CAREER ORIENTED COURSE – E- COMMERCE

2.1.NETWORK BASICS (Syllabus)

UNIT – I:
Introduction to network – Network Criteria – Types of connections – Point – to –
point – Multipoint – Uses of Network.
UNIT - II:
Categories of network – Local Area network – Wide Area Network – Metropolitan
Area Network – Topologies – Mesh – Star – Bus – Ring.
UNIT – III:
Reference Models – OSI Reference Model – Seven Layers – Transmission Control
Protocol / Internet Protocol.
UNIT – IV:
Packet Transmission – Concept of Packet – Packet & Hardware frames –
Transmission Errors – Detecting Errors.
UNIT – V:
Network Security – Security Services – Security Communication – Confidentiality –
Integrity – Availability – Authentication – Security Attacks – Passive and Active.

UNIT – I:
Introduction to network:
Network Meaning: A network is two or more computers (or other electronic devices)
that are connected together, usually by cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites,
or infrared light beams or Wi-Fi. Some computer networks will have a server. A web
server stores and shares websites. A network consists of two or more computers that
are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and CDs), exchange files, or
allow electronic communications.
Uses of Network:

● A network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving
authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on
the network.
 ● Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to
accomplish tasks.

● Access to information: Networks provide access to information and data,

which can be essential for businesses and individuals who need to access
information quickly and efficiently. Networks also enable the sharing of
information between individuals and groups, which can help to facilitate
collaboration and innovation

● Communicating using email, video, instant messaging, etc.

● Sharing devices such as printers, scanners, etc.

● Sharing files.

● Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems.

● Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information.

Importance of Computer network:

(i) Resource Sharing : A network enables sharing of data files. Software can be
installed on a central server instead of buying licences for every machine. Peripherals
such as printers scanners can be shared across an organization. Databases and files
can be shared. This reduces cost effectively.
(ii) Better Communication : Internet enables better communication through email
messaging chat rooms and video conferencing.
(iii) Access to remote databases : Internet allows users to access the remote databases
like railway reservation universities hotels etc.
Advantages of Computer Network:
Some of the main advantages of Computer Networks are:
● Central Storage of Data: Files are stored on a central storage database which
helps to easily access and available to everyone.
● Connectivity: A single connection can be routed to connect multiple computing
devices.
● Sharing of Files: Files and data can be easily shared among multiple devices
which helps in easily communicating among the organization.
● Security through Authorization: Computer Networking provides additional
security and protection of information in the system.
Disadvantages of Computer Network:
Some of the main disadvantages of Computer Networks are:
● Virus and Malware: A virus is a program that can infect other programs by
modifying them. Viruses and Malware can corrupt the whole network.
● High Cost of Setup: The initial setup of Computer Networking is expensive
because it consists of a lot of wires and cables along with the device.
● loss of Information: In case of a System Failure, might lead to some loss of data.

● Management of Network: Management of a Network is somehow complex for a

person, it requires training for its proper use.
Network Criteria:
Criterion provides cloud based hosted enablement services designed for service
providers and enterprises to accelerate the transformation of network infrastructure
and services. Service providers rely on us to deliver results faster with environments
for new service creation, go-to-market execution, and operations.
The most important criteria are performance, reliability, and security. Performance of
the network depends on the number of users, type of transmission medium, the
capabilities of the connected h/w, and the efficiency of the s/w.
Common Criteria has two key components:

● Protection Profiles and Evaluation Assurance Levels. A Protection Profile

(PPro) defines a standard set of security requirements for a specific type of
product, such as a firewall.
 ● The Evaluation Assurance Level (EAL) defines how thoroughly the product is
tested.
There are really two primary criteria for testing for network reliability.

● Downtime: How much time does your network to recover from incidents?
How does it graph over time?

● Failure Frequency: This is the frequency with which your network fails to act or
respond the way it is designed to.
Types of connections:
A computer network is a connection between two or more network devices, like
computers, routers, and switches, to share network resources.

LAN
Ethernet is the foundation of all existing LANs, whether wired or wireless.
Computers and servers can connect via cables or wirelessly. WiFi Access Points
provide wireless connectivity in combination with a wired network. WAP-enabled
devices serve as a link between PCs and networks. A WAP may connect a hundred or
even a thousand wireless individuals to a network. Servers on a LAN are generally
connected by wire.
MAN
A metropolitan area network combines many LANs with a fiber optic as the basis. It
offers services akin to those offered by an internet service provider for broad area
networks. MANs can use microwave or infrared lasers to connect Local Area
Networks wirelessly. MANs are often owned by just one significant organization and
are mainly created for towns or cities to give a high data connection.
WAN
Users and computers in one area may interact with users and computers in other
locations via a WAN, composed of two or more interconnected Local Area Networks
or Metropolitan Area Networks. Computers in a Wide Area Network are linked by
public networks such as phone lines, satellite connections, or leased lines. To extend
the network's capabilities across locations, costly leased lines are usually used to build
WANs. At each end of a leased line, a router is attached.
Point – to – point:
Point-to-point networks are used to connect two locations together via a private,
dedicated line. This allows companies to transfer data between multiple buildings (for
example) without the security risks of data being intercepted associated with a public
internet connection.
Definition of Point-to-Point Connection
The point-to-point is a kind of line configuration which describes the method to
connect two communication devices in a link. The point-to-point connection is a
unicast connection. There is a dedicated link between an individual pair of sender and
receiver. The capacity of the entire channel is reserved only for the transmission of
the packet between the sender and receiver.

If the network is made up of point-to-point connections, then the packet will have to
travel through many intermediate devices. The link between the multiple intermediate
devices may be of different length. So, in point-to-point network finding the smallest
distance to reach the receiver is most important.
● A Point to Point Network is a private data connection securely connecting two
or more locations for private data services.

● A point to point network is a closed network data transport service which does
not traverse the public Internet and is inherently secure with no data encryption
needed.

● Point to Point connections are available in a range of a bandwidth speeds

from 10Mbps to 100Gbps.

● A point to point connection provides unparalleled quality of service (QoS) as it

is not a shared service (a private line) and follows the same direct network
path every time.

● Point to Point links are used by businesses to provide reliable, secure point to
point network data service for applications including credit card processing, file
sharing, data backup, VOIP, and video conferencing.

● A point to point network can also be configured to carry voice, video, Internet,
and data services together over the same point to point connection. Point to
Point circuits are also known as a Point to Point Link, Wavelength, Private
Line, Leased Line, or Data Line.

● Point-to-point connections, sometimes called a point-to-point link, P2P links,

private line, or leased line, securely connect two locations using a Layer 2 data
connection, building a closed network.
Multipoint:
A multipoint connection is one that connects more than two devices togetherIt is also
called Multidrop configuration. In this connection, two or more devices share a single
link. If more than two devices share the link then the channel is considered a 'shared
channel'.
Definition of Multipoint Connection
The multipoint connection is a connection established between more than two
devices. The multipoint connection is also called multidrop line configuration. In
multipoint connection, a single link is shared by multiple devices. So, it can be said
that the channel capacity is shared temporarily by every device connecting to the link.
If devices are using the link turn by turn, then it is said to be time shared line
configuration.

In the fig above, you can see that the five workstations share the common link
between the main frame and the workstations. The multipoint networks are also
called “Broadcast network”.
In a broadcast network, the packet transmitted by the sender is received and
processed by every device on the link. But, by the address field in the packet, the
receiver determines whether the packet belongs to it or not, if not, it discards the
packet. If packet belongs to the receiver then keeps the packet and respond to the
sender accordingly.
Difference Between Point-to-point and Multipoint Connection:
The point-to-point and Multipoint are two types of line configuration. Both of them
describes a method to connect two or more communication devices in a link. The
main difference between point-to-point and multipoint connection is that in a point-
to-point connection the link is only between two devices i.e. a sender and a receiver.
On the other hand, in a multipoint connection, the link is between a sender and
multiple receivers.
Comparison Chart
BASIS FOR
POINT-TO-POINT MULTIPOINT
COMPARISON
Link There is dedicated link The link is shared between more
between two devices. than two devices.
Channel Capacity The channel's entire The channel's capacity is shared
capacity is reserved for the temporarily among the devices
two connected devices. connected to the link.
Transmitter and There is a single There is a single transmitter and
Receiver transmitter and a single multiple receivers.
receiver.
Example Frame relay, T-carrier, Frame relay, token ring, Ethernet,
X.25, etc. ATM, etc.
Key Differences Between Point-to-Point and Multipoint Connection
1. When there is a single dedicated link only between two devices, it is a point-to-
point connection whereas, if a single link is shared by more than two devices
then it is said to be a multipoint connection.
2. In multipoint connection, the channel capacity is shared temporarily by the
devices in connection. On the other hand, in a point-to-point connection, the
entire channel capacity is reserved only for the two devices in the connection.
3. In point-to-point connection, there can only be a single transmitter and a single
receiver. On the other hand, in multipoint connection,
Similarities
The point-to-point and multipoint both are the types of line configuration, that refers
the technique to connect two or more communication devices.

Uses of Network:
A computer network refers to a group of two or more computing devices that are
connected by a communication medium allowing the computers to communicate
electronically. A computing device on a network is usually referred to as a node, being
connected to one another, it allows nodes to exchange data with one another using a
connection media between them. The links can be established either over cable media
such as wires or via a wireless media such as Wi-Fi.
The following are reasons for using networks:
1. COMMUNICATION
Everything, from the world wide web to online banking to multiplayer computer
games, depends on the ability of computers to communicate. However, it is not just
computers that communicate with each other, computer and telecommunication
networks also connect people. Whether this is through video calls on a smartphone,
emails from your computer, instant messaging services or social networks, computer
networks allow people from across the world to easily communicate with one another.
2. ACCESSING RESOURCES
Networks allow computers to share and access resources with other computing
devices connected to it.
● Data and information: Networks allow computers to share data and
information. This can most easily be seen on the internet, where websites like
Wikipedia share information on millions of different topics, but is also true for
smaller home and business networks.
● Printers and scanners: Hardware devices like printers and scanners are not
used that frequently by any single computer. A network allows several people to be
connected to one printer or scanner, thus making optimal use of these resources.
● Software: Networks also allow people and computers to share software.
Online applications like Office 365 and Google docs are examples of applications
installed on only a few servers and shared by people around the world.
● Labour and money: Resources are not just restricted to computer resources
but can also extend to real world resources like people and money. By seeking
advice on the internet, you can gain access to experts from all over the world who
 can help you to resolve an issue you may be experiencing. Banking sites, investment
sites and crowdfunding sites like GoFundMe.com gives you access to information
on how to access funding and fundraising opportunities.
● Other hardware resources: Equipment such as portable disk drives, portable
DVD drives, and plotters can be shared amongst many users on a network.
3. CENTRALISATION OF DATA
Data can be stored on one server instead of several devices. For example, on a small
home network, all the data can be centralised by using a server. By doing this, anyone
with access to the network can work with the data stored on the central server
without needing to connect several external hard drives or flash drives to a computer.
4. TRANSFER OF FILES
One way in which data and information can be shared on a network is by sharing
files. By sharing files, you allow users connected to the same network (whether that is
a local network or the internet) to gain access to specific files.
Files can be shared in several different ways. These include:
● using the operating system’s file sharing utility

● placing the files on a Network-attached Storage (NAS) device or file server

● uploading the files to a website

● sending an e-mail with the files as attachments

● using file sharing websites like Google Drive, One Drive and Dropbox.

Most of these services not only allow you to share files, but also give you the option
to limit how these files are used. For example, you may want to share the files for a
group project in such a way that all the group members can amend them. In contrast,
you may not want group members to change the details of, for example, a shared
birthday invitation, so the invitation can be shared using the View only option.
5. INCREASED PRODUCTIVITY
The use of networks allow most people to work and study more productively. This is
achieved by allowing people to:
● collaborate more easily.
 ● share files, thereby preventing work from being duplicated.

● share resources and information.

● quickly find answers to their questions by centralising useful information.

For example, as a programmer you might not be able to solve a programming

problem. By using the internet you can speak to experts live and they would be able to
guide you in solving the problem you may be experiencing. You could also look at the
files of similar applications that have been developed to see how their creators solved
a problem. Or you could work through several free, online programming courses and
permanently improve your productivity. The same is applicable for most fields of
study and work.
6. LEISURE
Access to the internet provides access to an almost unlimited amount of
entertainment. Examples include:
● games

● multimedia

● books

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS

The table below compares some of the advantages and disadvantages of connecting to
a network.
Comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of connecting to a network
 ******************
UNIT - II:
Categories of network:
A computer network is a connection between two or more network devices, like
computers, routers, and switches, to share network resources. According to the
communication requirements, multiple types of network connections are available.
The most basic type of network classification depends on the network's geographical
coverage.

Types of Networks
(i) PAN (Personal Area Network) (ii)LAN (Local Area Network)
(iii) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) (iv) WAN (Wide Area Network)
Local Area Network (LAN):

The Local Area Network (LAN) is designed to connect multiple network devices and
systems within a limited geographical distance. The devices are connected using
multiple protocols for properly and efficiently exchanging data and services.
Attributes of LAN Network:
● The data transmit speed in the LAN network is relatively higher than the other
network types, MAN and WAN.
● LAN uses private network addresses for network connectivity for data and service
exchange, and it uses cable for network connection, decreasing error and
maintaining data security.
Advantages and Disadvantages of LAN Network

Advantages Disadvantages

Need constant administration

Transmission of data and services is relatively higher
of experienced engineers for
than other network connections.
functioning.

The Network Server acts as a central unit for the Probability of leak of sensitive
whole network. data by LAN administration.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)?

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network type that covers the network
connection of an entire city or connection of a small area. The area covered by the
network is connected using a wired network, like data cables.
Attributes of MAN Network:
● Network covers an entire town area or a portion of a city.

● Data transmission speed is relatively high due to the installation of optical cables
and wired connections.
Advantages and Disadvantages of MAN Network:

Advantages Disadvantages

High probability of attack from

Provides Full-Duplex data transmission in the network
hackers and cybercriminals due
channel for devices.
to large networks.

The need for good quality

The network connection area covers an entire city or
hardware and the installation
some parts using the optic cables.
cost is very high.

Wide Area Network (WAN):

The Wide Area Network (WAN) is designed to connect devices over large distances
like states or between countries. The connection is wireless in most cases and uses
radio towers for communication.
The WAN network can be made up of multiple LAN and MAN networks.
Attributes of WAN Network:
● The speed of the WAN data transfer is lower than in comparison to LAN and
MAN networks due to the large distance covered.
● The WAN network uses a satellite medium to transmit data between multiple
locations and network towers.
Advantages and Disadvantages of WAN Network:

Advantages Disadvantages

High cost to set up the network

This network covers a high geographical area and is and the Support of experienced
used for large-distance connections. technicians is needed to
maintain the network.

They also use radio towers and connect channels for It is difficult to prevent hacking
users. and debug a large network.

Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Basis LAN MAN WAN

Several computers
The WAN
LAN is a network that enables can be connected
network
the communication between to MAN in the
extends to a
many linked devices. It is in same city or
much greater
Meaning charge of establishing separately. It
area. It can link
connections among encompasses a
multiple
neighborhood units, including greater region,
countries
universities and schools. including minor
together.
towns and cities.

MAN can be
A single
either public or
company may
LAN is a private and secured private. A lot of
Network not own WAN.
network. Hospitals, schools, businesses and
Authority It can be
offices, etc., can own it. telephone
private or
companies could
public.
own them.

MAN provides a WAN provides

The Internet speed provided
Speed modest Internet a slow Internet
through LAN is fast.
connection speed. connection.

MAN's
WAN
maintenance is
Maintenance LAN maintenance is very easy. maintenance is
easier compared
very difficult.
to LAN.

Congestion Congestion is less in the LAN It is more in Congestion is

 more in WAN
when
network. MAN. compared to
LAN and
MAN.

WAN
The bandwidth in LAN is very In MAN,
Bandwidth bandwidth is
high. bandwidth is less.
quite limited.

It isn't easy to It is
It is very easy to design a LAN
Designing design a MAN complicated to
network.
network. design WAN.

Other Types of Computer Networks

1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
3. System-Area Network (SAN)
4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
7. Home Area Network (HAN)
1. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
WLAN is a type of computer network that acts as a local area network but makes use
of wireless network technology like Wi-Fi. This network doesn’t allow devices to
communicate over physical cables like in LAN but allows devices to communicate
wirelessly.
The most common example of WLAN is Wi-Fi.
There are several computer networks available; more information is provided below.
2. Storage Area Network (SAN)
SAN is a type of computer network that is high-speed and connects groups of storage
devices to several servers. This network does not depend on LAN or WAN. Instead,
a SAN moves the storage resources from the network to its high-powered network. A
SAN provides access to block-level data storage.
Examples of SAN are a network of disks accessed by a network of servers.

Storage Area Network (SAN)

3. System Area Network (SAN)
A SAN is a type of computer network that connects a cluster of high-performance
computers. It is a connection-oriented and high-bandwidth network. A SAN is a type
of LAN that handles high amounts of information in large requests. This network is
useful for processing applications that require high network performance.
Microsoft SQL Server 2005 uses SAN through a virtual interface adapter.
System Area Network (SAN)
4. Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)
A POLAN is a type of computer network that is an alternative to a LAN. POLAN
uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from a single strand of single-mode
optical fiber to multiple signals to distribute users and devices. In short, POLAN is a
point to multipoint LAN architecture.

Passive Optical Local Area Network (POLAN)

5. Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
EPN is a type of computer network mostly used by businesses that want a secure
connection over various locations to share computer resources.

Enterprise Private Network (EPN)

6. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
A VPN is a type of computer network that extends a private network across the
internet and lets the user send and receive data as if they were connected to a private
network even though they are not. Through a virtual point-to-point connection users
can access a private network remotely. VPN protects you from malicious sources by
operating as a medium that gives you a protected network connection.

Virtual Private Network (VPN)

7. Home Area Network (HAN)
Many of the houses might have more than a computer. To interconnect those
computers and with other peripheral devices, a network should be established similar
to the local area network (LAN) within that home. Such a type of network that allows
a user to interconnect multiple computers and other digital devices within the home is
referred to as Home Area Network (HAN). HAN encourages sharing of resources,
files, and programs within the network. It supports both wired and wireless
communication.
Home Area Network (HAN)
Topologies – Mesh – Star – Bus – Ring:
A network topology is the physical and logical arrangement of nodes and connections
in a network. Nodes usually include devices such as switches, routers and software
with switch and router features.
Network topologies are often represented as a graph.
Network topologies describe the arrangement of networks and the relative location of
traffic flows. Administrators can use network topology diagrams to determine the best
placements for each node and the optimal path for traffic flow.
With a well-defined and planned-out network topology, an organization can more
easily locate faults and fix issues, improving its data transfer efficiency.
Network geometry can be defined as the physical topology and the logical topology.
Network topology diagrams are shown with devices depicted as network nodes and
the connections between them as lines. The type of network topology differs
depending on how the network needs to be arranged.
Importance of network topology:

● Network topology plays a major role in how a network functions.

● Namely, the topology has a direct effect on network functionality.

 ● Choosing the right topology can help increase performance, as a properly
chosen and maintained network topology increases energy efficiency and data
transfer rates.

● A well-defined network topology makes it easier for network admins to locate

faults, troubleshoot issues and to allocate network resources.

● Diagrams are an important reference point in helping to diagnose network

issues, as they can represent physical and logical layouts.
Types of network topologies:
Network topologies are categorized as either a physical network topology or logical
network topology. The physical topology of a network is the physical layout of nodes
and connections. Connections include the lines in diagrams that connect nodes, such
as Ethernet or Digital Subscriber Line wires, fiber optics and microwaves. Logical
network topologies define how a network is set up, including which nodes connect
and how, as well as the pattern of data transfers.

This image shows different layouts of network topologies.

There are several types of topologies. For example, physical topologies include the
following:
● Bus network. In the bus network topology, every node is connected in series
along a single cable. This arrangement is found today primarily in cable broadband
distribution networks.
● Star network. In the star network topology, a central device connects to all other
nodes through a central hub. Switched local area networks based on Ethernet
switches and most wired home and office networks have a physical star topology.
● Ring network. In the ring network topology, the nodes are connected in a closed-
loop configuration. Some rings pass data in one direction only, while others are
capable of transmission in both directions. These bidirectional ring networks are
more resilient than bus networks since traffic can reach a node by moving in either
direction. Metro networks based on Synchronous Optical Network technology are
the primary example of ring networks.
● Mesh network. The mesh network topology links nodes with connections so that
multiple paths between at least some points of the network are available. A
network is considered to be fully meshed if all nodes are directly connected to all
other nodes and partially meshed if only some nodes have multiple connections to
others. Meshing multiple paths increases resiliency but also increases cost.
However, more space is needed for dedicated links.
● Tree network. The tree network topology consists of one root node, and all other
nodes are connected in a hierarchy. The topology itself is connected in a star
configuration. Many larger Ethernet switch networks, including data center
networks, are configured as trees.
● Hybrid network. The hybrid network topology is any combination of two or
more topologies. Hybrid topologies typically provide exceptional flexibility, as they
can accommodate a number of setups. For example, different departments in the
same organization may opt for personalized network topologies that are more
adaptable to their network needs.
A logical topology for a network refers to the relationship between nodes and logical
connections -- defining how data should transfer.
A logical connection differs from a physical path when information can take
an invisible hop at intermediate points. In optical networks, optical add-drop
multiplexers create logical optical paths because the ADM hop is not visible to the
endpoint nodes. Networks based on virtual circuits or tunnels have a physical topology
based on the real connection medium -- fiber, for example -- and a logical topology
based on the circuits and tunnels.
Sometimes, the logical topology refers to the topology as the user sees it. Internet
Protocol (IP) and Ethernet networks are two common examples. They are fully meshed at the
connection level since any user can connect with any other user. This is true unless
some means of blocking unwanted connections, like a firewall, is introduced. Full
connectivity is a property of the network protocols used -- IP and Ethernet -- not of
the network topology itself.
As an example, logical bus and logical ring topologies can be used to define data
transmission flows. A logical bus topology features nodes that broadcast data to the
entire network. Other nodes on the network check to see if the data is meant for
them. Logical ring topology only allows one node to transfer data at a time.
***************

UNIT – III:
Reference Models:
In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual framework that
standardizes communication between heterogeneous networks.
The two popular reference models are
● OSI Model

● TCP/IP Protocol Suite

OSI Model
OSI or Open System Interconnection model was developed by International
Standards Organization (ISO). It gives a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communication should be done between heterogeneous systems.
It has seven interconnected layers.

The seven layers of the OSI Model are aphysical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport l

TCP / IP PROTOCOL SUITE

TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, while IP stands for Internet Protocol.
It is a suite of protocols for communication structured in four layers. It can be used
for communication over the internet as well as for private networks.

The four layers are application layer, transport layer, internet layer and network access layer, as
OSI Reference Model:
The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework
used to describe the functions of a networking system. The OSI model characterizes
computing functions into a universal set of rules and requirements in order to support
interoperability between different products and software. In the OSI reference model,
the communications between a computing system are split into seven different
abstraction layers: Physical, Data Link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation,
and Application.
The 7 Layers of the OSI Model
1. Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI Model is concerned with electrically or optically
transmitting raw unstructured data bits across the network from the physical layer of
the sending device to the physical layer of the receiving device. It can include
specifications such as voltages, pin layout, cabling, and radio frequencies. At the
physical layer, one might find “physical” resources such as network hubs, cabling,
repeaters, network adapters or modems.
2. Data Link Layer
At the data link layer, directly connected nodes are used to perform node-to-node
data transfer where data is packaged into frames. The data link layer also corrects
errors that may have occurred at the physical layer.
The data link layer encompasses two sub-layers of its own. The first, media access
control (MAC), provides flow control and multiplexing for device transmissions over
a network. The second, the logical link control (LLC), provides flow and error control
over the physical medium as well as identifies line protocols.
3. Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for receiving frames from the data link layer, and
delivering them to their intended destinations among based on the addresses
contained inside the frame. The network layer finds the destination by using logical
addresses, such as IP (internet protocol). At this layer, routers are a crucial component
used to quite literally route information where it needs to go between networks.
4. Transport Layer
The transport layer manages the delivery and error checking of data packets. It
regulates the size, sequencing, and ultimately the transfer of data between systems and
hosts. One of the most common examples of the transport layer is TCP or the
Transmission Control Protocol.

5. Session Layer
The session layer controls the conversations between different computers. A session
or connection between machines is set up, managed, and termined at layer 5. Session
layer services also include authentication and reconnections.
6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer formats or translates data for the application layer based on the
syntax or semantics that the application accepts. Because of this, it at times also called
the syntax layer. This layer can also handle the encryption and decryption required by
the application layer.
7. Application Layer
At this layer, both the end user and the application layer interact directly with the
software application. This layer sees network services provided to end-user
applications such as a web browser or Office 365. The application layer identifies
communication partners, resource availability, and synchronizes communication.
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol:
Transmission Control Protocol:
 ⮚ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a communications standard that
enables application programs and computing devices to exchange messages
over a network. It is designed to send packets across the internet and ensure
the successful delivery of data and messages over networks.

⮚ TCP is one of the basic standards that define the rules of the internet and is
included within the standards defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF). It is one of the most commonly used protocols within digital network
communications and ensures end-to-end data delivery.

⮚ TCP organizes data so that it can be transmitted between a server and a client.
It guarantees the integrity of the data being communicated over a network.
Before it transmits data, TCP establishes a connection between a source and its
destination, which it ensures remains live until communication begins. It then
breaks large amounts of data into smaller packets, while ensuring data integrity
is in place throughout the process.
As a result, high-level protocols that need to transmit data all use TCP Protocol.
Examples include peer-to-peer sharing methods like File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
Secure Shell (SSH), and Telnet. It is also used to send and receive email through
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Post Office Protocol (POP), and Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), and for web access through the Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP):
An alternative to TCP in networking is the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), which is
used to establish low-latency connections between applications and decrease
transmissions time. TCP can be an expensive network tool as it includes absent or
corrupted packets and protects data delivery with controls like acknowledgments,
connection startup, and flow control.
UDP does not provide error connection or packet sequencing nor does it signal a
destination before it delivers data, which makes it less reliable but less expensive. As
such, it is a good option for time-sensitive situations, such as Domain Name System
(DNS) lookup, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), and streaming media.
Internet Protocol (IP):
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method for sending data from one device to another
across the internet. Every device has an IP address that uniquely identifies it and
enables it to communicate with and exchange data with other devices connected to
the internet. Today, it’s considered the standard for fast and secure communication
directly between mobile devices.
IP is responsible for defining how applications and devices exchange packets of data
with each other. It is the principal communications protocol responsible for the
formats and rules for exchanging data and messages between computers on a single
network or several internet-connected networks. It does this through the Internet
Protocol Suite (TCP/IP), a group of communications protocols that are split into four
abstraction layers.
IP is the main protocol within the internet layer of the TCP/IP. Its main purpose is to
deliver data packets between the source application or device and the destination
using methods and structures that place tags, such as address information, within data
packets.

TCP vs. IP: What is the Difference?

TCP and IP are separate protocols that work together to ensure data is delivered to its
intended destination within a network. IP obtains and defines the address—the IP
address—of the application or device the data must be sent to. TCP is then
responsible for transporting and routing data through the network architecture and
ensuring it gets delivered to the destination application or device that IP has
defined. Both technologies working together allow communication between devices
over long distances, making it possible to transfer data where it needs to go in the
most efficient way possible.
In other words, the IP address is akin to a phone number assigned to a smartphone.
TCP is the computer networking version of the technology used to make the
smartphone ring and enable its user to talk to the person who called them.
Now that we’ve looked at TCP and ICP separately, what is TCP/IP? The two
protocols are frequently used together and rely on each other for data to have a
destination and safely reach it, which is why the process is regularly referred to as
TCP/IP. With the right security protocols in place, the combination of the TCP/IP
allows users to follow a safe and secure process when they need to move data
between two or more devices.

Work of TCP/ IP:

The TCP/IP model is the default method of data communication on the Internet. It
was developed by the United States Department of Defense to enable the accurate
and correct transmission of data between devices. It breaks messages into packets to
avoid having to resend the entire message in case it encounters a problem during
transmission. Packets are automatically reassembled once they reach their destination.
Every packet can take a different route between the source and the destination
computer, depending on whether the original route used becomes congested or
unavailable.
TCP/IP divides communication tasks into layers that keep the process standardized,
without hardware and software providers doing the management themselves. The
data packets must pass through four layers before they are received by the destination
device, then TCP/IP goes through the layers in reverse order to put the message back
into its original format.
 As a connection based protocol, the TCP establishes and maintains a connection
between applications or devices until they finish exchanging data. It determines how
the original message should be broken into packets, numbers and reassembles the
packets, and sends them on to other devices on the network, such as routers, security
gateways, and switches, then on to their destination. TCP also sends and receives
packets from the network layer, handles the transmission of any dropped packets,
manages flow control, and ensures all packets reach their destination.
A good example of how this works in practice is when an email is sent using SMTP
from an email server. To start the process, the TCP layer in the server divides the
message into packets, numbers them, and forwards them to the IP layer, which then
transports each packet to the destination email server. When packets arrive, they are
handed back to the TCP layer to be reassembled into the original message format and
handed back to the email server, which delivers the message to a user’s email inbox.
TCP/IP uses a three-way handshake to establish a connection between a device and a
server, which ensures multiple TCP socket connections can be transferred in both
directions concurrently. Both the device and server must synchronize and
acknowledge packets before communication begins, then they can negotiate, separate,
and transfer TCP socket connections.
The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model defines how devices should transmit data between them and
enables communication over networks and large distances. The model represents how
data is exchanged and organized over networks. It is split into four layers, which set
the standards for data exchange and represent how data is handled and packaged
when being delivered between applications, devices, and servers.
The four layers of the TCP/IP model are as follows:
1. Datalink layer: The datalink layer defines how data should be sent, handles the
physical act of sending and receiving data, and is responsible for transmitting data
between applications or devices on a network. This includes defining how data should
be signaled by hardware and other transmission devices on a network, such as a
computer’s device driver, an Ethernet cable, a network interface card (NIC), or
a wireless network. It is also referred to as the link layer, network access layer,
 network interface layer, or physical layer and is the combination of the physical and
data link layers of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, which
standardizes communications functions on computing and telecommunications
systems.
2. Internet layer: The internet layer is responsible for sending packets from a network
and controlling their movement across a network to ensure they reach their
destination. It provides the functions and procedures for transferring data sequences
between applications and devices across networks.
3. Transport layer: The transport layer is responsible for providing a solid and reliable
data connection between the original application or device and its intended
destination. This is the level where data is divided into packets and numbered to
create a sequence. The transport layer then determines how much data must be sent,
where it should be sent to, and at what rate. It ensures that data packets are sent
without errors and in sequence and obtains the acknowledgment that the destination
device has received the data packets.
4. Application layer: The application layer refers to programs that need TCP/IP to help
them communicate with each other. This is the level that users typically interact with,
such as email systems and messaging platforms. It combines the session, presentation,
and application layers of the OSI model.
**************

UNIT – IV:
Packet Transmission – Concept of Packet:
In networking, a packet is a small segment of a larger message. Data sent over
computer networks*, such as the Internet, is divided into packets. These packets are
then recombined by the computer or device that receives them.
Packet switching is the transfer of small pieces of data across various networks. These
data chunks or “packets” allow for faster, more efficient data transfer. Often, when a
user sends a file across a network, it gets transferred in smaller data packets, not in
one piece.
For example, a 3MB file will be divided into packets, each with a packet header that
includes the origin IP address, the destination IP address, the number of packets in
the entire data file, and the sequence number.
Types of Packet Switching:
There are two major types of packet switching:
(i)Connectionless Packet Switching: This classic type of packet switching includes
multiple packets, each individually routed. This means each packet contains complete
routing information—but it also means different paths of transmission and out-of-
order delivery are possible, depending on the fluctuating loads on the network’s nodes
(adapters, switches and routers) at the moment. This kind of packet switching is
sometimes called datagram switching.
Each packet in connectionless packet switching includes the following information in
its header section:
● Source address

● Destination address

● Total number of packets

● Sequence number (Seq#) for reassembly

Once the packets reach their destination via various routes, the receiving devices
rearrange them to form the original message.
(ii) Connection-Oriented Packet Switching: In connection-oriented packet switching,
also called virtual circuit switching or circuit switching, data packets are first
assembled and then numbered. They then travel across a predefined route,
sequentially. Address information is not needed in circuit switching, because all
packets are sent in sequence.
Packet Loss:
Occasionally, packets might bounce from router to router many times before reaching
their destination IP address. Enough of these kinds of “lost” data packets in the
network can congest it, leading to poor performance. Data packets that bounce
around in the network too many times may get lost.
The hop count addresses this problem, setting a maximum number of bounce times
per packet. “Bouncing” simply refers to the inability to locate the final destination IP
address, and the resulting transfer from one router to another instead. If a certain
packet reaches its maximum hop count, or maximum number of hops it is permitted
before reaching its destination, the router it is bouncing from deletes it. This causes
packet loss.
Circuit Switching vs Packet Switching:
Packet switching and circuit switching are the primary models for facilitating
enterprise network connections. Each mode has its place, depending on the facts and
user needs.
Circuit switching is most often used for voice and video calling systems—
communications systems that require that users establish a dedicated circuit or
channel before they can connect. A circuit switching channel is always reserved, and is
in use only when the users are communicating.
Circuit switching connections might allocate one or two channels for
communications. Those with one channel are called half duplex. Those with two
channels are full duplex.
Circuit switching is different from packet switching because it creates a physical path
between the destination and source. There is no physical path in packet switching,
which instead sends packets over a variety of routes.
Advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching:
Advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching:
a) Efficiency. Improved efficiency means less network bandwidth wastage. No need
to reserve the circuit even when it’s not in use means the system is more efficient. A
constantly reserved circuit results in wasted network bandwidth, so network efficiency
tends to increase with the use of packet switching.
b) Speed. Optimal transmission speed, minimal latency.
c) Improved fault tolerance. During partial outages or other network problem
times, packets can be rerouted and follow different paths. Using a circuit switching
network, a single outage can down the designated pathway for the communications.
d) Budget. Comparatively cost-effective and simple to implement. Packet switching
typically also bills based only on duration of connectivity, whereas circuit switching
bills on both duration of connection and distance.
e) Digital. Packet switching works well for data communication, transmitting digital
data directly to its destination. Data transmissions are generally high quality in a
packet switched network because such a network employs error detection and checks
data distribution with the goal of error free transmissions.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching:
f) Reliability. The packet switching process is reliable in that the destination can
identify any missing packets. However, circuit switched networks deliver packets in
order along the same route and are therefore less likely to experience missing packets
in the first place.
g) Complexity. Packet switching protocols are complex, so switching nodes demand
more processing power and a large amount of RAM.
h) File size. Packet switching is more useful for small messages, while circuit
switching is best for larger transmissions. This is due to multiple rerouting delays, the
risk of multiple lost packets, and other issues.
Cell Switching vs Packet Switching
Cell switching, or cell relay, uses a circuit switching network and has features of circuit
switching. The primary difference is that in packet switching technology, the packets
are of variable lengths, but in cell switching, packets are a fixed length of 53 bytes with
a 5 byte header.
Advantages of cell switching include dynamic bandwidth, high performance,
scalability, and the ability to use common LAN/WAN architecture multimedia
support. Cell switching achieves high performance using hardware switches. There is
no need to reserve resources in computer networks for a connection since the
technology uses virtual rather than physical circuits. And after establishing a virtual
circuit, you can achieve higher network throughputs thanks to minimized switching
time.
Conclusion:
A packet switched network follows networking protocols that divide messages into
packets before sending them. Packet-switching technologies are part of the basis for
most modern Wide Area Network (WAN) protocols, including Frame Relay, X.25,
and TCP/IP.
Compare this to standard telephone network landline service, which is based on
circuit switching technology. Circuit switching networks are ideal for most real-time
data, transmission, while packet switching networks are both effective and more
efficient for data that can tolerate some transmission delays, such as site data and e-
mail messages.
Packet & Hardware frames:
The following are some of the benefits of using packets:
● Different paths can be used to route packets to their destination. This process is
known as packet switching.
● If an error occurs, the packets can be stored and retransmitted later.

● Packets use the best route available for delivery. This enables them to be routed
across congested parts of the network without slowing them down in a specific
spot.
● To ensure secure delivery, packets can be encrypted.

Network packets are similar in function to a postal package. A network packet or unit
of data goes through the process of encapsulation, which adds information to it as it
travels toward its destination and marks where it begins and ends.
A network packet is made up of the following three parts:
1. Packet header. The header is the beginning or front part of a packet. Any
processing or receiving device, such as a router or a switch, sees the header first.
The following 13 fields are included in an IPv4 protocol header:
o Version. This field indicates the format of the internet header.
o Internet header length (IHL). IHL is the length of the internet header in 32-
bit words that points to the beginning of the data.
o Type of service. This indicates the abstract parameters of the quality of
service desired.
o Total length. This is the length of the datagram measured in octets that
includes the internet header and data. This field allows the length of a datagram
to be up to 65,535 octets.
o Identification. The sender assigns an identifying value to aid in assembling the
fragments of a datagram.
o Flags. These are various control flags.
o Fragment offset. This field indicates where in the datagram this fragment
belongs. The fragment offset is measured in units of eight octets, or 64 bits.
The first fragment has offset zero.
o Time to live (TTL). The TTL field indicates the maximum time the datagram
is allowed to remain in the internet system. If this field contains the value of
zero, then the datagram must be destroyed.
o Protocol. This field indicates the next-level protocol used in the data portion
of the internet datagram.
o Header checksum. A checksum detects corruption in the header of the IPv4
packets.
o Source address. This is the 32-bit source IP address.
o Destination address. This is the 32-bit destination IP address.
o Options. This field is optional, and its length can be variable. A source route
option is one example, where the sender requests a certain routing path. If an
option is not 32 bits in length, it uses padding options in the remaining bits to
make the header an integral number of 4-byte blocks.
2. Payload. This is the actual data information the packet carries to its destination.
The IPv4 payload is padded with zero bits to ensure that the packet ends on a 32-
bit boundary.
3. Trailer. Sometimes, certain network protocols also attach an end part or trailer to
the packet. An IP packet doesn't contain trailers, but Ethernet frames do.
Hardware Frames:
A frame is a digital data transmission unit in computer
networking and telecommunication. In packet switched systems, a frame is a simple
container for a single network packet. In other telecommunications systems, a frame
is a repeating structure supporting time-division multiplexing.
A frame typically includes frame synchronization features consisting of a sequence of
bits or symbols that indicate to the receiver the beginning and end of the payload
data within the stream of symbols or bits it receives. If a receiver is connected to the
system during frame transmission, it ignores the data until it detects a new frame
synchronization sequence.
A frame is the data unit for the data link layer, whereas a packet is the transmission
unit of the network layer. Hence, we associate frames to physical addresses while we
link packets to logical addresses. In short, a frame and a packet differ in how they
encapsulate the data payload.

Transmission Errors:
Transmission errors include consistency problems within communication
components that can occur during Process execution. The errors can occur within
communication components such as VTAM, IBM® Network Control Program
(NCP), or links.
Types of errors in computer network:
Single-bit error, multiple-bit error, and burst error are the types of error. Simple Parity
check, Two-dimensional Parity check, Checksum, and Cyclic redundancy check are
error detection methods. When the data is sent from the sender side to the receiver's
side it needs to be detected and corrected.

Computer networks are the backbone of communication systems by which data and
information can be exchanged between multiple communicating devices and users. In
modern days, computer networks are essential for daily work life real-time video
streaming, online gaming, various communicative applications, etc. However, there
are many types of errors present in computer networks which can lead to restricted
communication, and delay in packet transmission that produces glitches in videos and
distorts the audio in real-time applications. In this article, we will discuss various types
of errors in computer networks with their cause and countermeasures.
Common Network Problems
There are basically 5 ways through which errors occurred during transmission that are
mentioned below.
1. Transmission Error
During the data transmission phase, data may be transmitted inaccurately due to many
reasons like external electromagnetic interference, interrupted/degraded signal faulty
hardware, etc. This leads to loss of data or corrupted data packets and inconsistency
in data packet arrivals which triggers non-reliable data communication. This type of
mis-transmission of data is called Transmission error. Transmission errors can easily
resolved by using error detection and correction mechanisms(CRC, checksums etc.),
and high-quality networking equipment and data cables can reduce this error.
2. Data Packet Loss
Data packets can be lost during data transmission due to the presence of errors in
routing protocols, highly congested networks, or may be for faulty networking
devices. Data packet losses can lead to back-to-back packet retransmission which
results in delay in next packet arrival and reduced network performance. During real-
time communication, data-packet loss may badly affect the live streaming with
distorted audio and videos with glitches. Countermeasures involve implementing
forward error correction and congestion control technique reduces packet loss. Also,
it is required to ensure that all networking devices are up-to-date and these devices are
using optimized network configurations as per requirements.
3. Network Latency
If one of the two communicating devices uses high latency but another one is running
at low latency then the delay may occur during data transmission which is called
a network latency problem. It can be a consequence of high network congestion and
different processing power of two communicating devices which leads to processing
delays. The latency problem can directly effect real-time applications like online
gaming and video conferencing. In modern technology, this problem can be easily
solved by only implementing Quality of Service(QoS) techniques. Also, increasing the
network bandwidth, optimizing network routing protocols, and utilizing a caching
system can reduce this problem.
4. Configuration Errors
Misconfigured or pirated software faces configuration errors which results in
inaccurate network operations. Configuration errors may lead to security
vulnerabilities(mainly unauthorized access), instability in network connectivity, and
incorrect packet routing which results in communication failures.
5. Hardware Failures
Using very old and unmaintained network devices(switches, routers etc.), no backups
for power-cuts or manufacturing defect lead to hardware failure. This results network
outages, high downtime, restricted productivity for business farms or users and loss of
data if no backup taken. This problem can be handled by performing regular
maintenance of networking devices, preparing alternative device if possible, taking
data backups and disaster management tools to minimize the data loss and downtime
and it is also required to replace the aged hardware in time.
Types of Errors in Computer Network
1. Single-Bit Error
It is nothing but a special type of transmission error. During transmission of data
packets from one networking device to another, if only one bit from this whole data
packet is being changed/corrupted/altered then Single-bit transmission error occurs.
This single bit corruption can be occurred due to induced noise in data transmission
cable or presence of electromagnetic interference.
The word single-bit error can lead to be sound a very simple and harmless but in
reality single-bit errors can corrupt the whole data and the receiver may get fully
incorrect data when they decode it. Also a very worthy error detection mechanism is
required to detect it as the error is truly very small but results high data damage. For
example say one sender sent a data packet to a receiver and the data packet is 0111.
And during transmission single-bit error occurred and receiver receives 0011 instead
0111 i.e. only one bit is flipped. Now let receiver will decode it to decimal and so
receiver will get 3(0011) instead of the correct data 7(0111). So, when this data is used
for complex logic a huge data corruption will occur. Countermeasures involve
implementing error detection and correction methods like CRC, parity bits etc.

2. Burst Error
Similarly it is one kind of Transmission error and very likely to single bit error. But in
Burst error, multiple data bits of a data packets are being changed/corrupted/ altered
during transmission. And these multibit corruption occurs in a very short period so it
is called ‘Burst’. Communication line interference, impulsive noise are the main
factors which lead to burst error. As multiple bit are being corrupted so it can fully
corrupt a data packet and making it fully valueless. Burst errors can be rectified by
retransmission but it consumes additional network resources and burst error can
occur in that also. So, we need to implement robust error detection and correction
techniques like Reed-Solomon codes or convolutional codes. These algorithms adds
redundancy bits of data so that the receiver can reconstruct the original data from that
if burst error occurred. For example the sender sends a data block of 110001 and
receiver receives 101101. Here, we can see that in a single instance total 3bits of data
corrupted i.e. burst error occurred.

Difference Between Single Bit Error and Burst Error in Computer Network

Single-Bit error Burst Error

Only one bit of a data packet is Multiple bits of a data packet is being corrupted in
altered or corrupted. a very short period of time(bursting).

May occur randomly and can

It occurs like a cluster and affect consecutive bits
affect individual bits in a data
of a data packet.
packet.

Minor data corruption and easy High data corruption(Clustered errors) and hard
to restore the original. This to detect and restore to original. Robust coding
error can be handled using required like Reed-Solomon codes or
CRC, parity bit etc. convolutional codes.

As only one bit is altered so it is In a short sequence multiple bits are altered so it is
easy to correct the wrong hard to correct and may lead to entire corruption
sequence. of data packet.

Detecting Errors:
To detect errors, a common technique is to introduce redundancy bits that provide
additional information. Various techniques for error detection include::
1. Simple Parity Check
2. Two-dimensional Parity Check
3. Checksum
4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Error Detection Methods:
(i) Simple Parity Check
Simple-bit parity is a simple error detection method that involves adding an
extra bit to a data transmission. It works as:
● 1 is added to the block if it contains an odd number of 1’s, and

● 0 is added if it contains an even number of 1’s

This scheme makes the total number of 1’s even, that is why it is called even parity
checking.

Disadvantages
● Single Parity check is not able to detect even no. of bit error.

● For example, the Data to be transmitted is 101010. Codeword transmitted to the

receiver is 1010101 (we have used even parity).
Let’s assume that during transmission, two of the bits of code word flipped to
1111101.On receiving the code word, the receiver finds the no. of ones to be even
and hence no error, which is a wrong assumption.
(ii) Two-dimensional Parity Check
Two-dimensional Parity check bits are calculated for each row, which is equivalent
to a simple parity check bit. Parity check bits are also calculated for all columns, then
both are sent along with the data. At the receiving end, these are compared with the
parity bits calculated on the received data.

(iii) Checksum
Checksum error detection is a method used to identify errors in transmitted data. The
process involves dividing the data into equally sized segments and using a 1’s
complement to calculate the sum of these segments. The calculated sum is then sent
along with the data to the receiver. At the receiver’s end, the same process is repeated
and if all zeroes are obtained in the sum, it means that the data is correct.
Checksum – Operation at Sender’s Side
● Firstly, the data is divided into k segments each of m bits.

● On the sender’s end, the segments are added using 1’s complement arithmetic to
get the sum. The sum is complemented to get the checksum.
● The checksum segment is sent along with the data segments.

Checksum – Operation at Receiver’s Side

● At the receiver’s end, all received segments are added using 1’s complement
arithmetic to get the sum. The sum is complemented.
● If the result is zero, the received data is accepted; otherwise discarded.
Disadvantages
● If one or more bits of a segment are damaged and the corresponding bit or bits of
opposite value in a second segment are also damaged.
(iv) Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
● Unlike the checksum scheme, which is based on addition, CRC is based on binary
division.
● In CRC, a sequence of redundant bits, called cyclic redundancy check bits, are
appended to the end of the data unit so that the resulting data unit becomes
exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
● At the destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this
step there is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be correct and is therefore
accepted.
● A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged in transit and therefore
must be rejected.
Advantages:
Increased Data Reliability: Error detection ensures that the data transmitted over
the network is reliable, accurate, and free from errors. This ensures that the recipient
receives the same data that was transmitted by the sender.
Improved Network Performance: Error detection mechanisms can help to identify
and isolate network issues that are causing errors. This can help to improve the overall
performance of the network and reduce downtime.
Enhanced Data Security: Error detection can also help to ensure that the data
transmitted over the network is secure and has not been tampered with.
Disadvantages:
Overhead: Error detection requires additional resources and processing power, which
can lead to increased overhead on the network. This can result in slower network
performance and increased latency.
False Positives: Error detection mechanisms can sometimes generate false positives,
which can result in unnecessary retransmission of data. This can further increase the
overhead on the network.
Limited Error Correction: Error detection can only identify errors but cannot correct
them. This means that the recipient must rely on the sender to retransmit the data,
which can lead to further delays and increased network overhead.
***************
UNIT – V:
Network Security:
Network Security protects your network and data from breaches, intrusions and other
threats. This is a vast and overarching term that describes hardware and software
solutions as well as processes or rules and configurations relating to network use,
accessibility, and overall threat protection.
Network Security involves access control, virus and antivirus software, application
security, network analytics, types of network-related security (endpoint, web, wireless),
firewalls, VPN encryption and more.
Benefits of Network Security:
Network Security is vital in protecting client data and information, keeping shared
data secure and ensuring reliable access and network performance as well as
protection from cyber threats.
A well designed network security solution reduces overhead expenses and safeguards
organizations from costly losses that occur from a data breach or other security
incident.
Ensuring legitimate access to systems, applications and data enables business
operations and delivery of services and products to customers.
Security Services:
Computer network security consists of measures taken by a business or some
organizations to monitor and prevent unauthorised access from the outside attackers.
Different approaches to computer network security management have different
requirements depending on the size of the computer network.
For example, a home office requires basic network security, while large businesses
require high maintenance to prevent the network from malicious attacks.
Network Security Services

There are various services of network security which are as follows

(i) Message Confidentiality

Message confidentiality or privacy means that the sender and the receiver expect
confidentiality. The transmitted message must make sense to only the intended
receiver. To all others, the message must be garbage. When a customer communicates
with her bank, she expects that the communication is totally confidential.
(ii) Message Integrity
Message integrity means that the data must arrive at the receiver exactly as they were
sent. There must be no changes during the transmission, neither accidentally nor
maliciously. As more and more monetary exchanges occur over the Internet, integrity
is crucial.
(iii) Message Authentication
Message authentication is a service beyond message integrity. In message
authentication, the receiver needs to be sure of the sender's identity and that an
imposter has not sent the message.
(iv) Message Nonrepudiation
Message nonrepudiation means that a sender must not be able to deny sending a
message that he or she, in fact, did send. The burden of proof falls on the receiver.
For example, when a customer sends a message to transfer money from one account
to another, the bank must have proof that the customer actually requested this
transaction.
(v) Entity Authentication
In entity authentication (or user identification), the entity or user is verified prior to
access to the system resources (files, for example).
For example, a student who needs to access her university resources needs to be
authenticated during the logging process. This is to protect the interests of the
university and the student.
Security Communication:

● Communications security (COMSEC) is the prevention of unauthorized access

to telecommunications traffic, or to any written information that is transmitted
or transferred.

● There are several COMSEC disciplines, including: Cryptographic security -

encrypts data and renders it unreadable until the data is decrypted.

● Communications and network security also include integrity, authentication,

confidentiality, and non-repudiation of both user and management.

● Availability implies that networks, end systems like databases, and applications
must be survivable and fault tolerant.

● Networked systems should have sufficient working and spare capacity to

operate under attacks, and should be designed with alarms, restoration
protocols, and management configurations to detect a problem and
automatically diagnose and respond to the attacks.

● Communications and network security also include integrity, authentication,

confidentiality, and non-repudiation of both user and management
information.

● The continually increasing reliance on networked communication technology

by businesses, the general public and government services and their role in the
critical infrastructure makes it imperative to have security technologies built
into them.
Security Attacks:
Security attack is defined as any action, intended or not, that compromises the security
of the information and/or system.
Passive and Active.
Active attacks:
Active attacks are a type of cybersecurity attack in which an attacker attempts to
alter, destroy, or disrupt the normal operation of a system or network. Active
attacks involve the attacker taking direct action against the target system or network,
and can be more dangerous than passive attacks, which involve simply
monitoring or eavesdropping on a system or network.
Types of active attacks are as follows:
● Masquerade

● Modification of messages

● Repudiation

● Replay

● Denial of Service

Masquerade –
Masquerade is a type of cybersecurity attack in which an attacker pretends to be
someone else in order to gain access to systems or data. This can involve
impersonating a legitimate user or system to trick other users or systems into
providing sensitive information or granting access to restricted areas.
There are several types of masquerade attacks, including:
Username and password masquerade: In a username and password masquerade
attack, an attacker uses stolen or forged credentials to log into a system or
application as a legitimate user.
IP address masquerade: In an IP address masquerade attack, an attacker spoofs
or forges their IP address to make it appear as though they are accessing a
system or application from a trusted source.
 Website masquerade: In a website masquerade attack, an attacker creates a fake
website that appears to be legitimate in order to trick users into providing
sensitive information or downloading malware.
Email masquerade: In an email masquerade attack, an attacker sends an email that
appears to be from a trusted source, such as a bank or government agency, in
order to trick the recipient into providing sensitive information or downloading
malware.
Email masquerade: In an email masquerade attack, an attacker sends an email that
appears to be from a trusted source, such as a bank or government agency, in
order to trick the recipient into providing sensitive information or downloading
malware.

Masquerade Attack
Modification of messages –
It means that some portion of a message is altered or that message is delayed or
reordered to produce an unauthorized effect. Modification is an attack on the integrity
of the original data. It basically means that unauthorized parties not only gain access
to data but also spoof the data by triggering denial-of-service attacks, such as altering
transmitted data packets or flooding the network with fake data. Manufacturing is an
attack on authentication. For example, a message meaning “Allow JOHN to read
confidential file X” is modified as “Allow Smith to read confidential file X”.
Modification of messages
Repudiation –
Repudiation attacks are a type of cybersecurity attack in which an attacker attempts to
deny or repudiate actions that they have taken, such as making a transaction or
sending a message. These attacks can be a serious problem because they can make it
difficult to track down the source of the attack or determine who is responsible for a
particular action.
There are several types of repudiation attacks, including:
Message repudiation attacks: In a message repudiation attack, an attacker sends a
message and then later denies having sent it. This can be done by using spoofed or
falsified headers or by exploiting vulnerabilities in the messaging system.
Transaction repudiation attacks: In a transaction repudiation attack, an attacker
makes a transaction, such as a financial transaction, and then later denies having
made it. This can be done by exploiting vulnerabilities in the transaction processing
system or by using stolen or falsified credentials.
Data repudiation attacks: In a data repudiation attack, an attacker modifies or
deletes data and then later denies having done so. This can be done by exploiting
vulnerabilities in the data storage system or by using stolen or falsified credentials.
Replay –
It involves the passive capture of a message and its subsequent transmission to
produce an authorized effect. In this attack, the basic aim of the attacker is to save a
copy of the data originally present on that particular network and later on use this data
for personal uses. Once the data is corrupted or leaked it is insecure and unsafe for
the users.

Replay
Denial of Service –
Denial of Service (DoS) is a type of cybersecurity attack that is designed to make a
system or network unavailable to its intended users by overwhelming it with traffic or
requests. In a DoS attack, an attacker floods a target system or network with traffic or
requests in order to consume its resources, such as bandwidth, CPU cycles, or
memory, and prevent legitimate users from accessing it.
There are several types of DoS attacks, including:
Flood attacks: In a flood attack, an attacker sends a large number of packets or
requests to a target system or network in order to overwhelm its resources.
Amplification attacks: In an amplification attack, an attacker uses a third-party
system or network to amplify their attack traffic and direct it towards the target
system or network, making the attack more effective.
To prevent DoS attacks, organizations can implement several measures, such
as:
1.Using firewalls and intrusion detection systems to monitor network traffic and
block suspicious activity.
2.Limiting the number of requests or connections that can be made to a system or
network.
3.Using load balancers and distributed systems to distribute traffic across multiple
servers or networks.
4.Implementing network segmentation and access controls to limit the impact of a
DoS attack.
Denial of Service

Passive attacks:
A Passive attack attempts to learn or make use of information from the system but
does not affect system resources. Passive Attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping
on or monitoring transmission. The goal of the opponent is to obtain information
that is being transmitted. Passive attacks involve an attacker passively monitoring or
collecting data without altering or destroying it.
Examples of passive attacks include eavesdropping, where an attacker listens in on
network traffic to collect sensitive information, and sniffing, where an attacker
captures and analyzes data packets to steal sensitive information.
Types of Passive attacks are as follows:
● The release of message content

● Traffic analysis

The release of message content –

Telephonic conversation, an electronic mail message, or a transferred file may contain
sensitive or confidential information. We would like to prevent an opponent from
learning the contents of these transmissions.
Passive attack
Traffic analysis –
Suppose that we had a way of masking (encryption) information, so that the attacker
even if captured the message could not extract any information from the message.
The opponent could determine the location and identity of communicating host and
could observe the frequency and length of messages being exchanged. This
information might be useful in guessing the nature of the communication that was
taking place.
The most useful protection against traffic analysis is encryption of SIP traffic. To do
this, an attacker would have to access the SIP proxy (or its call log) to determine who
made the call.

Traffic analysis
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