ENGLISH LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY 2

Prof. Julia T. Cardona, Ph.D.

INTRODUCTION

English Language proficiency 2 focuses on the enhancement of students’ reading and writing skills in
preparation for the higher-level academic tasks in business courses. This course is an application of
the linguistic stylistic and communicative competence of the learners as they engage in the production
of spoken and written outputs that are creative, functional, communicative and relevant to their
academic undertakings and future professional works locally and globally.
The topics in this course are divided into two important macro-skills in English mainly reading and
writing engaging in major sub-parts to advance into a more complex learning in the target language.
As writing is regarded as one of the most difficult skills to develop, the students get revision lessons on
rules and structures of the language as lessons on writing are being introduced. As learners progress
in reading, other grammatical lessons are reviewed to show some signals as bases for better
comprehension. Both these skills are used to develop learners’ ability to communicate in both spoken
and written manner.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Demonstrate grammatical competence through grammar accuracy, vocabulary
control and orthographic control;
 Develop skills in taking minutes of meetings, defenses, and analyzing content-
based texts;
 Exhibit proficiency in communicating through identifying clues and information
meaning, taking the floor (turn-taking), asking clarification, monitoring and
repairing communication gaps;
 Write reaction papers

ACTIVATING PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Think About This:
Have I spoken to people using the English language as medium?
Have I written a good composition to communicate the thoughts I have in mind?
Did I report the exact information I gathered from talking to people speaking with fluency without gaps
in telling my thoughts?
Did I compose my reports using exact vocabulary and utilized the rules in the English language?

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
 Use the rules in English language in words together to construct meaning sentences;
 Apply the rules in the language to compose paragraphs;
 Give the exact term in writing that fits to what is being spoken or written about

PRESENTATION OF CONTENT

Lesson 1: Principles of Unity and Coherence in Sentence Writing

Objectives:
 Demonstrate linguistic competence through sentence and paragraph writing, vocabulary control,
orthographic control
Key Terms:
Linguistic competence
- the ability to do something successfully or efficiently.
Ex.: "the players displayed varying degrees of competence"
In language, it is the ability to use the target language competently both in spoken and written form by
applying structural rules.

Principles of Unity and Coherence

A paragraph with unity develops a single idea thoroughly and links it to the rest of the paper.
Paragraph coherence is achieved when sentences are ordered in a logical manner and when clear
transitions link sentences. Paragraph unity: Develop a paragraph around a major idea.
Unity is important because it aids the reader in following along with the writer's ideas. The reader
can expect that a given paragraph will deal only with one main topic; when a new paragraph begins,
this signals that the writer is moving on to a new topic.
To create unity between the rest of their paragraphs, a writer needs to use the same organization
pattern for the sentences in the paragraphs. Each of these paragraphs should have a topic sentence
that focuses on the thesis from the first paragraph.
 Sentence unity is where you make sure the subject and predicate of a sentence join
logically. Sentence unity is when the parts of a sentence come together grammatically and
make sense. The reason sentence unity is important is because without it, a sentence is
incoherent.
Example for Subject and predicate:
1. The sun (subject) / was shining brightly (predicate).
2. The dogs (subject) / were barking loudly (predicate).
3. The pretty girl (subject) / was wearing a blue frock (predicate).
4. My younger brother (subject) / serves in the army (predicate).
5. The man and his wife (subject) / were working in their garden (predicate).

To ensure that your paragraphs have unity, there are two things to keep in mind: it must have a single
topic (found in the topic sentence) and sentences provide more detail than the topic sentence,
while maintaining the focus on the idea presented.
Coherence is an essential quality for good academic writing. In academic writing, the flow of ideas from
one sentence to the next should be smooth and logical. Without cohesion, the reader will not
understand the main points that you are trying to make. It also hampers readability. Cohesion
necessarily precedes coherence. There is a difference between cohesion and coherence: cohesion is
achieved when sentences are connected at the sentence level, whereas as coherence is achieved
when ideas are connected. In addition, cohesion focuses on the grammar and style of your paper.

What is Coherence in Writing?

Coherence also means “clarity of expression” and it is created when correct vocabulary and grammar
are used. After all, the goal of writing is to benefit the readers. Without both coherence and cohesion,
the readers may detect choppiness in the text and feel as if there are gaps in the ideas presented.
Needless to say, texts without coherence are difficult to read and understand. It defeats the whole
purpose of writing, which is to relay ideas in a clear and efficient manner. There are strategies that you
can use to ensure coherence and cohesion in academic writing.

The paragraph below shows a lack of unity:

Non-cohesive sample: Dogs are canines that people domesticated a long time ago. Wolves are
predecessors of dogs and they help people in a variety of ways. There are various reasons for owning
a dog, and the most important is companionship.

Cohesive sample: Dogs are canines that people domesticated a long time ago, primarily for practical
reasons. Even though dogs descended from wolves, they are tame and can be kept in households.
Since they are tame, people have various reasons for owning a dog, such as companionship.

Notice that the ideas in the non-cohesive sample are not arranged logically. The sentences are not
connected by transitions and give the readers new ideas that are not found in the topic sentence. Thus,
the paragraph is hard to read, leaving readers confused about the topic. On the other hand, the
cohesive sample has ideas arranged logically. All ideas in this sample flow from the topic sentence. In
addition, they give more details about the topic while maintaining their focus on the topic sentence.

Establishing Coherence
It is important to focus on coherence when writing at the sentence level. However, cohesion smoothens
the flow of writing and should be established. There are various ways to ensure coherent writing:
  Write sentences that flow by varying the lengths and structures, the use of correct punctuation,
and broadening your word choices
 Use simple transitions, such as “in addition, additionally, furthermore, therefore, thus, on the
contrary, by the same token, at the same time, in other words, etc.”
 Repeat your keywords but be careful of excessive repetition
 Repeat sentence structures, which is used as a rhetorical technique rather than cohesion to
highlight parallelism between sentences
 Ensure thematic consistency (confined or sticking to the topic)
 Start every sentence or paragraph with information that hints at the content of the next sentence

Academic writing is improved by coherence and cohesion. Without coherence and cohesion, readers
will become confused and eventually disinterested in the article. Your ideas then become lost and the
primary objective of writing is not achieved.

Tips and Strategies

There are six ways for creating coherence, which you will find useful while polishing your manuscript.
Creating coherence is not as difficult as it seems, but you will need the right tools and strategies to
achieve it.

 Lexis creates cohesion using synonyms, hyponyms, and super-ordinates. The use of lexical
chains creates variety in writing and avoids monotony. (spoon-cutlery)

Repetition uses the same word, or synonyms, antonyms, etc. For example, "Which dress are
you going to wear?" – "I will wear my green frock," uses the synonyms "dress" and "frock"
for lexical cohesion. Collocation uses related words that typically go together or tend to repeat
the same meaning.

 Reference creates cohesion by using possessive pronouns (e.g. your, their, etc.), pronouns (e.g.
she, me, etc.), and determiners (e.g. those, these, etc.).
 Substitution, which is the use of a different word in place of a previously mentioned word (e.g. “I
bought a designer bag today. She did the same.”)
 Ellipsis is the removal or omission of words because their meaning is implied through context
(e.g. “He goes to yoga classes in the afternoon. I hope I can too.”)
 Cohesive nouns are also called umbrella nouns because they summarize many words in one.
 Conjunctions include words that list ideas (e.g. first, next, then, lastly, etc.)

Academic writing should be concise, coherent, and cohesive. Maintaining these three qualities involves
using a number of strategies to impart ideas to the reader. After all, that is the whole point of any type
of writing.

Cohesion: In English, grammar is the logical organization of phrases, sentences and clauses to make
them easier to read and comprehend. The most common way to organize writing in this way is through
cohesive devices. Readers will quickly follow when words, concepts, and descriptions come together
clearly, and the writing is coherent. The concepts flow together easily and simply.

Writing is most frequently organized using cohesive devices. They are also known as linking words or
connectors. Linking words are a great way to join your ideas and make your sentences and paragraphs
much more logical.

Types of Cohesive Devices

Pronoun: Referring back to a person or object already named without having to repeat it.
Example
Jim closely followed his wife.
Prepositions: Shows relationships between noun and rest of the sentence.
Example:
Alex will come home from vacation on Saturday.
Conjunctions: words like or, and, but, so are used within the sentence to join sentences and phrases.
Example:
Petra doesn’t like broccoli, butter beans and olives.
Below is the list of cohesive transitional devices that you can use for writing. In order to achieve a
comprehensive paragraph, it is essential that you use a wide range of cohesive devices accurately:
1. Adding
 And. Example: My uncle will visit us next week and stay with us for sometime
 Also. Example: Apart from English, Prerna also speaks Spanish.
 As well as. Example: He got a car as well as a motorbike.
 Too. Example: You have eaten too many of those cakes.
 Furthermore. Example: Ravi said he had not discussed the matter with Vinnie. Furthermore,
he had not even contacted her.
 In addition. Example: I studied journalism in college. In addition, I did a part-time job at a
newspaper agency.
 Along with. Example: This vehicle has GPS tracking capabilities, along with the keys.

2. Sequencing
 Firstly. Example: Firstly, I would like to clearly state that it is not my fault.
 Secondly. Example: Firstly, thank you for coming. Secondly, let me introduce our host.
 Next. Example: Next , the powder has to be ground to a fine paste.
 Finally. Example: Finally, the processed goods are sent to the market.
 Then. Example: I will go to the mall. Then I will eat something.
 Before. Example: Before I go to work each morning, I stop at starbucks for coffee.
 Meanwhile. Example: You can set the table. Meanwhile I’ll start cooking dinner.

3. Emphasizing
 Above all. Example: Above all, her hospitality was appreciated by everyone
 Especially. Example: I prefer listening to music, especially melodious ones.
 Indeed. Example: she is indeed a smart girl.
 Significantly. Example: Donations have significantly increased over the past few years.
 In particular. Example: His behaviour in particular bothered me so much

4. Contrasting
 However. Example: Robin was feeling sick. However, he did not hesitate to go to school.
 Whereas. Example: The old system was fairly complicated whereas the new system is really
very simple.
 Instead of. Example: I’ll have coffee instead of tea.
 On the other hand. Example: On the other hand, maybe buying a large wasn’t a good idea.
 Nevertheless. Example: She was very tired, nevertheless she kept on working.

5. Illustrating
 Such as. Example: In this forest, you’ll see many types of coniferous trees, such as pine and
spruce.
 For instance. Example: There are a number of improvements; for instance, both mouse
buttons can be used.
 In the case of. Example: In case of failure, you should try again.
For example. Example: You can use any two colours – for example, purple and yellow.

6. Conclusion
 To summarise. Example: To summarise, this is the ideal approach to a common problem.
 In conclusion. Example: In conclusion, I would like to say how much I enjoyed myself.
 To sum up. Example: To sum up, you must exercise regularly for a healthy life.
 To wrap up. Example: To wrap, use a blanket on cold days.
 On the whole. Example: On the whole, I would like to thank you for your patience.

7. Cause and Effect

 Because. Example: She couldn’t sleep because of the noise outside her window.
 Therefore. Example: He worked hard. Therefore, he got the promotion.
 Consequently. Example: She didn’t wake up early. Consequently, she was late to work.
 Hence. Example: These show-pieces are antique and, hence quite expensive.
 As a result. Example: Many local citizens died as a result of a bomb blast.
 Due to. Example: The traffic jam was due to a terrible accident.

8. Qualifying
 But. Example: I bought a pen, but I lost it.
 However. Example: However, there was no need to repeat the details.
 Although. Example: Although David is young, he is independent.
 Unless. Example: Unless you are tired, it is good to go for a walk at the park.
 Apart from. Example: Nothing else matters to him apart from his job.
 As long as. Example: As long as we’re happy, don’t worry about others.

APPLICATION
1. In each of the cohesive devices, construct your own sentences in application of the examples
given as used to emphasize meaningful sentence
 FEEDBACK

1. Which of the grammar rules we use in both written and spoken communication do you find
confusing to apply in all the tasks you were asked to do?
2. Are the cohesive devices helpful in letting you express your thoughts?

Lesson 1. 2: Methods of Paragraph Development

The methods include: Facts and statistics, examples, and illustration, process, comparison and
contrast, cause and effect, classification and analysis, definition, and analogy. The writer
chooses a method that he or she feels will best clarify and support the main point of the paragraph.

1. Facts and statistics – this example of writing is Expository writing that provides evidence,
statistics, or results and focuses on the facts of a certain topic. This type is not meant to express
opinions.
2. Examples - Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support or
evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as a sign
or representation of the relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of
the paragraph. (Ex.: There are 45 respondents that said they needed new washing machines
for the laundry shoppe. The examples for this claim, one of which of which is … REASONS)
3. Illustration - Illustration is a rhetorical style that uses examples to support the thesis or
main idea of a paragraph or essay. Illustration is most often used at the paragraph level to
help illustrate or support a point, but you may also encounter illustration essays of various types
in your college courses.

Example: Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Illustration Essay

1. Step 1: Choose a topic. Think about something that bothers you, identify the main object, then
write about it.
2. Conduct some research. Even if you know chosen topic well, still check out the related latest
news.
3. Write an outline.
4. Work on content.
5. Proofread.
6. Final check.

Note: When pulling in examples, you may rely on words or phrases such as: for example, for
instance, in particular, to illustrate, or specifically. Typically, in a single supporting paragraph, a
writer uses a topic sentence to designate the main idea followed by primary and secondary
support structure.

4. Process – using process to develop a writing composition is by way of explaining to show or

illustrate a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end. (e.g., processes
to undertake in Mushroom production or how you bake a banana bread, etc.)
5. Comparison and contrast - Comparison in writing discusses elements that are similar, while
contrast in writing discusses elements that are different. For example, if you wanted to focus
on contrasting two subjects you would not pick apples and oranges; rather, you might choose
to compare and contrast two types of oranges or two types of apples to highlight subtle
differences. For example, Red Delicious apples are sweet, while Granny Smiths are tart
and acidic. (e.g.: varieties of mushroom)
6. Cause and effect - Cause and effect is the relationship between two things when one thing
makes something else happen. For example, if we eat too much food and do not exercise,
we gain weight. Eating food without exercising is the “cause;” weight gain is the “effect.”
There may be multiple causes and multiple effects.
Note: A comparison text structure describes how two or more things are similar and
different. Words such as like, both, and unlike signal a comparison. A cause–effect structure
connects events that happen (effects) with why they happen (causes).
7. Classification and analysis - Classification is sorting things into groups or categories on a
single basis of division. A classification paper says something meaningful about how a whole
 relates to parts, or parts relate to a whole. (In engineering, it is the mathematical representation
of something and then being explained how the impact relate to other parts)
8. Definition - Paragraph development progresses with the expression of some type of support
or evidence for the idea and the explanation that came before it. The example serves as a
sign or representation of the relationship established in the idea and explanation portions of the
paragraph. (giving clear idea about a theme)
9. Analogy - An analogy paragraph is three to five sentences in which the writer compares two
things or ideas—usually very different—and defines the relationship between the two.
The bulk of the paragraph explains the relationship between the two things and explains why
that relationship is important to the larger work's purpose. For example, “Life is a box of
chocolates.” An analogy is saying something is like something else to make some sort of
explanatory point. For example, “Life is like a box of chocolates—you never know what you're
gonna get.” You can use metaphors and similes when creating an analogy.

Lesson 1.3 (next lesson March 7, 2023)

Idiom – expression; phrase; an idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-
literal meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal
meaning of the phrase. Categorized as formulaic language, an idiom's figurative meaning is different from the
literal meaning.
Colloquialism - Colloquialism (/kəˈloʊkiːəˌlɪzm, koʊ-/), also called colloquial language, everyday
language or general parlance, is the linguistic style used for casual (informal) communication. It is
the most common functional style of speech, the idiom normally employed in conversation and other
informal contexts.
Denotative - having the power of explicitly denoting or designating or naming;
What is a denotative meaning?
/dɪˈnəʊ.tə.tɪv/ The denotative meaning of a word is its main meaning, not including the feelings and
ideas that people may connect with that word: Although words have both denotative and connotative
meanings, there has been little research on a child's acquisition of connotations.

Connotative - the suggesting of a meaning by a word apart from the thing it explicitly names or describes.
What is an example of connotative meaning?
Connotation is the use of a word to suggest a different association than its literal meaning, which is
known as denotation. For example, blue is a color, but it is also a word used to describe a
feeling of sadness, as in: “She's feeling blue.” Connotations can be either positive, negative, or
neutral.

Note:
Meaning of Connotation is a secondary word used to express an idea, qualities or feeling in
association to its literal meaning. Connotation describes the primary word and it does not need to
be a part of the meaning of word or phrase. It generally has an emotional connection which can be
positive or negative.

What are the 3 types of connotative meanings?

There are three different types of connotation: positive, negative, and neutral; and all three are
essential to understanding the meaning of connotation in English.

Examples:
Connotative Words: Examples

Positive Connotation Neutral Connotation Negative Connotation

thrifty saving stingy

steadfast tenacious stubborn

sated filled crammed

courageous confident conceited

What are denotative and connotative meanings can you give examples?
For example, the word homework refers to schoolwork done outside of school—that's its
denotation. For many people, the word has a negative connotation—meaning that the word itself gives
them a bad feeling associated with the experience of having to do homework when they'd rather be
doing something else.

1.4 Orthographic control

What is an example of orthography?

The prefix ortho means “proper” or “correct,” while graph means “writing.” So, orthography means
“correct writing.” For example, the correct orthography of the flower is ROSE, not ROWS. The
correct spelling of the home you live in in HOUSE, not HOWSE.

An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation,
capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.

Other elements that may be considered part of orthography include hyphenation, capitalization, word
breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.[6] Orthography thus describes or defines the set of symbols used
in writing a language and the conventions that broadly regulate their use.

Your Tasks:
 What are some representations in the social media? Give some simple print-outs
 Get some sample signages, announcements, and posters erroneously written.
 Give your analysis or present critiquing done by your partner or group (Ex.: on roads: sorry for the
inconvinience) Also, text-type spelling