3-17a EM 1110-2-1602

15 Oct 80

attendant conditions must be carefully analyzed to prevent damage and/or

danger to personnel.

b. The size of air vents can be determined as per HDC 050-2n

which assumes that the maximum air demand occurs at a gate opening of
80 percent fully open and the maximum air velocity in the vent does not
exceed 150 fps. It is further suggested that air vents be designed so
that the head loss through the vent not exceed 0.5 to 1.0 ft of water
(i.e., air vent outlet pressure head of -0.5 to ~1.0 ft of water).
Although air vents are usually designed assuming incompressible flow,
high-velocity local flow should be checked to determine if flow is
incompressible (item 109).

c. Air vent passages should use generous bend radii and gradual
transitions to avoid losses and, particularly, excessive noise.

d. Air vent intakes should be so located that they are inacces-

sible to the public and they should be protected by grills. The intake
entrance average velocity should not exceed 30 fps.

e. Interconnected air vents (one main vertical stem manifolded to

vent more than one gate) should be avoided; but if they are necessary,
the connections should be above the maximum possible elevation of the
pressure grade line at the air v~nt exit opening to prevent crossflow
of water.

f. The air vent exit portal should be designed to assure spread of

air across the full width of the conduit. The air vent should terminate
into a plenum located in the conduit roof and immediately downstream of
the gate. The plenum should extend across the full width of the conduit
and should be vaned so that the air flow is evenly distributed. Plate
C-23 illustrates a typical air vent exit into the gate chamber.

Section IV. Sluice Outlet Design

3-18. General Considerations. Generally, sluices should not be designed

for combined spillway and sluice operation. However, in cases where
large sluice capacity is required for diversion flows or normal reser-
voir regulation, combined operation may be considered and evaluated in
terms of economic, hydrologic, and hydraulic benefits to be obtained.
Potential benefits include (a) reduction in spillway length with savings
in spillway and stilling basin construction costs, (b) reduction in maxi-
mum head on the spillway, and (c) more advantageous use of reservoir
surcharge to reduce peak outflows. Simultaneous spillway and full sluice
operation should be limited to conditions of thick (at least 10 ft)

3-11
EM 1110-2-1602 3-18
l.S Oct 80

spillway nappe flow over the outlet to man~maze the possibility of nega-
tive pressures at the sluice exit portal (item 15). With thinner
nappes, the sluice flow should be limited to 40 to ._70 percent gate
openings to obtain maximum air intake to relieve low pressures at the
exit portal and on the spillway face immediately below (item 140). Ex-
perience with combined operation has been limited to structures not ex-
ceeding 150 ft high. Caution should be used in designing for greater
heights where very high velocities and thinner spillway nappes would
occur. In general, sluices should be closed when spillway operation
begins. In projects not model-studied for combined flow operation,
combined flow should only be permitted when the free flow capacity of
the spillway is expected to be exceeded and the structure is endangered.
The sluices should be opened and operated preferably only with a thick
spillway nappe flowing over the sluice outlets. One sluice inoperative
should not jeopardize the integrity of the dam. Operation and reservoir
regulation manuals must reflect these restrictions.

3-19. Exit Portal Constructions. A sluice in a concrete dam is seldom

long enough to develop the desired back pressure from friction losses
necessary to prevent cavitation damage and it may be desirable to use
an exit constriction. A 10 to 15 percent area constriction at the
exit portal can be provided by gradually depressing the conduit roof
from some point upstream to the exit portal or by a deflector ~ormed in
the exit portal invert (plates C-28 and C-29). Roof constrictions
should be used when the sluice is curved vertically downward to ter-
minate the conduit invert tangent to the sloping spillway face or to
the spillway toe curve (plate C-28). This type of design does not aid
in horizontal spreading of the sluice jet; but i~ jet spreading is
required to improve stilling basin performance, it can be accomplished
by flaring the sidewalls in combination ·with a roof constriction-- ·
(plate C-30), or by use o~ sidewall flare with a tetrahedral deflector
(plate C-29). Both designs require extension of the sidewall flares
in the spillway face downstream o~ the exit portal. Tetrahedral de-
flectors are also used when the sluice forms an abrupt junction with
the spillway face and the sluice flow spreads in a free fall into the
tailwater (plate C-29). When the sluice is appreciably above the
spillway toe curve and spreading of the sluice jet is not a problem,
gradual depression of the sluice exit portal roof and curving the
sluice vertically downward to a smooth junction with the sloping spill-
way face (plate C-30) is preferable to deflector blocks and the jet
plunging into the stilling basin.

3-20. Sluice "Eyebrow" Deflectors. Extensive cavitation damage has

occurred at exit portals during s~illway flows with and without simul-
taneous sluice operation. This damage usually originates at low

3-12
3-20 EM 1110-2-1602
15 Oct 80

pressure areas where the outlet portal roof intersects the spillway face
and progresses downward along the intersection of the sluice sidewalls
and the spillway face. USBR studies (item 140) of the Folsom Dam
spillway showed that when the junction between the sluice invert and
the spillway face is abrupt, the spillway jet can impinge upon the
sluice invert with part of the flow entering and intermittently filling
the sluice. This restricts effective venting by the sluice gate air
vent with subsequent subatmospheric pressure at the sluice outlet roof.
The USBR tests also showed that impinging of the spillway flow on the
sluice exit portal invert resulted in flow separation from and undesir-
able low pressure on the spillway face downstream. The use of "eyebrow"
deflectors on the spillway face (plate C-31) effectively lifted the
spillway jet away from the sluice invert and permitted adequate venting
of the exit portal by the sluice gate air vent. However, undesirable
low pressures at full sluice gate opening were still evident immediately
downstream on the spillway face. Deflectors of this type have beeB
model-tested by the Corps of Engineers for Detroit, Red Rock, and other
projects.

3-13
 4-l EM 1110-2-1602
15 Oct 80

CHAPTER 4
OUTLET FACILITIES FOR EMBANKMENT DAMS

Section I. Basic Considerations

4-1. Approach Channel. The purpose of the approach channel is to con-

vey the water from the reservoir to the conduit intake structure. In
some cases, the channel may function for diversion of the river during
construction. The outlet. channel design, Unless extremely long, is
·usually dictated by the outlet works size and alignment. The alignment
of the approach channel should take advantage of the area topography to
decrease the channel excavation. Excessive curvature in the outlet
channel near multiple gate intake structures should be avoided to help
prevent unequal distribution of flow through the gate passages.

4-2. Conduits and Tunnels for Embankment Dams.

a. ~ent. The alignment and grade of conduits and tunnels are

governed by diversion, evacuation, and operating requirements; tailwater
elevation; topography; foundation conditions; and location of the dam
and spillway. It is desirable to design conduits or tunnels that are
as straight in alignment as practical, since a bend increases the hy-
draulic losses and creates unbalanced flow downstream from the bend.
If it is necessary to change the direction of flow, the change should
be accomplished with a long, easy, circular curve. The curved section
should be located as far upstream from the exit portal as feasible in
order to improve the flow conditions in the stilling basin. A model
study should be made for questionable cases. Flow around bends causes
dynamic and static reactions against the conduit or tunnel wall which
should be considered in design, particularly for free-standing steel
conduits within tunnels. Conduits and tunnels should have adequate
slope for drainage; and when appreciable foundation settlement caused
by embankment loading is anticipated, the vertical alignment should
contain sufficient camber to compensate for the settlement.

b. Conduit Elevation. As with sluices for concrete gravity dams

(see para 3-3a), the reservoir appurtenance requirements play an impor-
tant part in determining the elevation of the flood control conduit.
The inlets must be set low enough to drain the reservoir as required
(ER lll0-2-50d) with due consideration of the conduit elevation rela-
tive to stilling basin design. A conduit at a low level may have better
foundation conditions and higher discharge capacity for diversion and
other low pool level operation; however, a longer conduit may be re-
quired and poor stilling basin action may result from high tailwater

4-1
EM lll0-2-1602 4-2b
15 Oct 80

levels. Higher level conduits may have shorter length and the best
potential for good stilling basin action and good flow conditions
through the conduit for all discharges; but foundation conditions may
require its location to be farther from the river channel, and a
larger conduit may be needed for diversion or design capacity.

c. Shape. Flood control conduits for embankment dams are usually

either cut-and-cover or tunnel construction. Although some cross-
sectional shapes are superior to others from a hydraulic standpoint,
structural and construction considerations usually establish the type
of cross section. A circular cross section is the most efficient sec-
tion for a tunnel flowing full. Horseshoe-shaped and rectangular sec-
tions provide large flow areas at low depths, which make them desirable
for diversion purposes. The discharge capacity decreases sharply when
the depth of flow in a rectangular conduit increases from nearly full
to completely full flow, since the wetted perimeter is suddenly in-
creased. The oblong shape has depressed pressure gradients at the exit
portal compared with other shapes, when the outlet chute walls act
somewhat like a draft tube (see para 5-2d(2)). Hydraulic characteris-
tics of several shapes are shown in plate C-5.

d. Spacing. Where more than one conduit or tunnel is required,

the spacing affects the stilling basin and intake design. Multiple
cut-and-cover conduits should be spaced as close together as structural
requirements permit in order to allow use of a singlekstilling basin
and a minimum width intake structure. EM 1110-2-2901 discusses the
spacing of multiple tunnels from the standpoint of geological and
structural requirements. If the tunnels are designed with individual
stilling basins, the spacing at the outlet portal must be sufficient
to provide the necessary width of stilling basin for each outlet.

Section II. Intake and Gate Facilities

4-3. Intake Structures. The types of intake structures commonly used

include gated tower, multilevel, uncontrolled two-way riser, and/or a
combination of these. Intakes and control gates for embankment dams
are discussed as integral structures, but if designed as separate
structures, the principles of the hydraulic design are essentially
the same. The hydraulic design of the intake structure should address
the problems of (a) head loss, (b) boundary pressures, and (c) vortices
in the approach.

a. Loss Coefficients. Loss coefficients for conduit intake struc-

tures with all gates operating range from 0.06 to 1.32 times the conduit
velocity head. Available data from various geometries and gate

4-2
4-3a EM 1110-2-1602
1980

operating schedules are summarized in plates C-32, C-33, and C-34. It

is recommended that for discharge calculations, conservative values be
selected from these plates in accordance with the planned intake
geometry. Many of the coefficients given include allowance for trash
struts or fender losses.

b. Boundary Pressures. Pressure gradients for intake structures

should be developed to show local average pressure changes resulting
from flow velocity changes. These gradients are helpful in evaluating
pressure conditions in intakes, gate passages, and transitions. They
should be examined in terms of the conduit back pressure for the entire
operating range. This can be done by applying the energy equation
(eq 2-3) to local changes in areas. Average pressures do not reflect
pressure fluctuations due to turbulence, and cavitation potential should
be evaluated according to the criteria ~discussed in paragraph 2-16.

c. Vortices. Vortices at intake structures can affect intake

efficiency and create a safety hazard to the public. Although vortices
are usually associated with high discharges and shallow intakes, they
have been observed at intakes submerged as much as 60 to 100 ft (items
43, 95, 125, 131, and 138). Antivortex devices have been installed at
intakes located at shallow depths. The intensity of the circulation
phenomena set up around an intake is a function of the submergence of
the intake, the discharge, and the intake and approach channel geometry.
Gordon (item 43) has developed design guidance for preventing undesir~
able vortices (intensity such that they draw air and surface debris
into the structure) at power plant intakes (plate C-35). Data for
observed prototype vortices at Enid (item 131) and Denison (item 125)
Dams have been included in this plate. It is recommended that Gordon's
curve for unsymmetrical flow be used for design purposes. Reddy and
Pickford (item 95) have analyzed vortex aata pertinent to pump sumps and
published a design chart f~r evaluating vortex potentiality for these
structures. They concluded that when vortex prevention devices are used
the critical submergence (ratio of water depth above top of inlet to
inlet diameter - both dimensions at the entrance to the inlet bell mouth)
should equal or exceed the inlet flow Froude number (otherwise, it should
equal or exceed Froude number plus one) to provide vortex-free operation.
Model studies are suggested in questionable instances.

d. Trashracks and Struts. If protection against clogging or debris

damage to gates or turbines is needed, see the design guidance given in
paragraph 3-5.

4-4. Intake Tower Versus Central Control Shaft. Both the intake tower
and the central control shaft have their respective advantages. The

4-3
EM 1110-2-1602 4-4
15 Oct 80

intake tower may be expected to have higher back pressure at the gate
section caused by the friction loss of the long downstream conduit.
This is an advantage in the elimination of possible cavitation. As the
intake tower has gates near the upstream end of the conduit or tunnel,
the danger of leakage into or out of the embankment or abutment, with
resultant piping of the material, is minimized. When the gates are
placed near the upstream end of a conduit, there is the important ad-
vantage of being able to unwater the entire length of conduit for in-
spections. A central control shaft, which is usually located in an
abutment near the axis of the dam, has the advantage of being protected
from freezing and thawing and from forces due to ice action. In a cen-
tral control the intermediate pier or piers are subject to high veloci-
ties and are designed to eliminate possible cavitation. The central
control shaft has an advantage of not requiring a bridge for access as
is the case of an intake tower. However, the conduit upstream of a
central control shaft must be designed to withstand the reservoir head,
and a transition is required both upstream and downstream of the gate
passages. Foundation conditions and economic comparisons may dictate
the choice between the intake tower and the central control shaft.
Reservoir operating schedules may require the release of discharges
under various heads and gate openings resulting in the pulsating flow
condition ("burping") discussed in paragraph 2-4d. In some cases this
undesirable condition can be eliminated by use of a central control
shaft to shorten the conduit length downstream from the control gate.
Further discussion of gate structure locations is given in
EM lll0-2-24oo.j
4-5. Submerged Intakes. The submerged intake is a comparatively simple
and economical structure most often equipped with trash struts and bulk-
head slots, having a streamlined entrance to the conduit or tunnel which
is submerged at a low reservoir level. The submerged intake is satis-
factory for reservoirs that function solely for flood control. However,
when the intake will be permanently submerged by a conservation pool,
difficulty arises in unwatering the conduit or tunnel upstream of the
service gates. When bulkhead slots are located downstream from the in-
take face, provisions must be provided for closing the roof slot to pre-
vent a high-velocity jet from entering through the slots and causing
cavitation damages to the roof immediately downstream (item 20). Use
of divers for bulkhead installation is to be avoided.

4-6. Combined Intake and Gate Structure. This is a common type of in- ·
take tower that usually requires a bridge for access, and gate wells
are-provided to accommodate the service and emergency gates. The emer-
gency gate is upstream from the service gate and is utilized for inspec-
tion and maintenance of the service gate passage. The gate wells are

4-4
4-6 EM 1110-2-1602
15 Oct 80

generally wet for low head, wet-dry combination for intermediate head,
and dry for high head structures. Determination of the well type is
from structural and mechanical design considerations. A float well is
normally provided for installation of a reservoir stage recorder.
Bubbler gages are also used for this purpose and require less space.
It is desirable to have two or three separate levels for the float well
intakes, and they should be away from any drawdown effects when re-
leasing large flows.

4-7. Underground Control Structures. An alternative to the conventional

tower-type structure is an underground control structure buried beneath
the embankment or in the abutment with a downstream access gallery.
The access gallery should be placed adjacent to and at the same eleva-
tion as the water passages, essentially forming a multiple-box structure.
Horizontal air vents will require check valves to prevent flow of water
through them. The underground gate structures may be more economical
than the conventional tower-dry well structure for high operating heads
(~150ft). Another economical advantage of this type of structure is
the elimination of the service bridge which is required for a tower
structure. Other conditions under which an underground structure should
be considered include projects where water quality releases do not re-
quire multiple intakes over a wide range of reservoir levels and where
reservoir operation results in periodic drawdown of pool level to the
top of the intake bulkhead structure. Structural considerations are
discussed in item 83. This type of structure has been used by others
and by the Corps at the Fall Creek Dam in the Portland District and the
New Hogan Dam in the Sacramento District.

4-8. Downstream Control Structures. Flow control facilities located

at the downstream end of a conduit, when closed, subject the entire con-
duit to the full reservoir head and the possibility of high pressure
leaks, piping along the conduit, and subsequent failure of the embank-
ment. Therefore special design precautions are necessary when the con-
trol structure is located at the downstream end of the outlet conduit.
The conduit between the impervious cutoff and the control structure may
be a freestanding steel conduit housed in a concrete-lined tunnel of
sufficient size to permit access for maintenance. This type of construc-
tion is frequently used for penstocks through embankments. Outlet facil-
ities with downstream control must also have an emergency gate upstream
of the steel conduit and stop log provisions at the conduit entrance.
Provisions must be made for continued releases as required during shut-
downs of primary release facilities.

4-9. Gate Passageway Requirements. The requirements discussed for

sluice gates in paragraph 3-12 also apply to control gates for conduits

4-5
EM lll0-2-1602 4-9
1980

through embankment dams. Normally a service gate, an emergency gate,

and slots for bulkheads or stop logs should be provided for each gate
passage to the conduit or tunnel. The total flow cross-sectional area
of gate passages should exceed the downstream conduit area by 10 to 15
percent. Typical gate installations for both tainter and vertical-lift
gates are shown in plate C-36.

4-10. Low-Flow Releases. The operation of large gates at small openings

(<0.5 ft) is not recommended because of the increased potential for cav-
itation downstream from the gate slot. In cases where low-flow releases
are required, consideration should be given to low-flow bypass culverts,
center pier culverts, multilevel wet well facilities (see Chapter 6),
or a low-flow ("piggy-back") gate incorporated in the service gate.

Section III. Entrance Shapes

4-11. General. The general design of entrance shapes, discussed in

paragraph 3-6, is equally applicable to conduits for embankments and
concrete dams although the structural setting and some details are
different. Entrances in concrete dams are ordinarily constructed as
bell mouths for circular conduits and with entrance curves at the top,
bottom, and sides for rectangular conduits. In embankment dams, the
conduit inverts are normally set at approximately the same elevation as
the floor of the approach channel. Consequently, there is little curva-
ture of the invert approach so that a bottom curve is not required.
In the case of embankment dam intakes with two or more gate passages,
there usually is insufficient lateral space for full bell-mouthed en-
trance curves on the sides, so that only the roof is bell-mouthed and
the piers and sides are extended upstream to support the trash struts.
The sides and piers are carefully transitioned from rounded noses to the
gate passage. In the case of a single raetangular gate passage, the top
and sides can be flared or treated as above.

4-12. Selection of Entrance Shape for Design. · A comprehensive series

of tests on flared entrances has been conducted at WES (item 76). In-
take roof curves for conduits with fully suppressed intake inverts and
limited lateral space for side flares should be designed as indicated
in plate C-37. The short elliptical shape (fig. a, plate C-37) is
satisfactory when the back pressure on the intake is great enough to
prevent low local pressures. The long elliptical shape should be used
when back pressure is not adequate to eliminate low local pressures
(fig. b, plate C-37). The effects of upstream face geometry are
given in HDC 221-2n and item 20. Intakes with sufficient lateral space
for sidewall streamlining should have curves as shown in plate C-22 and
discussed in paragraph 3-6c.

4-6
4-13 EM ~110-2-1602
15 Oct 80

4-13. Linear Sidewall or Pier Flare. WES studies show that entrance
roof pressure conditions for two-dimensional curves can be improved by
tapering the divider piers. Plate C-38 shows the improvement of pres-
sure conditions from using linear sidewall and/or pier flare. The
computational procedure is illustrated in HDC 221-3 and 221-3/l.n Two-
dimensional roof curve pressure coefficients can be converted to three-
dimensional coefficients for side flare by:

(4-1)

where

C = pressure drop coefficient

A = flow area in square feet at the point of interest

Subscripts 2 and 3 indicate two- and three-dimensional values, respec-

tively. Unless model-tested, it is recommended that application of
equation 4-1 be limited to the cases where the horizontal flare does
not exceed 1 horizontally to about 12 longitudinally.

Section IV. Control Gates

4-14. General. The types of gates and valves and their operating
characteristics discussed in paragraphs 3-8 to 3-17, are equally appli-
cable to conduits for embankment dams. Generally, a service gate, an
emergency gate, and slots for bulkheads or stop logs are provided for
each gate passage to the conduit or tunnel (~late C~36). Cable-
suspended tractor or hydraulically operated tractor or slide gates are
normally used in conduits for embankment dams. The problems of deter-
mining the hydraulic forces acting on tractor gates, with emphasis on
cable suspension, will be discussed in this section. Although downpull
forces on a partially opened gate constitute a hoist design problem in
both hydraulically operated and cable-suspended gates, the vibration
problem is more critical in the design of cable-suspended gates. For
this reason cable-suspended tractor gates are not recommended for flow
regulation or for heads in excess of 150 ft.

4-15. Gate Lip Geometry. Laboratory and field tests have shown that
the 45-deg gate lip design shown in plate C-23 performs satisfactorily
under all flow conditions. The 45-deg lip should terminate in a l-in.

4-7