protocol the only information passed between
nodes is connectivity related. Distance vector routing was used in the ARPANET until 1979, when it
was replaced by link state routing. Two primary problems caused its demise. First, since the delay
metric was queue length, it did not take line bandwidth into account when choosing routes. Initially,
all the lines were 56 kbps, so line bandwidth was not an issue, but after some lines had been
upgraded to 230 kbps and others to 1.544 Mbps, not taking bandwidth into account was a major
problem. Of course, it would have been possible to change the delay metric to factor in line
bandwidth, but a second problem also existed, namely, the algorithm often took too long to converge
(the count-to-infinity problem).
The idea behind link state routing is simple and can be stated as five parts. Each router
must do the following:
1. Discover its neighbors and learn their network addresses.
2. Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighbors.
3. Construct a packet telling all it has just learned.
4. Send this packet to all other routers.
5. Compute the shortest path to every other router.
1. Learning about the Neighbors:
When a router is booted, its first task is to learn who its neighbors are. It accomplishes this goal by
sending a special HELLO packet on each point-to-point line. The router on the other end is expected to
send back a reply telling who it is. These names must be globally unique because when a distant router
later hears that three routers are all connected to F, it is essential that it can determine whether all three
mean the same F.
2. Measuring Line Cost:
The link state routing algorithm requires each router to know, or at least have a reasonable estimate of,
the delay to each of its neighbors. The most direct way to determine this delay is to send over the line a
special ECHO packet that the other side is required to send back immediately. By measuring the round-
trip time and dividing it by two, the sending router can get a reasonable estimate of the delay. For even
better results, the test can be conducted several times, and the average used. Of course, this method
implicitly assumes the delays are
symmetric, which may not always be the case. An interesting issue is whether to take the load into
account when measuring the delay. To factor the load in, the round-trip timer must be started when the
ECHO packet is queued. To ignore the load, the timer should be started when the ECHO packet reaches
the front of the queue.
3. Building Link State Packets:
Once the information needed for the exchange has been collected, the next step is for each router to
build a packet containing all the data. The packet starts with the identity of the sender, followed by a
sequence number and age (to be described later), and a list of neighbors. For each neighbor, the delay to
that neighbor is given.
4. Distributing the Link State Packets:
The trickiest part of the algorithm is distributing the link state packets reliably. As the packets are
distributed and installed, the routers getting the first ones will change their routes. Consequently, the
different routers may be using different versions of the topology, which can lead to inconsistencies,
loops, unreachable machines, and other problems.
First we will describe the basic distribution algorithm. Later we will give some refinements. The
fundamental idea is to use flooding to distribute the link state packets. To keep the flood in check, each
packet contains a sequence number that is incremented for each new packet sent. Routers keep track of
all the (source router, sequence) pairs they see. When a new link state packet comes in, it is checked
against the list of packets already seen. If it is new, it is forwarded on all lines except the one it arrived
on. If it is a duplicate, it is discarded. If a packet with a sequence number lower than the highest one
seen so far ever arrives, it is rejected as being obsolete since the router has more recent data.
5. Computing the New Routes:
Once a router has accumulated a full set of link state packets, it can construct the entire subnet
graph because every link is represented. Every link is, in fact, represented twice, once for each direction.
The two values can be averaged or used separately. Now Dijkstra's algorithm can be run locally to
construct the shortest path to all possible destinations. The results of this algorithm can be installed in
the routing tables, and normal operation resumed. For a subnet with n routers, each of which has k
neighbors, the memory required to store the input data is proportional to kn. For large subnets, this can
be a problem. Also, the computation time can be an issue. Nevertheless, in many practical situations,
link state routing works well.
Algorithm:
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7 Loop
8 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
9 add w to N'
10 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' : 12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */

15 until all nodes in N'
Output:
Conclusion:
Each router keeps track of its incident links .Each router runs Dijkstra’s algorithm.
Lab Exercise: 09
AIM:- Implementation of Multicast Routing Algorithm.
Objective: Student should be able to develop a program on Multicast or Broadcast routing. Itis
defined in the form of minimizing the cost of a multicast tree
Theory:
Multicast:
Multicast is communication between a single sender and multiple receivers on a network.

Typical uses include the updating of mobile personnel from a home office and the periodic issuance of
online newsletters. Together with anycast and unicast, multicast is one of the packet types in the
Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6).
MulticastSocket
public MulticastSocket()
throws IOException
Create a multicast socket.
If there is a security manager, its checkListen method is first called with 0 as its argument to ensure
the operation is allowed. This could result in a SecurityException.
Throws: IOException - if an I/O exception occurs while creating the

MulticastSocketSecurityException - if a security manager exists and its checkListen method
doesn't allow the operation.
public MulticastSocket(int port)

throws IOException
Create a multicast socket and bind it to a specific port.
If there is a security manager, its checkListen method is first called with the port argument as its
argument to ensure the operation is allowed. This could result in a SecurityException.
When the socket is created the DatagramSocket.setReuseAddress(boolean) method is called to

enable the SO_REUSEADDR socket option.
Parameters:
port - port to use
Algorithm:
Pseudo code for multicast source:
import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class msource
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try
{
DatagramSocket s=new DatagramSocket(); byte[]
smsg=new byte[100]; System.out.println("Enter
the text to send : "); int len=System.in.read(smsg);
InetAddress test=InetAddress.getLocalHost();
DatagramPacket pack=new DatagramPacket(smsg,len,test,16900); s.send(pack);
lose();
}
catch(Exception err)
System.out.println(err);
}
}
}
Pseudo code for multicast source:

import java.io.*;
import java.net.*;
public class mulcli
{
public static void main(String args[])
{
try
{
MulticastSocketmul=new MulticastSocket(16900);
mul.joinGroup(InetAddress.getByName("224.0.0.1"));
String message;
do
{
byte[] smsg=new byte[100];
DatagramPacket pack=new DatagramPacket(smsg,smsg.length);
mul.receive(pack);
message=new String(pack.getData());
System.out.println(pack.getAddress()+" : "+message);
}
while(!message.equals("close"));
mul.close();
}
catch(Exception e)
{
System.out.println(e);
}
}
}
Output:
E:\EX9>javac msource.java
E:\EX9>java msource
Enter the text to send:
Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College
E:\EX9>javac mulcli.java
E:\EX9>java mulcli
/10.1.50.10 : Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College
Conclusion:
Multicast is communication between a single sender and multiple receivers on a network.
Application:
Video Conferencing
Computer Supported Common Work.
Distributed interactive simulation.
Large scale distributed (super)computing.
Distributed Games
Lab Exercise: 10
AIM: Implementation of Congestion Control Algorithm (Leaky Bucket Algorithm.)
Objective: Student should be able to develop a program on Leaky Bucket Algorithm.
Theory: LeakyBucket
The congesting control algorithms are basically divided into two groups: open loop and closed
loop. Open loop solutions attempt to solve the problem by good design, in essence, to make sure it
does not occur in the first place. Once the system is up and running, midcourse corrections are not
made. Open loop algorithms are further divided into ones that act at source versus ones that act at the
destination.
In contrast, closed loop solutions are based on the concept of a feedback loop if there is any
congestion. Closed loop algorithms are also divided into two sub categories: explicit feedback and
implicit feedback. In explicit feedback algorithms, packets are sent back from the point of congestion
to warn the source. In implicit algorithm, the source deduces the existence of congestion by making
local observation, such as the time needed for acknowledgment to come back.
The presence of congestion means that the load is (temporarily) greater than the resources (in part
of the system) can handle. For subnets that use virtual circuits internally, these methods can be used at
the network layer.
Another open loop method to help manage congestion is forcing the packet to be transmitted at a
more predictable rate. This approach to congestion management is widely used in ATM networks and
is called traffic shaping.
The other method is the leaky bucket algorithm. Each host is connected to the network by an
interface containing a leaky bucket, that is, a finite internal queue. If a packet arrives at the queue
when it is full, the packet is discarded. In other words, if one or more process are already queued, the
new packet is unceremoniously discarded. This arrangement can be built into the hardware interface
or simulate d by the host operating system. In fact it is nothing other than a single server queuing
system with constant service time.
The host is allowed to put one packet per clock tick onto the network. This mechanism turns an
uneven flow of packet from the user process inside the host into an even flow of packet onto the
network, smoothing out bursts and greatly reducing the chances of congestion.
Algorithm:
Pseudo code:
void main()
{
int i,packets[10],content=0,newcontent,time,clk,bcktsize,oprate; for(i=0;i<5;i++)
{
packets[i]=rand()%10;
if(packets[i]==0) --i;
}
printf("\n Enter output rate of the bucket: \n");
scanf("%d",&oprate);
printf("\n Enter Bucketsize\n");
scanf("%d",&bcktsize);
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{
if((packets[i]+content)>bcktsize)
{
if(packets[i]>bcktsize)
printf("\n Incoming packet size %d greater than the size of the bucket\n",packets[i]); else
printf("\n bucket size exceeded\n");
}
else
{
newcontent=packets[i];
content+=newcontent;
printf("\n Incoming Packet : %d\n",newcontent);
printf("\n Transmission left : %d\n",content);
time=rand()%10;
printf("\n Next packet will come at %d\n",time);
for(clk=0;clk<time && content>0;++clk)
{
printf("\n Left time %d",(time-clk));
sleep(1);
if(content)
{
printf("\n Transmitted\n");
if(content<oprate) content=0;
else
content=content-oprate;
printf("\n Bytes remaining : %d\n",content);
}
else
printf("\n No packets to send\n");
}
}
}
}
Output:
Enter output rate: 100
Packet no 0 Packet size = 3

Bucket output successful Last
3 bytes sent
Bucket output successful Last
33 bytes sent
Bucket output successful
100 bytes outputted.
Last 17 bytes sent
Bucket output successful
Conclusion:
The open loop congestion management is widely used in ATM networks and is called traffic
shaping. The leaky bucket is an algorithm used in packet switched computer networks and
telecommunications networks. It can be used to check that data transmissions, in the form of packets.
Lab Exercise: 11
AIM: Implementation ofDIJKSTRA'S SHORTEST PATH ALGORITHM
Objective: Student should be able to develop a program on dijkstra's shortest path algorithm
Theory :
DIJKSTRA'S SHORTEST PATH ALGORITHM:
Dijkstra’s algorithm is very similar to Prim’s algorithm for minimum spanning tree. Like
Prim’s MST, we generate a SPT (shortest path tree) with given source as root. We maintain two sets,
one set contains vertices included in shortest path tree, and other set includes vertices not yet included
in shortest path tree. At every step of the algorithm, we find a vertex which is in the other set (set of
not yet included) and has minimum distance from source.
Shortest Path Algorithm - Determines the optimal path through a graph based upon the criteria of
number of hops, distance, cost, etc.
• Topology based, that is it determines connections to use from one router to another.
• Static, must be recomputed as routers added/deleted.
• Can be used to construct a sink tree with the destination the sink tree root. One possible
application would be for each router to compute the sink tree of a network with itself as the
root to determine the optimal output line incoming packets should be transmitted to reach
their destination
The shortest path algorithm is in fact a general graph minimization algorithm where the metrics of
the graph edges can represent distance, cost, time, etc. It is important in networking because of the
desirability of minimizing network resources and is therefore employed by many routing algorithms.
The general idea behind the algorithm is to compute the shortest path from the
destination node to other nodes until the startingnode is reached. When complete each node points to
its predecessor node on its own shortest path to the destination. From thestartingnode, the shortest
path to the destination is then through the list of predecessor nodes.
Queue Path Closed
B2, G6 A
E4,G6,C9 (B,A) A, B
G5,G6,F6,C9 (E,B),(B,A) A,B,E
F6,C9,H9 (G,E),(E,B),(B,A) A,B,E,G
H8,C9,H9,C9 (F,E),(G,E),(E,B),(B,A) A,B,E,G,F
C9,C9,D10 (H,F),(F,E),(G,E),(E,B),(B,A) A,B,E,G,F,H
D10,D12 (C,F),(H,F),(F,E),(G,E),(E,B),(B,A) A,B,E,G,F,H,C
(D,H),(C,F),(H,F),(F,E),(G,E),(E,B),(B,A) A,B,E,G,F,H,C,D
Algorithm:
1 Initialization:
2 S = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
{ 5 D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) =
_7
8 Loop
9 find w not in S with the smallest D(w)

10 add w to S
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in S: 12
D(v) = min{D(v), D(w) + c(w,v)}
13 until all nodes in S
Output:
Vertex Distance from Source

0 0
1 4
2 12
3 19
4 21
5 11
6 9
7 8
8 14
Conclusion:
1) The code calculates shortest distance, but doesn’t calculate the path information. We can create a
parent array, update the parent array when distance is updated (like prim’s implementation) and use
it show the shortest path from source to different vertices.
2) The code is for undirected graph, same dijekstra function can be used for directed graphs.
Lab Exercise: 12
AIM: Simulation or implementation of DHCP.
Objective :Student should be able dynamically assigning network addresses to hosts.
Theory:
DHCP (dynamic host configuration protocol) is used for dynamically assigning network
addresses to hosts. DHCP operates on a client-server model, where a DHCP server sends
configuration information to DHCP clients. The CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate) exams
require you to understand DHCP and be able to configure and verify it on Cisco routers. In this article
we will provide an introduction to DHCP, going into details relevant to CCNA. We will also develop
a topology in GNS3 to practice the concepts hands on. The current article belongs to the GNS3 Labs
for CCNA series and assumes you already have a GNS3 installation in working order
DHCP is based on BOOTP (bootstrap protocol), which provides the framework for passing
configuration information to hosts on a TCP/IP network. The main advantage of DHCP over BOOTP
is that you don’t need to configure MAC addresses of all clients on the DHCP server.
The graphic below shows the message exchange between a DHCP server and client:
The steps shown in the graphic are explained below:
• The operating system on the host is configured to obtain network configuration via DHCP, so
the host, acting as DHCP client, sends a DHCPDISCOVER broadcast message to locate a
DHCP server.
• A DHCP server on the local subnet offers configuration parameters, including an IP address, to
the client in a DHCPOFFER unicast message.
• The DHCP client returns a formal request for the offered IP address to the server in a
DHCPREQUEST broadcast message.
• The DHCP server confirms that the IP address has actually been allocated for use by the client
by returning the final DHCPACK unicast message.
The interaction of a DHCP server and client looks just like what we presented when the client
and server are both on the same broadcast domain/subnet. If that’s not the case, a DHCP relay agent is
needed, in addition to client and server. A DHCP relay agent is any host that forwards DHCP packets
between DHCP clients and DHCP servers. In practice, DHCP servers are often centrally located and
you almost always need a DHCP relay agent to forward messages back and forth between the client
and server. A DHCP relay agent does more than simply forwarding DHCP packets like a router
forwarding IP packets. The relay agent receives DHCP messages and then generates a new DHCP
message to send on another interface. The Cisco IOS (Internetwork Operating System) running on
Cisco routers includes both DHCP server and relay agent software and we are going to cover the
configuration of both features in this article.
DHCP Server Configuration and Verification:
In the first article of the series (GNS3 Labs for CCNA: Getting Started), we set up GNS3 and
created a simple topology with two routers, but we did not add any hosts. In this article, it will
probably be useful to add a couple of hosts to see our DHCP server in action, actually assigning
addresses. So let’s learn how to add hosts to GNS3 before moving on to DHCP configuration.
The GNS3 0.8.6 all-in-one package that we are using comes bundled with version 0.11.0 of the Qemu
emulator. You will use Qemu to emulate a lightweight distribution of Linux called Micro Core.
You should download the Qemuappliance for Linux Micro
Core fromhttp://sourceforge.net/projects/gns-3/files/Qemu%20Appliances/linux-microcore-
3.8.2.img and save it to the directory C:\Images on your Windows system. You need also to configure
GNS3 by going to Edit > Preferences >Qemu and then, on the tab labeled Qemu Guest, do as shown
in the graphic below. Finally, you have to press the Save and OK buttons in succession.
You have to double click the downloaded topology.net file and GNS3 should launch automatically. You
have to start all devices once the topology is loaded in GNS3. The devices will all come alive with initial
configurations. First, you should go to R1 and add the following configuration to make it act as a DHCP
server for directly connected hosts as well as for hosts connected to R2 on the remote LAN.
The command showipdhcp binding reports IP addresses assigned and client MAC addresses
associated with those addresses.
R1#show ip dhcp binding

Bindings from all pools not associated with
IP Client- Lease T
ID/
Hardware
address/ User
192.168.1.51 0100.abb6.8edc.00 Mar 02 2002 12:02 AM Automatic

192.168.2.51 0100.abe3.5202.00 Mar 02 2002 12:30 AM Automatic
The command show ipdhcp pool reports the number of addresses leased so far, along with some
other details on current utilization of addresses in the DHCP pool.
Conclusion:
DHCP servers detect such conflicts by pinging the new IP address before assigning it to a
client. The show ipdhcp conflict command lists all address conflicts known to the DHCP server. The
DHCP server avoids assigning the addresses from the list to any clients until the list is manually
cleared using the clear ipdhcp conflict command.
Lab Exercise: 13
AIM: Simulation or Implementation of FTP.
Objective: Student should be able to develop program on FTP and to promote sharing of files.
Theory :
✔ FTP :
● The FTP protocol is set up by using two connections instead of only one.
● In the model, the user-protocol interpreter (after you typed in ftp) initiates the control connection.
● The control connection follows the TELNET protocol.
● At the initiation of the user, standard FTP commands are generated by the user protocol
interpreter and transmitted to the server process via the control connection.
● Standard replies are sent from the server protocol interpreter to the user protocol interpreter over
the control connection in response to the commands.
● The FTP commands specify the parameters for the data connection and the nature of file system
operation.
● The user-DTP or its designate should "listen" on the specified data port, and the server initiate
the data connection and data transfer in accordance with the specified parameters.
● It should be noted that the data port need not be in the same host that initiates the FTP commands
via the control connection, but the user or the user-FTP process must ensure a "listen" on the
specified data port.
● It ought to also be noted that the data connection may be used for simultaneous sending and
receiving.
Figure:FTP
Algorithm:
Server:
1. Include the necessary header files.
2. Create a socket using socket function with family AF_INET, type as SOCK_STREAM.
3. Initialize server address to 0 using the bzero function.
4. Assign the sin_family to AF_INET, sin_addr to INADDR_ANY, sin_port to dynamically
assigned port number.
5. Bind the local host address to socket using the bind function. 6. Listen
on the socket for connection request from the client.
6. Accept connection request from the Client using accept function.
7. Within an infinite loop, receive the file name from the Client.
8. Open the file read the file contents to a buffer and send the buffer to the Client.
Client:
1. Include the necessary header files.
2. Create a socket using socket function with family AF_INET, type as SOCK_STREAM.
3. Initialize server address to 0 using the bzero function.
4. Assign the sin_family to AF_INET.
5. Get the server IP address and the Port number from the console.
6. Using gethostbyname function assign it to a hostent structure, and assign it to sin_addr of the
server address structure.
7. Within an infinite loop, send the name of the file to be viewed to the Server. 9.Receive
the file contents, store it in a file and print it on the console.
Output:
Server:
(Host Name:Root1) [root@localhost
4ita33]# vi ftps.c [root@localhost
4ita33]# cc ftps.c [root@localhost
4ita33]# ./a.out Server is Running…
FILE REACHED
File output :it is implementated…
Client:
(Host Name:Root2) [root@localhost
4ita33]# vi ftpc.c [root@localhost
4ita33]# cc ftpc.c [root@localhost
4ita33]# ./a.out Enter the filename:
cse.txt
Sending the file content Data
sent.....
Conclusion:
To implement FTP application, where the Client on establishing a connection with the Server
sends the name of the file it wishes to access remotely. The Server then sends the contents of the file to
the Client, where it is stored.
Lab Exercise: 14
AIM: Implementation of chatting application using socket programming..
Objective: Student should be able to develop a program on chatting application
Theory:
Inet Address
public class InetAddress
extends Object implements
Serializable
It is a class in Java which represents an Internet Protocol (IP) address. An instance of an InetAddress
consists of an IP address and possibly corresponding hostname. The Class represents an Internet
address as Two fields: 1- Host name (The String)=Contain the name of the Host.2- Address(an int)=
The 32 bit IP address. These fields are not public, so we can’t Access them directly. There is not
public constructor in InetAddress class, but it has 3 static methods that returns suitably
initialized InetAddress Objects namely Public String
getHostName() , public byte[] getAddress() and public String getHostAddress()
BufferedReader class:
The BufferedReader class is used for fast reading operations of texts from a characterinput stream. It
can be used to read single characters, arrays, and lines of data. The size of buffer may or may not be
specified. The readLine() method of the BufferedReader class can be used to get the next line of
characters from a file, and the skip(long n) method can be used to skip n number of characters.
Client-Server Model:
The client–server model of computing is a distributed application that partitions tasks or workloads
between the providers of a resource or service, called servers, and service requesters, called
clients.Often clients and servers communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but both
client and server may reside in the same system. A server machine is a host that is running one or more
server programs which share their resources with clients. A client does not share any of its resources,
but requests a server’s content or service function. Clients therefore initiate communication sessions
with servers which await incoming requests
Socket Programming:
A socket is one of the most fundamental technologies of computer networking. Sockets allow
applications to communicate using standard mechanisms built into network hardware and operating
systems. Although network software may seem to be a relatively new “Web” phenomenon, socket
technology actually has been employed for roughly two decades.
A socket represents a single connection between exactly two pieces of software. More than two pieces of
software can communicate in client/server or distributed systems (for example, many Web browsers
can simultaneously communicate with a single Web server) but multiple sockets are required to do this.
Sockets are bidirectional, meaning that either side of the connection is capable of both sending and
receiving data. Libraries implementing sockets for Internet Protocol use TCP for streams, UDP for
datagrams, and IP itself for raw sockets
Algorithm:
import java.io.*; import

java.net.*; class
chatclient
{
public static Socket soc;
public static void main(String args[])throws IOException
{
try
{
InetAddress a=InetAddress.getLocalHost();
soc=new Socket(a,0202);
BufferedReader d=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(System.in)); BufferedReader
in=new BufferedReader(new InputStreamReader(soc.getInputStream())); PrintWriter out=new
PrintWriter(new BufferedWriter(new BufferedWriter(new
OutputStreamWriter(soc.getOutputStream()))),true);
String s;
s=in.readLine();
System.out.println(s);
s=in.readLine();
System.out.println(s);
s=d.readLine();
while(true)
{
out.println(s);
s=in.readLine();
System.out.println("Server:> "+s);
if(s.equalsIgnoreCase("Chat is closing"))
break;
System.out.println("Message : ");
s=d.readLine();
if(s.equalsIgnoreCase("end")) break;
}
}
finally
{
soc.close();
}
}
}
import java.io.*; import
java.net.*; class
chatserver
{
public static void main(String args[])throws IOException
{
ServerSocket s=new ServerSocket(0202); try
{
while(true)
{
Socket soc=s.accept(); try
{
new chat(soc);
}
catch(IOException e)
{
soc.close();
}
}
}
finally
{
s.close();
}
}
Output:
E:\EX8>javac chatserver.java
E:\EX8>java
chatserverMessage :
Hi Client, how are you? BE
CSE:> I am fine.
E:\EX8>javac chatclient.java
E:\EX8>java chatclient
Chat sessions begins..Server :
Your name please :
BE CSE
Server:> Hi Client, how are you?
Message :
I am fine.
Conclusion:
Sockets allow applications to communicate using standard mechanisms built into network
hardware and operating systems.
Lab Exercise: 15
AIM: Analysis of enterprise Network Monitor Tool such as Wireshark.

Objective: Student should be able to develop
1. Using Wireshark to monitor the LAN.
2. Browse and Analyze packets from a live network or from a previously saved capture file.
Theory :
Wireshark:
Wireshark is comprised of three main windows, or panes.

The top pane is the packet list pane. It displays a summary of each packet captured.
The middle pane is the packet details pane. It displays the packet selected in the top pane in more detail.
The bottom pane is the packet bytes pane. It displays the data from the packet selected in the top
pane, and highlights the field selected in the tree view pane.
In addition to the three main panes, there are four elements of interest on the bottom of the Wireshark
main window.
Menu items: a drop down menu of all operations
Main Toolbar: shortcut icons to main operations by Wireshark
Filter Toolbar: for filter construction
The leftmost button labeled "Filter:" can be clicked to bring up the filter construction dialog.
The middle text box provides an area to enter or edit filter strings. This is also where the current filter in
effect it displayed. The right middle button labeled "Clear" clears the current filter.
Status Toolbar: it gives helpful hints about things like Capturing packets in Wireshark
The Capture Preferences dialog box Before you start capturing, the capture interface must be specified
using capture ->intefaces to bring up a dialog box similar to the one shown below
You can select Start to start capturing from a specific interface or you may click on Options for the
specified interface to bring a dialog box like the one below. This is the Capture Preferences dialog box:
You may arrive immediately at this dialog box from the menu item capture ->options. You can also
choose the interface you want to capture on and the filter options plus many other options as shown.
The options are explained as:
Filtering Options:
-Capture packets in promiscuous mode: Usually a network card will only capture the traffic to its own
network address. If you want to capture all traffic that the network card can “see”
-Limit each packet to xy bytes: Will limit the maximum size to be captured of each packet, this
includes the link-layer header and all subsequent headers. This can be useful when an error is known
to
be in the first 20 bytes of a packet, for example, as the size of the resulting capture file will be reduced.
-Capture Filter: Use a capture filter to reduce the amount of packets to be captured (will be explained
later) Storing options
-File: You can choose the file to which captured data will be written. If you don't enter something here a
temporary file will be used.
-Use multiple files: Instead of using a single capture file, multiple files will be created. The generated
filenames will contain an incrementing number and the start time of the capture. For example,
if you choose "/foo.cap" in the "File" field, files like
"/foo_00001_20040205110102.cap",
"/foo_00002_20040205110102.cap”, will be created. This feature can be useful if you do long term
capturing, as working with a single capture file of several GB usually isn't very fast.
Stop condition options
These three fields should be obvious; the capture process will be automatically stopped if one of the
selected conditions is exceeded. Display while capturing options
-Update list of packets in real time: Using this will show the captured packets immediately on the
main screen. Don't change the default preferences. Start capturing. Keep capturing for 2-3 minutes
during which try to activate the different protocols by invoking different applications (e.g. internet
browsing, streaming, email, ASU online, ftp, etc)
Capture Filter Syntax
The following is a short description of the capture filter language syntax. For a further reference,
have a look at: http://www.tcpdump.org/tcpdump_man.html
A capture filter takes the form of a series of primitive expressions, connected by conjunctions (and/or)
and optionally preceded by not:
[not] primitive [and|or [not] primitive ...] A
primitive is simply one of the following:
[src|dst] host <host>
ether [src|dst] host <ehost>
gateway host <host>
[src|dst] net <net> [{mask <mask>}|{len<len>}]
[tcp|udp] [src|dst] port <port>
less|greater<length>ip|ether
proto
<protocol>ether|ipbroadcast|mul
ticast
<expr>relop<expr>
Output:
Conclusion:
Wireshark, a network analysis tool formerly known as Ethereal, captures packets in real time and display
them in human-readable format. Wireshark includes filters, color-coding and other features that let you
dig deep into network traffic and inspect individual packets.

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MGM’s

Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College

MGM University, Aurangabad

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Department of Computer Science & Engineering

Good Luck for your Enjoyable Laboratory Sessions

Prof. V. B. Musande Mrs. Asma B. Shahin(Husain)

Jawaharlal Nehru Engineering College, Aurangabad

Vision of CSE Department:

Mission of the CSE Department:

I. Preparing graduates to work on multidisciplinary platforms associated with

Programme Educational Objectives:

Graduates will be able to

I. To analyze, design and provide optimal solution for Computer Science

II. Topursue higher studies and research by applying knowledge of mathematics

II. To exhibit professionalism, communication skills and adapt to current trends

3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and

4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research

7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering

10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the

Course Code: 20UCS510L

Sr. No Name of the experiment Page No.

1 Configure of network - Assigning IP Address, Subnet Mask, Gateway

2 Study of Networking Devices.

3 Study transmission media.

4 Creating a networking cable using crimping tool & study different

5 Use basic networking commands in Linux.

6 Implement different topologies using Cisco packet tracer.

7 Implement Unicast Routing Algorithm. (Distance Vector Routing

8 Implement Unicast Routing Algorithm. (Link State Routing Algorithm)

9 Implementation of Congestion Control Algorithm (Leaky Bucket

10 Implementation of Multicast Routing Algorithm.

11 Implementation ofDijkstra's Shortest Path Algorithm.

12 Simulation or Implementation of DHCP.

13 Simulation or Implementation of FTP.

14 Implementation of Client- server program using iterative TCP server.

CO-1: Identify and use various networking components.

CO-3:Use of basic networking commands in Windows/ Linux

CO-5: Understand the various routing protocols/ algorithms and internetworking.

4. Do not change the terminal on which you are working.

6. Strictly follow the instructions given by the teacher/Lab Instructor.

Instruction for Laboratory Teachers

4. The promptness of submission should be encouraged by way of marking and evaluation

patterns that will benefit the sincere students

Exercise No 1: ( 2 Hours) – 1 Practical

Internet Protocol hierarchy contains several classes of IP Addresses to be used efficiently

Class A IP address format is

Class 1st 1st Network/Host Default Subnet Number Hosts per

B 128- 10 N.N.H.H 255.255.0.0 16,382 65,534

C 192- 110 N.N.N.H 255.255.255.0 2,097,150 254(28 - 2)

D 224- 1110 Reserved for Multicasting

ping host [packetsize] [count]

----ns.uu.net PING Statistics----

AIM: Study of Networking Device

Types of Network Devices

Exercise No 2: ( 2 Hours) – 1 Practical

Title: To study Transmission media

Types of Transmission Media

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):