Semiconductor Physics and

Computational Methods
(21PYB102J)

Course Instructor: Dr. Venkata Ravindra A

Assistant Professor
Department of Physics and Nanotechnology
SRM Institute of Science and Technology
Email: [email protected]
Phone: 8019448666
27 March 2023 Office: UB-709/A 1
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J –Semiconductor Physics and

Computational Methods

Module III

2
 For the optical properties of semiconductors, the photons should interact with
charge carriers.
 In the process of interaction three process occurs
 Absorption
 Recombination
 Emission

i.e the photons are absorbed and emitted , these processes are important
in photonic devices using semiconductors
There are several type of transition possibilities to occur

1. Band to band transition (Inter band transition)

2. Impurity level to band transition
3. Free carrier transition (Intra band transition)

3
In semiconductors, electrons can make transitions between two energy states and create or
destroy photons in the process.
1. Band to band transition (Inter band transition)

An absorbed photon can result in an electron in the valence band making an upward
transition to conduction band. This results electron-hole pair generation, followed by this
electron-hole recombination takes place by the emission of Photon

Eg: Band to Band transition in GaAs can results absorption and emission of photons
with wavelength of 0.087 µm or (Eg = 1.42 eV)

4
2. Impurity level to band transition:

An absorbed photon results in a charge carriers transition

between a donor (or) acceptor level to a band in semiconductor,
mostly observed in doped semiconductors.

For example if a p-type material is considered, the low energy

photon absorbed by p-type semiconductor material leads
transition of electron from valence band to acceptor level where
its trapped by acceptor atom. Thus hole is created in Valence
band and acceptor atom is ionized.

Similarly a hole may be trapped by an ionized acceptor atom.

The result may be the electron decay from its acceptor level to
recombine with hole. The energy may be released radiatively
(photons) or non-radiatively (phonons)

Eg: In Hg doped Ge the wavelength of absorption and emission

between valence and conduction band is 14 µm
5
3. Free carrier transition (Intra band transition):
An absorbed photon can impart its energy to an electron in a given band, causing
it to move to higher level in that band.
If a lower level conduction band is considered, by absorbing photon energy
the electron moves to next higher energy level in the same conduction band.

Similarly due to thermalization, electron relaxes down to the bottom of the

conduction band while releasing its energy in the form of phonons.

6
Optical absorption process :

Absorption is the process in which the photons absorbed by the

semiconductor materials causes transition of electron from
valence band to conduction band.

Consider direct band to band absorption:

The condition for absorption to happen, the incident
photon energy must be equal Or grater than the bandgap
i.e hν ≥ Eg, corresponding wavelength λ = hc/Eg.

The electron hole pairs are generated due to absorption of

photon having energy grater Or equal to bandgap.
This leads to the increase of concentration of mobile charge
carriers and increase the conductivity of the material.
So the material behaves as a photoconductor with a
conductivity proptaional to photon flux, the effect is used to
detect light.
7
Absorption:
Let us consider two energy levels in
semiconductor E1 & E2
where E1 corresponds to ground state
E2 corresponds to exited state
At room temperature most of the electrons are in
ground state
When photons of energy grater or equal to
bandgap incident on Semiconductor electron hole
pairs are generated, this process is Called
absorption Nab number of atoms undergoing
Nab QN1 => Nab = B12 Q N1 absorption process
N1 number of atoms in E1
Q energy density of incident radiation
B12 proportionality constant
8
Emission process:
Generally the emission process are takes place in two types in
optical devices
1. Spontaneous emission
2. Stimulated emission

Spontaneous emission: spontaneous emission, this process

requires a conduction band energy state occupied by an electron
and an empty valence band energy state. The electron Itself transit
from conduction band to valence band spontaneously by releasing
a photon.

This photon has a random direction and phase.

This is the opposite of the common situation in equilibrium, but at

a finite temperature there will be a small number of full states in
the conduction band and empty states in the valence band. Also,
electrons and holes can be created via optical absorption and
9
other pumping mechanisms.
Spontaneous emission:

When electron hole pairs are generated due to the absorption

of incident radiation.
After a short time without any external stimulus the electron
come back from unstable exited state (E2) to ground state (E1)
by emitting a photon of energy

hν ≥ E2-E1
This process is called spontaneous emission

Then Nsp N2 => Nsp = A21 N2

Nsp is the number of atoms undergoing
spontaneous emission process
N2 number of atoms in E2

A21 proportionality constant 1

0
Stimulated emission:

An incident photon causes an upper level atom to decay, emitting a “stimulated”
photon whose properties are identical to those of the incident photon.

The term “stimulated” underlines the fact that this kind of radiation only occurs if an
incident photon is present

1
1
Stimulated emission:

If a photon of energy (hν) impinges on the electron which is

presented in Exited state (E2).

The electron stimulated back to the ground state by releasing

the energy hν ≥ E2-E1 which is in phase with the incident
radiation. This process is called stimulated emission.

Nst = B21 Q N2
Nst number of atoms undergoing stimulated process
N2 number of atoms in E2
Q energy density of incident radiation
B21 proportionality constant

1
2
1
3
Overall picture of Absorption and emission processes

1
4
Recombination process:

⮚ When a semiconductor is illuminated with light an electron in the valence band

making an upward transition to conduction band.

⮚ This results electron-hole pair generated, the reverse process of electron-hole

annihilation is called recombination.
⮚ Recombination process may be radiative or non- radiative
1. If electron annihilated with hole releases energy equal to E ≥ Eg, it is
called radiative recombination, in this process a photon of energy E= hν
is released
2. If electron annihilated with hole releases energy equal to E < Eg,
it is called non-radiative recombination, in this process phonons
are released
1
5
Recombination of electron – hole pairs is observed in different optical
process
⮚ Luminescence: Process where electron hole pairs created and recombined
radiatively
⮚ Photoluminescence: electron- hole pairs are generated due to absorption of light
and recombination occurs radiatively
⮚ Cathodluminescence: electron – hole pairs are generated by the electron
bombardment and radiative recombination occurs
⮚ Electroluminescence: process of radiative recombination following injection with
pn-junction or similar device.

1
6
When a semiconductor is under equilibrium without any incident photon (or) injection of
electron the carrier density can be calculated from an equilibrium Fermi level using Fermi
Dirac statistics

But when light is illuminated non-equilibrium carrier concentration is created and above
relation is not valid, hence Fermi Dirac distribution for electrons and holes in non-equilibrium
condition are

Further carrier concentration is calculated as

1
7
The excess carriers generated in semiconductor at non equilibrium condition
must eventually recombine
Generation rate (G) = recombination rate (R)
The generation and recombination processes involve transition of charge
carriers across the energy bandgap and is different for direct & indirect bandgap
semiconductor materials.

The probability of radiative recombination is very high in direct

bandgap semiconductors due to momentum & energy
conservation
Recombintaion rate of charge carriers depends upon the lifetime of charge
carriers
In general both radiative and noradiative recombinations are considered, the
total life time is given as

1
8
1
9
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND COMPUTATIONAL
METHODS

Session – 7
MODULE-III

Optical Joint Density of States

20
 Optical Joint density of states
Introduction:
 We have density of states for electrons in the conduction band (CB) and density of
states for holes in the valence band (VB).
 Whole concentration depends on the density of the states in the valence band but
in photon interactions, you have one state in the VB and one in the CB and
therefore, we define an optical joint density of states
 Optical processes, such as emission and absorption involve the energy states in
the valence band and the energy states in the conduction band.
 Therefore, it is important to know how many states are available for a photon of
energy (hν) to interact with.
 Optical joint density of states simultaneously takes care of number of states
in both valence band and conduction band for a given energy (hν) of photon.
 Optical joint density of states tells us the number of states available for
photons to interact simultaneously in the valence band and the conduction
band.
 In all optical processes, it is the joint density of states which is important. 21
 Optical Joint density of states
Derivation:
 We know that density of states defines the number of allowed energy states per
unit volume.
 To know or find the number of transitions or emissions (because that gives the no.
of photons emitted) we need to know the emissions per unit volume. This can also
give an idea of the power emitted.
 The number of emissions per unit volume can be found by multiplying density of
states and probability of occupations.
 Concentration of electrons in conduction band is given by:

 Concentration of holes in valance band is given by:

22
 Optical Joint density of states
Derivation:
 Suppose a radiation of energy hν is incident on an electron sitting at certain level
in valence band (E1), it makes a transition to a vacant state in conduction band
(E2).
 This means that absorption involves a certain energy level in valence and a
corresponding vacant level in conduction band.
 Similarly, if there is an electron at certain energy level (E2′) in conduction band
and it makes a transition at a vacant level (E1′) in valance band, a photon with
energy hν′ is emitted.
 We can thus say that absorption and emission involve a state in valance band and
conduction band.
 For a fixed incident energy hν, if E2 is fixed then E1 will also be fixed.
 For a given energy hν there are several pairs of E2 – E1 and so there are number
of pairs of states available for a photon of energy hν to interact and this is given
by density of states.
23
 Optical Joint density of states
Derivation:
 Since the absorption or emission takes place from the top of valence band and
bottom of conduction band respectively, we can have a parabolic approximation
for any level in conduction and valance band respectively.

 The energy of photon hν is given by:

24
 Optical Joint density of states
Derivation:

 There is one to one correspondence between ‘E1’ and ‘ν’

 Hence, We have,

 Where, Z(v)dv is the number of states per unit volume available for photons of
energy between hv and h(v+dv) to interact (either absorb or emit).
 Once we find out Z(v)dv, i.e. density of states available for interaction and
multiply it by probability of emission or absorption, we can obtain total number of
emission or absorption per unit volume.
 From equation (6),

25
 Optical Joint density of states
Derivation:
 From equations (1) & (3),

 From equation (7), We have

Optical joint density of states

vs. Photon Energy (hν)
 Substituting value of (E2-EC)1/2
 From equation (8)

 This is expression for optical joint density of states. 26

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND COMPUTATIONAL
METHODS

Session – 7
MODULE-III

Density of States for Photons

27
 Density of States for Photons
Introduction:
 Quanta of the electromagnetic radiation are called photons

 Density of states for photons is the total number of allowed

states per unit volume in the energy range of E and E+dE.

28
 Density of States for Photons
Derivation::
 Density of states

 Where ‘N(E)’ is the total number of states from 0 to Ε.

 Analogous to our previous discussion in ‘n’ space, we can calculate the density of
states by counting states in k-space by integrating over a volume.
 Each state is specified by three quantum numbers that represent a point on a cubic
grid defined by the kx, ky, kz dimensions.
 Allowed values of ‘k’ form a regular grid of points in k-space

 The total number of states below a given ‘k’ can be determined by

integrating over a sphere with radius ‘k’ to obtain the k-space volume, and
dividing by the volume of a single state.
29
 Density of States for Photons
Derivation::

30
 Density of States for Photons
Derivation:

where ‘c’ is the speed of light

We need to multiply the above equation by 2 since there are two

(transverse) polarization states of the photon,

31
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND COMPUTATIONAL
METHODS

Session – 8
MODULE-III

Fermi’s Golden Rule

Transition Rate due to electron-photon interaction

32
 Fermi’s Golden Rule

Introduction:
It is also referred to as the “Golden Rule of time-dependent
perturbation theory”.
Fermi’s golden rule is a simple expression for the transition
probabilities between states of a quantum system, which are
subjected to a perturbation.
Fermi’s Golden Rule provides the rate at which atomic or electronic
transitions take place between two states.
The rates are calculated from probabilities determined by transition
matrix elements in quantum mechanical, first-order perturbation
theory.
It applies to a wide range of optical and electronic processes for
which the initial and final states can be described by wave functions.

33
 Fermi’s Golden Rule
The transition probability is of the general form:

A transition will proceed more rapidly if the coupling between the

initial and final states is stronger.
This coupling term is traditionally called the “matrix element” for the
transition.
 The matrix element can be placed in the
form of an integral where the interaction
which causes the transition is expressed
as a potential ‘V’ which operates on the
initial state wave function.
34
Optical Transitions using Fermi’s Golden Rule:

Where ‘Mif ’ is the matrix element for the interaction

‘ρf ’ is density of final states (number of continuum states per unit
volume)
In a semiconductor, let us consider that the state-a in valence band is
occupied and state-b in conduction band is empty.
When a photon with energy greater than or equal to the bandgap of
the semiconductor incidents, the electron moves from state-a in
valence band to state-b in conduction band upon absorbing the
photon (Absorption).
35
 Upward transition (Absorption) Rate

According to Fermi’s Golden Rule, the upward transition rate per

unit volume is:

By taking into consideration of

• All the initial states and final states
• Probability of state-a being occupied (fa )
• Probability of state-b being empty(1-fb )
• The spin of electron (prefactor ‘2’)

36
 Downward transition (Emission) Rate

When the electron from state-b in conduction band comes back to

state-a in valence band, releases a photon with energy less than or
equal to the bandgap of the semiconductor(Emission).
Following the same procedure as earlier:

Net Upward transition Rate:

37
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

21PYB102J
SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS AND COMPUTATIONAL
METHODS

Session – 8
MODULE-III

Optical Gain and Optical Loss

38
 Optical Gain and Optical Loss

Optical Gain:
Optical Gain in semiconductor defines the stimulated emission
associated with light emission created by recombination of
electrons and holes.

Optical Loss:
Optical Loss in semiconductor defines the stimulated absorption
associated with light absorption created by generation of electrons
and holes. 39
 Optical Gain in Semiconductors

Optical gain in a semiconductor is caused by photon-induced

transitions of electrons from the conduction band to the valence
band.
Optical gain in the material is attained when we inject a carrier
density beyond a threshold value, such that the quasi-Fermi levels are
separated by an energy greater than the band gap.
If the number of downward transitions per seconds exceeds the
number of upward transitions, there will be a net generation of
photons, and optical gain can be achieved.
The condition for optical gain is net stimulated emission is greater
than absorption process.

40
 Optical Loss in Semiconductors

Optical loss in semiconductor is caused by photon-induced

transitions of electrons from the valence band to the conduction
band.
If the number of upward transition per seconds exceeds the number
of downward transition, there will be a net absorption of photons,
and optical loss can be achieved.
The condition for optical gain is net absorption process is greater
than emission.

41
 Optical Gain and Loss in Semiconductors

 From the above figure, given a value for the Fermi level splitting, optical
frequencies for which Eg< ħω< Efe-Efh experience optical gain.
 The condition Eg< ħω< Efe-Efh is the condition for population inversion.
 From the above figure, given a value for the Fermi level splitting, optical
frequencies for which Eg> ħω, Efe-Efh experience optical loss. 42
Optical Gain and Loss from Fermi’s Golden Rule:
In a semiconductor crystal, consider an electron initially occupies a
single state (b) and makes a transition to one of a large number of
final states (a) due to photon interaction.
The electron-photon interactions in the crystal is characterized by
Fermi’s Golden Rule and gives the transition rate for a single pair of
conduction and valence band states.
Each downward transition generates one photon and upward
transition absorbs one photon.
According to Fermi’s Golden Rule:

43
Where ‘Φ’ is the photon flux (the number of photons per cross section
area in unit time)
‘z’ is the direction of the electromagnetic propagation

44
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Photovoltaic Effect

Photovoltaic effect in PN Junction

under illumination

45
Photovoltaic effect: It is a process that generates voltage or
electric current in semiconductor device when it is exposed to
light.

The photovoltaic effect was discovered in the year 1839 by

French physicist, Edmond Becquerel. It find’s application in
solar or photovoltaic cell to generate electricity.
46
History of Photovoltaic's

 In 1839 – French physicist, Edmond Becquerel observed

photovoltaic effect while experimenting with two silver-
coated platinum electrodes immersed in a dilute acid and
observed two electrodes altered their electric power under
illumination.

In 1876 – William G. Adams and Richard E. Day who

showed that electric power is directly produced under
illumination.

In 1904 – Albert Einstein described the photoelectric effect

on which photovoltaic technology is based.
47
 1918 – A Polish scientist Jan Czochralski discovered a
method for monocrystalline silicon production.

 1941 – The first photovoltaic monocrystalline

photovoltaic cell was constructed based on Czochralski
method.

1951 – The first germanium photovoltaic cells was made

in Bell’s Laboratories with 4.5% efficiency.

1957 – Hoffman Electronics introduced photovoltaic cell

with 8% efficiency and a year later, the efficiency of increased
to 9% .
48
Introduction to solar radiation

Solar radiation is a radiant energy emitted by the sun as a

result of its nuclear fusion reactions.

Over 99% of the energy flux from the sun is in the spectral
region of 0.15 – 4μm, with approximately 50% in the visible
light region of 0.4 – 0.7μm.

Sunlight is composed of photons and the photons contain

different amounts of energy that correspond to the different
wavelengths.

49
Photovoltaic in Semiconductor

The Solar or Photovoltaic cells are composed of two different

types of semiconductor (a P-type and an N-type) that are
joined together to create a PN Junction.

50
When photons strike a photovoltaic cell made by
semiconductor PN junction, they may be reflected, absorbed
or transmitted.

If photons is absorbed by the semiconductor then result is

generation of electron-hole pair across PN Junction.

This electron-hole pair when separated from each other

across the PN junction , results generation of voltage across
the junction.

This voltage can drive a current in an external circuit called

photocurrent
51
Photovoltaic in PN Junction under Illumination

When there is no light falling on the PN Junction, no electron-

hole pair is generated. But when light is illuminated, it
absorbs solar radiation and electron-hole pairs are
generated.

Under the uniform illumination condition, generation of

carrier will occur in the space-charge region as well as quasi-
neutral region.

The carrier that are generated in the space charge region will
be immediately swept away due to the electric field (electron
towards N-region and holes towards P-region).
52
Ln and Lp - Diffusion length of electron and hole in Quasi neutral region, W –
Width of depletion region or Space charge region, Ev – Energy of valence band
and Ei – Fermi energy 53
Due to the electric field, chances of recombination of these
electron pairs are quite less

The electron-hole pairs which are generated in the quasi

neutral region will move around in a random manner.

In their random motion, some of the generated minority

carriers will come near to the space charge region edge,
where they will experience a force due to electric field and
will be pulled at the other side

Only the minority charge carriers will cross the junction

54
Minority electrons from P-side will come to N-side leaving
behind their positive charge called hole.

Similarly minority hole from N-side moves to P-side leaving

behind their negative charge called electrons.

The drift of charge carriers creates a net increase in the

positive charges at P-side and a net increase in negative
charges at N-side.

This buildup of a positive and negative charge causes a

potential difference to appear across the PN Junction under
illumination. The potential difference created across light
illuminated PN junction is called photo voltage.
55
The contribution to the photo voltage is coming only from
the carriers that are generated within the semiconductor
width (Ln + W + Lp)

Light generated Current

In a semiconductor PN Junction, four current components

are present in equilibrium condition: drift current due to
electron and hole, diffusion current due to electron and
hole

In equilibrium condition, net current is zero which

requires the drift and diffusion currents of carriers to be
equal and opposite.
56
When semiconductor PN
Junction is illuminated, there is
large drift current is observed
due to minority electron and
holes carrier.

Therefore in the I-V curve

under dark, I α V is observed
as normally like PN diode.

But on illuminating the PN

junction, large negative current
caused by the light known as Dark I-V curve and I-V curve
light generated current IL is under illuminated P-N Junction

observed 57
The large negative current in illuminated PN junction is due to
voltage which is generated due to light biases the PN Junction in
a forward bias mode, the diffusion current flows opposite to the
direction of light generated current

The light generated current is given by the following equation

Itotal = I0 (e qV / kT – 1) - IL

58
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
SRM INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Solar Cell

59
 Solar Cell

A solar cell is a pn junction device with no voltage directly applied

across the junction. The solar cell converts photon power into
electrical power and delivers this power to a load.

The pn Junction Solar Cell

Consider the pn junction shown in Fig. 1, with a resistive load. Even

with zero bias applied to the junction, an electric field exists in the
space charge region as shown in the Fig. 1.

Figure 1 | A pn junction solar cell with

resistive load.
 Solar Cell

Incident photon illumination can create electron-hole pairs in the

space charge region that will be swept out producing the
photocurrent IL in the reverse-biased direction as shown in Fig. 1.

The photocurrent IL produces a voltage drop across the resistive load

which forward biases the pn junction. The forward-bias voltage
produces a forward-bias current IF as indicated in the Fig. 1.

The net pn junction current, in the reverse-biased direction, is

here the ideal diode equation has been used.

 Solar Cell

As the diode becomes forward biased, the magnitude of the electric

field in the space charge region decreases, but does not go to zero or
change direction. The photocurrent is always in the reverse-biased
direction and the net solar cell current is also always in the reverse-
biased direction.

There are two limiting cases of interest.

First limiting case is the short-circuit condition occurs when R = 0 so

that V = 0. The current in this case is referred to as the short-circuit
current,
Or
 Solar Cell

The second limiting case is the open-circuit condition and occurs

when R →∞.

The net current is zero and the voltage produced is the open-circuit
voltage Voc. The photocurrent is just balanced by the forward-biased
junction current, so we have

Then can find the open circuit voltage Voc as

where Vt = nkT/q
 Solar Cell

A plot of the diode current I as a function of the diode voltage V from

Eqn (4) is shown in Fig. 2. We may note the short-circuit current and
open circuit voltage points on the figure.

Figure 2 | I–V characteristics of a pn

junction solar cell.

The power delivered to the load is

 Solar Cell

We may find the current and voltage which will deliver the maximum
power to the load by setting the derivative equal to zero, or dP/dV = 0.

Using Eqn. (5), we find

where Vm is the voltage that produces the maximum power.

We may rewrite Eqn. (6) in the form

 Solar Cell

The value of Vm may be determined by trial and error. Figure 3 shows

the maximum power rectangle where Im is the current when V = Vm.

Figure 3 | Maximum power rectangle of the solar cell I–V characteristics.

 Solar Cell

Efficiency of a Solar Cell:

To determine the efficiency of the solar cell following parameters are

to be described

 Short-Circuit Current Isc

The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell

when the voltage across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell
is short circuited).

Here Short-Circuit Current is nothing but light generated current.

 Solar Cell
 Open-Circuit Voltage VOC
The open-circuit voltage, VOC, is the maximum voltage
available from a solar cell, and this occurs at zero current. The open-
circuit voltage corresponds to the amount of forward bias on the
solar cell due to the bias of the solar cell junction with the light-
generated current.

 Fill Factor FF
Fill Factor FF, is a measure of the realizable power from a
solar cell. Typically, the fill factor is between 0.7 and 0.8. The FF is
defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell to the
product of Voc and Isc so that
 Solar Cell

 Conversion Efficiency 

The conversion efficiency  of a solar cell is defined as the ratio

of output electrical power to incident optical power. For the
maximum power output, we can write

The maximum possible current density and the maximum

possible voltage in the solar cell are Isc and Voc, respectively.
 Solar Cell

The conventional pn junction solar cell has a single semiconductor

bandgap energy. When the cell is exposed to the solar spectrum, a
photon with energy less than Eg will have no effect on the electrical
output power of the solar cell.

A photon with energy greater than Eg will contribute to the solar cell
output power, but the fraction of photon energy that is greater than Eg
will eventually only be dissipated as heat.

The maximum efficiency of a silicon pn junction solar cell is

approximately 28 percent. Non ideal factors, such as series resistance
and reflection from the semiconductor surface, will lower the
conversion efficiency typically to the range of 10 to 15 percent.
Solar Cell

Figure 4 | Ideal solar cell efficiency at

T = 300 K for C = 1 sun and for a C =1000
sun concentrations as a function of
bandgap energy.
 Solar Cell

A large optical lens can be used to concentrate sunlight onto a solar

cell so that the light intensity can be increased up to several hundred
times. The short-circuit current increases linearly with light
concentration while the open-circuit voltage increases only slightly
with concentration.

We can see that the conversion efficiency increases only slightly with
optical concentration through Fig. 4. The primary advantage of using
concentration techniques is to reduce the overall system cost since an
optical lens is less expensive than an equivalent area of solar cells.
 Solar Cell

Loss in Solar Cell : Factors which affect Efficiency of the Solar

Cell

1. Loss due to Low Energy Photons (h < Eg)

2. Loss due to High Energy Photons (h > Eg)
3. Voltage Loss
4. Fill Factor Loss
5. Loss due to Reflection
6. Loss due to less Absorption
7. Loss due to covering of Metal Contact
8. Recombination Loss