University of Aleppo

Institute for the History of

Arabic Science
Department of history medicine

HI ST OR Y OF T UBE RCUL OSI S

Sub mitt ed b y
Ph. A bdulk ader k hashan

super vised b y
Dr . A bdul Nasser k aada n

200 6-20 07
 University of Aleppo
Institute for the History of
Arabic Science
Department of history medicine

HI ST OR Y OF T UBE RCUL OSI S

By
∗
Ph. A bdulk ader k hashan
Dr . Abdul Nasser k aadan

Pharmacist, Master stage student, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, Aleppo University


I have got a membership of hss(history of society science) in California.

e-mail: [email protected]
phone: 963 932 761024

2
 His tor y of T uberc ulosis

Introduction 4

First Unit :Tuberculosis Through The History

Chapter One: Names of Tuberculosis Through History 6
Chapter Two: Tuberculosis in Prehistory 8
Chapter Three: Tuberculosis in Antiquity Ages 9
Chapter Four: Tuberculosis in Islamic Ages 11
Chapter Five: Tuberculosis from The Renaissance to
The Modern Era
13
Chapter Six: Proof of The Infectiousness of Tuberculosis
16
Chapter Seven: Tuberculosis Research in The Modern Era 18

Second Unit: The Development of Tuberculosis Treatment

Chapter One: Sanatorium Treatment 23
Chapter Two: The Fight Against Tuberculosis in The USA 26
Chapter Three: Collapse Therapy: Pneumothorax And
Thoracoplasty 28
Chapter Four: Tuberculosis Prevention By Vaccination 30
Chapter Five: History of Modern Treatment 31

Third Unit: World Dangerous

Chapter One: A Global Emergency 37
Chapter Two: The Worst Year in History of Tuberculosis 39
Chapter Three: Rising Levels of Drug-Resistant TB 40

Conclusion 42

3
References 43
Appendix 44

:Introduction
Tuberculosis history goes back thousands of years. Bone remnants
dating to 4000 BC show evidence of tuberculosis. During the 17th
century, references and descriptions of tuberculosis became
prevalent throughout medical literature. Throughout the history of
.tuberculosis, developing a cure has proved to be a difficult task
At the 21st century. Every second of every day, someone is newly
infected with the bacterium, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb ),
.that causes TB
About one-third of the world’s population is infected with M. tb ,
.and as many as two million people die of the disease each year
TB kills more people than any other disease caused by a single
infectious agent. Among people with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis is the
leading cause of death. The highest rates of TB are in some of the
world’s poorest countries, and the economic toll taken by the
.disease is enormous

4
First Unit: Tuberculosis through The History

Chapter One: Names of Tuberculosis Through History

Chapter Two: Tuberculosis in Prehistory
Chapter Three: Tuberculosis in Antiquity Ages
Chapter Four: Tuberculosis in Islamic Ages
Chapter Five: Tuberculosis from The Renaissance to The Modern Era
Chapter Six: Proof of The Infectiousness of Tuberculosis
Chapter Seven: Tuberculosis Research in The Modern Era

5
First Unit: Tuberculosis Through The History

Chapter One: Names of Tuberculosis Through History

The history of such diseases as Mycobacterium tuberculosis has been well
documented. The disease tuberculosis, commonly referred to as TB, has been
affecting human beings since before the time of the ancient Egyptians. The
most common name for tuberculosis came from Dr. Silvius, known better as
Franciscus de la Boe, because of the tubercles found in infected patients. Due
.in part to its widespread nature, TB has been known by many different names

Name of Disease Disease/Symptoms

Phthisis Original Greek name for TB. Associated with

chronic wasting away

King’s Evil Tuberculosis of the lymph glands and neck

Lung Sickness Tuberculosis

Lupus vulgaris Tuberculosis of the skin

Mesenteric disease Tuberculosis of the abdominal lymph glands.

Caused by consumption of milk from cows
infected with TB. No longer prevalent, as milk is
.pasteurized

Consumption Tuberculosis

Pott’s disease Tuberculosis infection of the spine

Scrofula Tuberculosis of the lymph glands

White Plague Tuberculosis

White swelling Tuberculosis infection of the bones

6
Tuberculosis has been one of the major causes of mortality for thousands of
years, with the earliest known case of Tuberculosis as early as 2400-3400
BCE. Compounding the problem of TB have been overcrowding, sanitation
.issues, malnutrition, and a lack of knowledge surrounding the disease

7
Chapter Two: Tuberculosis in Prehistory
The earliest evidence of tuberculosis (TB) in man and animals is provided by
bone finds – mainly fragments of vertebrae – showing the gibbous typical of
tuberculosis Pott’s disease.
The oldest examples of spinal TB, in the form of fossil bones, date back to
about 8000 BC.
A bone from the Neolithic period (ca. 5000 BC), found in
the region of Heidelberg, likewise shows evidence of tuberculous changes.

Tubercular decay has been found in the spines of Egyptian mummies Pictured:
Egyptian mummy in the British Museum

Findings in certain Egyptian mummies clearly indicate that spinal caries

existed around
2400 BC.
The depictions of a gibbus in statuettes of Ancient Egyptian and pre-
Columbian origin represents clear evidenceof spinal TB. Lastly, there is the
unique bacteriological finding of acid-fast bacilli in smears taken from a psoas
abscess in the astonishingly well-preserved mummy
of an Inca child from around 700 BC, clearly documenting a case of TB of the
lumbar spine.
Mummies recovered from Bab edh-Dhra, Jordan showed possible
tuberculosis infections. The mummies were dated back to the Early Bronze
.Age

8
Chapter Three: Tuberculosis in Antiquity Age
The oldest legal text in the world – formulated by the Babylonian monarch
Hammurabi in 1948 and 1905 BC
and engraved in cuneiform script on a stone pillar now kept at the Louvre in
Paris – mentions a chronic lung disease,which was very probably TB.
In Greek literature there appears around the time of Hippocrates (460–370
BC), the most famous of the Greek physicians, the concept of ‘phthisis’, or
consumption.
The Hippocratic school described phthisis as the commonest disease of the
period, and as a condition that usually culminated in death.
Hippocrates also wrote something that no physician would dare to write
today: he warned his colleagues against visiting consumptives in an advanced
stage of the disease, since the patient would in any case die, thereby
damaging the physician’s reputation.
Patients with phthisis were often nursed in the temple precinct,where they
were treated with good food, milk and physical exercise.
Hippocrates first observed tubercles (‘phymata’) in the tissues of cattle, sheep
and pigs. Analogous findings in man are not described, since human autopsies
were not performed in the Greek world at that time.
The Hippocratic school considered pulmonary phthisis a hereditary rather
than infectious disease. They also failed to recognize a common entity of
tubercles and consumption.
Aristotle (384–322 BC), on the other hand, described ‘scrofula’ on the skin of
phthisic pigs.
He believed phthisis to be contagious even though general opinion at the time
tended to the alternative theory that the disease was hereditary.
In Indian literature we find passages from 1500 BC in which consumption is
attributed to excessive fatigue, worries,hunger, pregnancy and chest wounds.
No Brahman was permitted at that time to marry into a family that
harboured consumption.
From Caelius Aurelianus, a Roman physician of the 5th century AD, we have
received a masterly description of the disease, which reveals a clinical
knowledge astonishing for the period. He writes: ‘The patients suffer from
a latent fever that begins towards evening and vanishes again at the break of
day.
It is accompanied by violent coughing, which expels thin purulent sputum. The
patient speaks with a hoarse voice, breathes with difficulty and has hectically
flushed cheeks.

9
 The skin on the rest of the body is ashen in colour. The eyes have a weary
expression, the patient is gaunt in appearance but often displays astonishing
physical or mental activity.
In many cases, wheezes are to be heard in the chest, and when the disease
spreads, sweating is seen on the upper parts of the chest.
The patients lose their appetite or suffer hunger pangs.
They are often also very thirsty. The ends of the fingers swell and the
fingernails curve greatly.’
Around the start of the Common Era, Aretaeus of Cappadocia described
pulmonary consumption as a disease with purulent, chronic sputum and a
generally poor prognosis

Galen(131-201)

A century later, Galen (131–201), who had no knowledge of morbid

anatomy, first suspected the contagious nature of phthisis, clearly preferring
this to the hereditary theory of the disease. He therefore warned against
intimate contact with consumptives.
Galen recommended a treatment plan of fresh air, rest, and good food.
For many centuries thereafter medical thinking strayed little from Galen’s
Dogma.
Reviewing consumption over the course of history, it is clear that upsurges of
the disease have always followed the development of new urban structures
drawing large numbers of people into a confined space. This was the case
with the establishment of the cities of the Nile Valley, in the Greek polis, and in
Rome of the early imperial period.
The famous ‘plague of Justinian’ was probably also at least partly due to
invasion of the Mediterranean urban cultures by young people from northern
and eastern Europe who had never before come into contact with TB.
It is in any case noteworthy that this ‘plague’ lasted throughout the 6th and
into the 7th century, while true plague epidemics in later centuries, however
devastating they were, always abated again after a few years.
This probably also explains why phthisis is not mentioned at all in either the
Old or New Testament of the Bible. These writings deal mainly with rural
populations not yet gathered into large cities with intensive human
Contacts.

10
Chapter Four: Tuberculosis in Islamic Ages
Nothing of significant importance in the history of tuberculosis occurred until
the end 10th centuries when the is physicans Rhazes,Avicenna and Albucasis
wrote excellent descriptions of the symptomatology, pathology, and
predisposing factors for the development of the disease.
The communicable nature of tuberculosis was also suggested by Avicenna,
who believed in the curability of the disease.
Avicenna( Abu-Ali Al-Hussayn Ibn-Sina) (980-1073) was also known as"aprince
of physicans".

At the age of ten Avicenna memorized the Qur,an and turned to the natural
sciences and to learning medicine.
He soon realized that some things could only learned by experience rather
than solely from books.
Early in the 11th century, he wrote his leading medical encyclopedia, Canon of
medicine, a five volumes.
His enormous knowledge influenced the Islamic world and was translated into
Latin.
The Latin translation served as a foundation for the university courses in
medicine between 1250 and 1600 in Europe.
Rhazes, Avicenna, and Albucasis wrote about virtues of dry air and consuming
fresh milk as climatological therapy.

Albucasis( 936-1013)

Avicenna gave an excellent description of the clinical features and pathology

of tuberculosis in Arabic scripts.

11
Avicenna, Rhazes, and Ali Abbas described the people who were at a great
risk of developing tuberculosis having narrow chests, thin bodies, and ages
between 18 years and 30 years.

Rha zes(86 5-92 3)

They described the symptoms of tuberculosis ( known in Arabic as, As,sul or

Ad,daran) as fever ( more soot night), sweating, malaise, anorexia, weight loss,
cough, expectoration of sputum, hemopthysis and swelling of the legs.
Al-Majusi also described clubbing of the fingers in patients with tuberculosis.

12
Chapter Five: Tuberculosis from The Renaissance to The Modern Era
In Renaissance northern Italy, Fracastorius of Verona (Girolamo Fracastoro
1478–1553) reserved the term ‘phthisis’ exclusively for pulmonary
consumption.
He stressed that in the hitherto authoritative literature – from the Greek
schools to the School of Salerno – the term had been used for ‘every manner
of wasting’. Fracastorius was the first to postulate, in his work de contagione,
that phthisis is transmitted by an invisible ‘virus’, and that it could survive for 2
years in the clothes of a consumptive.
He also noted that ‘the disease comes from an acquired lung ulcer, from
which true pus is discharged’. This mention of a lung ulcer shows that this first
major step forward in the description of consumption and its infectiousness is
inconceivable without a knowledge of morbid anatomy.
The pathoanatomical basis of the disease began to be investigated in the late
14th century, at about the same time that Gutenberg was developing the art
of printing.
The era of rapid dissemination of newly acquired medical knowledge had thus
begun.
While Vesalius (1514–1564), the great anatomist of the Renaissance, studied
and described the normal morphology of the human body, other physicians
developed the techniques of post-mortem examination and began to correlate
the autopsy results with disease symptoms.

Vesalius(1514-1564)

The 17th century ushered in the era of detailed pathoanatomical description

of consumption.
In his Opera Medica of 1679, Sylvius de la Boë of Amsterdam (1617–1655)
was the first to mention tubercles as constant and characteristic lesions in the
lungs and other organs of consumptives.
He also described their progression to cavities and ulcers. In addition, he
identified a syndrome combining phthisis with the skin disease of ‘scrofula’-a
conclusion echoed 10 years later by Richard Morton (1637–1698) in London.

13
Morton believed that the disease has three stages, initial inflammation giving
way to tubercle formation, which ultimately progresses to ulcers and thus
to phthisis. He also maintained there were cases that progressed extremely
slowly, permitting continued life. Both Sylvius de la Boë and Morton regarded
the disease as hereditary, although Morton did not rule out the possibility
of transmission by intimate contact.
The foremost morbid anatomist of his age, Giovanni Battista Morgagni of
Padua (1682–1771), was so convinced of the contagiousness of consumption
that he refused to perform post-mortem examinations on consumptives for
fear of infection.
The Englishman Thomas Willis (1621–1675) described miliary and chronic,
fibrotic forms of phthisis, and in 1702 Manget in France devoted an entire
work to the phenomenon of miliary tuberculosis.

Thomas Willis(1621-1675)

The Italian medical literature of the 17th century provides clear evidence
of a belief in the infectious nature of phthisis. In 1699 the Republic of Lucca
issued an edict stipulating that ‘in future, human health must no longer be
endangered by objects remaining after the death of a consumptive person’.
The names of patients with consumption were also to be reported to the
authorities and disinfection measures taken.
Physicians were urged to perform autopsies on persons who had died of
phthisis.
In 1720, the English physician Benjamin Marten (1704–1722), in his book A
New Theory of Consumptions, More Especially of a Phthisis or Consumption of
the Lungs, which became really well known only 150 years later, voiced the
suspicion for the first time that the disease might be caused by small living
creatures which, once they had gained entry to the body, could produce the
lesions and symptoms of phthisis. Marten knew about the first microscopes
and this probably suggested the idea that the small protozoa and other
organisms seen by the first microscopists in water droplets could be
responsiblefor tuberculosis.

14
 He goes on to state in his work: ‘The disease may be transmitted by
inheritance, perhaps even in the womb, but also by contact from person to
person.
Occasional association with an infected person is harmless by contrast, for
example, to smallpox, but continued contact is dangerous. This in particular
for persons with constitutionally limited resistance, especially if they are
the children of phthisic parents. Frequent eating and drinking with a phthisic
or conversation with him at a distance so short that part of his expired air can
enter the lungs of the healthy person, may produce the disease in that
person.’ For that time, a truly astonishing epidemiological insight.
This was the state of knowledge by the end of the 18th century, at which time
the foundations for the ultimately decisive discoveries of the 19th century
were laid with the development of microscopy.

15
Chapter Six: Proof of The Infectiousness of Tuberculosis
The positions taken by these ‘opinion leaders’ on the aetiological unity versus
distinctness of the various forms of TB divided them along quite different lines
from the debate as to its tumorous versus infectious nature.
For example, the unitarian Laënnec regarded phthisis as a tumorous disease
like cancer, and Rokitansky denied it was infectious.
Even more ironically, Philipp Klencke of Berlin (1813–1881), who in 1843
became the first to demonstrate the transmissibility of TB experimentally,
nevertheless considered the disease a tumour.
In two experiments, Klencke injected material from a tubercle into
rabbits intravenously and the animals died of generalized TB.
A year later (1844), Jakob Henle (1809–1885) in Göttingen conjectured that
phthisis could be contagious: ‘... under certain circumstances, ... where there is
a more or less marked predisposition’.
Here he penetrated to the heart of the matter.

Jakob Henle (1809–1885)

Today, 150 years after Henle, we know that no more than 10% of people
infected with TB actually become ill.
Henle also reported on a woman with consumption whose cat had died of the
disease.
In 1840 Henle advanced three postulates for proving the infectiousness of a
disease:
(1) the causative agent must be found in every case of a disease.
(2) it must not occur in another disease.
(3) its application must always provoke the same disease.
Leopold Auenbrugger (1722–1809), originator of the percussion technique,
published his work Inventum novum ex percussione thoracis humani interni
pectoris morbos detegendi in Vienna in 1761, after many years of comparing
percussion findings in the living with later autopsy results.
It struck him that young men from the country arriving in the city for military
service often fell ill with consumption.

16
This he explained by sadness brought on by loss of freedom and
homesickness.
However, it was not melancholy but the roommate with open TB that infected
the young recruits.

17
Chapter Seven: Tuberculosis Research in The Modern Era
in his pioneering work, Cause et nature de la tuberculose: son inoculation de
l’homme au lapin, published in 1865 in the Comptes rendus de l’Académie
des Sciences, the French military surgeon Jean Antoine Villemin (1827–1892)
single-handedly demonstrated that phthisis

Jean Antoine Villemin (1827–1892)

from humans or cattle could be transmitted to rabbits or guinea pigs.
Blood or sputum from tuberculous rabbits, injected into other laboratory
animals in controlled experiments, produced full-blown tuberculosis, whereas
analogous transfer of cancerous or fibrotic tissue had no effect on the
recipients.
In the light of this monumental discovery, he postulated for the first time that
the disease is caused by a specific microorganism, which must be present in
the air.
In military style he drew the conclusion that ‘the phthisic soldier is to his
roommates what a glandered horse is to its stablemates’.
However, the microbe itself at first still stubbornly held on to its secret.
In 1877, Theodor Klebs (1834–1913) succeeded for the first time in keeping
the causative agent of tuberculosis alive on protein in artificial cultures, and

Theodor Klebs (1834–1913)

then using it to produce the disease in laboratory animals.
But even he failed to recognize the true nature of the organism.
This major achievement of bacteriology was left to Robert Koch (1843–1910),
a pupil of Henle’s.

18
Robert Koch, Nobel Laureate, 1905.

As a gifted microscopist, he produced irrefutable evidence in 1882 that a

specific microbe is the fundamental cause of tuberculosis.
At a dramatic lecture delivered to the Physiological Society at the Charité
Hospital in Berlin on 24th March 1881 under the title Die Ätiologie der
Tuberkulose, he demonstrated for the first time the bacteria that Villemin
and later Klebs had sought for so long in vain.
Using special staining techniques he succeeded in visualizing slender rods –
which he called tubercle bacilli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis – within the
tuberculous tissue.
At first Koch was unable to culture the demonstrated bacteria, get them to
grow again in a laboratory animal and finally close the chain of evidence by
histological examination of the resulting tuberculous tissue.
However, he then used Tyndall’s method of sterilizing ox and sheep serum at
58°C and coagulating it at 65°C.
On such culture media he was finally able to follow the growth of the microbe
with a magnifying glass as a delicate, filmy layer.
Microscopic preparations of this film yielded pure cultures of the bacteria,
which, when inoculated into laboratory animals, led to the development of
tuberculosis.
Robert Koch had thus fulfilled the postulates of his teacher, Henle. The
listening scientists followed this demonstration in rapt silence.
Paul Ehrlich, the future inventor of Salvarsan, the first antisyphilitic agent,
wrote later:
‘This evening remains imprinted on my memory as the most awe-inspiring
scientific event I have ever attended.’
The event was immediately recognized by the world as what it truly was – a
milestone and harbinger of a new era for the study and control of the disease.
What electrified the world was not so much the scientific brilliance of
Koch’s discovery as the certainty that man could now really begin the struggle
against the most powerful enemy of human life.

19
This enemy no longer remained a phantom but had now finally become visible
as a living object.
In Europe and America, Koch overnight became the pope of medical science;
in Japan a shrine was dedicated to him as a demigod.
In fact, Paul Clemens von Baumgarten in Tübingen had already seen the
tubercle bacillus shortly before Robert Koch – as an unstained bacillus
visualized in the caseating tissue by brightening with dilute sodium hydroxide.
However, Baumgarten’s paper appeared only some weeks after Koch’s
famous lecture at the Charité in Berlin.
Subsequently, Robert Koch was elected to the Imperial Health Office in Berlin.
He surrounded himself with such outstanding colleagues as Georg Gaffky and
Friedrich Löffler, and went on to further important discoveries in bacteriology,
identifying in turn the causative agents of typhoid fever, glanders and
diphtheria.
However, his special interest in TB remained.
For example, he demonstrated in the guinea pig various reactions in the wake
of secondary and primary infection (Koch’s phenomenon).
He produced a glycerin extract of dead tubercle bacilli, which was initially
named ‘lymph’ and later ‘tuberculin’.
Evidently, the composition of the extract was at first kept secret, probably as a
result of political pressure, although tuberculin was promoted as an effective
remedy.
This excited worldwide interest and prompted innumerable TB patients to
travel to Berlin in search of a cure.
In fact, tuberculin eventually proved to be of no therapeutic value.
Koch was now a famous scientist and became known as "The Father of
Bacteriology." He was presented with the Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine in 1905 "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to
tuberculosis."

Another equally important contribution to the diagnosis

of TB came in 1895 in the form of a revolutionary The medal given to
Nobel Laureates in
advance in the field of physics, namely the discovery Physiology or
of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad von Röntgen (1845– Medicine.

20
1923). With the aid of the rapidly evolving radiological
technique (radiographs of chest and skeleton, fluoroscopy,
photofluorography, tomography), the development,
course and severity of TB could now be accurately monitored and studied.

Wilhelm Konrad von Röntge

(845–1923)

21
Second Unit: The Development of Tuberculosis Treatment

Chapter One: Sanatorium Treatment

Chapter Two: The Fight Against Tuberculosis in The USA
Chapter Three: Collapse Therapy: Pneumothorax And Thoracoplasty
Chapter Four: Tuberculosis Prevention By Vaccination
Chapter Five: History of Modern Treatment

22
Second Unit: The Development of Tuberculosis Treatment
Chapter One: Sanatorium Treatment
Around the middle of the 19th century, Hermann Brehmer appeared with his
thesis: Tuberculosis primis in stadiis semper curabilis. He explained it was
only necessary to bring the patients to an ‘immune place’, where the disease
would heal by itself.
He defined an ‘immune place’ as a region where there were no known
consumptives.

Hermann Brehmer
(1826–1889)

He found such a location in a valley in the Sudeten Mountains of Silesia, and

in 1856 founded his sanatorium in Görbersdorf in the belief that even existing
consumption would abate in an immune place.
A place he considered particularly immune was Kirghistan, because
it was free of TB: this was a false deduction.
We now know that after TB had been introduced there, this and other
areas of Central Asia are among the regions with the highest incidences of TB
in the world.
The discovery of the causative agent of tuberculosis in 1882 gave
considerable impetus to these incipient treatment approaches.
The next important sanatorium in Germany was established in 1876 by
Brehmer’s pupil Peter Dettweiler at Falkenstein in the Taunus Mountains.
This was followed by St Blasien in 1881, Schömberg in theBlack Forest in
1888 and Bad Honnef near Bonn in 1893.

23
Typical set-up of the TB patients spontaneously recovered from TB (RIGHT:
male wardLEFT: female ward) in
the fresh mountain air at the Swiss Alpine Clinic (Heiligenschwendi, 1900).

Unlike Brehmer, Dettweiler – a former Prussian army doctor who himself

suffered from TB – instituted a strictly regulated regime.
He introduced a strict rest cure, and invented the since characteristic
sanatorium deck chair, as well as a pocket spittoon (popularly known as ‘Blue
Henry’), although he did not accept that Mycobacterium tuberculosis was the
cause of the disease.
Rather he considered it a parasite that colonized tuberculous tissue.
In Switzerland, sanatoria were established in high mountain valleys, such as
Davos, Leysin and Montana, in Italy at Sondalo and Valtellina, and in France on
the Plateau d’Assis in the Savoy Alps, but also by the sea, as at Berck
sur Mer.
They all quickly adopted the strict rest cure regime.
There has been much debate on the benefit of the sanatorium treatment.
However, it certainly contributed to public health by removing infectious
consumptives from their normal surroundings.
At the same time, the enforced rest, together with a sensible diet and the
regulated life of the sanatorium, encouraged the self-healing tendency of
consumption in some patients to an astonishing degree.
Although patients recovered surprisingly well during sanatorium treatments,
the long-term results were fairly depressing.
American statistics show that over 60% of patients discharged from sanatoria
died of their disease within 6 years.
This included 17% of ‘cured’, 51% of ‘stabilized’ and 72% of ‘improved’ TB
patients.
Since sanatorium treatment was expensive, efforts were soon underway to
make such measures available to the most severely affected, socially weak
sectors of thepopulation.

24
The term ‘Volksheilstätten’, or People’s Clinics, was coined to describe the
fruits of these endeavours.
In 1888, a Sanatorium Association was founded in Hanover for the purpose of
establishing People’s Clinics.
The dynamics of this sanatorium movement eventually
led on November 21, 1895 to the setting-up in Berlin of a ‘German Central
Committee for the Establishment of Clinics for Consumptives’. Its tasks were:
(1) establishment of TB sanatoria.
(2) provision of economic and hygienic assistance to consumptives.
(3) promotion of science and research in the field of tuberculosis,
(4) public education.
Through the initiative of the first General Secretary and actual
founder,Gottfried von Pannwitz, the first major scientific congress on
combating the public health problem of tuberculosis was convoked in Berlin in
1899.
This attracted 2,000 participants, including 200 members of foreign
governments.
Following the congress the tasks of the Central Committee multiplied to such
an extent that in 1906 it was renamed the German Central Committee
to Combat Tuberculosis (DZK).
After the First World War this was superseded by the International Union
Against Tuberculosis (UICT), which held its first conference in Paris in 1920.
The German Central Committee became one of its members.
After the Second World War the International Union Against Tuberculosis
(IUAT/UICT) was reconstituted in Paris in 1946.
Since 1986 it has extended its activities to other lung diseases and
lengthened its name to the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung
Disease (IUATLD).

25
Chapter Two: The Fight Against Tuberculosis in The USA

In the 1870s the European TB clinic movement and hygiene campaigns also
began to gain ground in theUnited States, at first hesitantly, but then in leaps
and bounds.
In 1875, Joseph Gleitsmann from Bavaria established the first mountain
sanatorium for chest diseases at Ashville, North Carolina. However, it was
Edward Livingston Trudeau who became known as the main driving
force behind the spread of the sanatorium concept.
He himself had TB and noticed tha this health improved considerably during a
prolonged stay in the Adirondack Mountains of New York State.
In 1884, he built himself a cabin in which to convalesce at Saranac Lake, a
small village at the time.

In 1884 in New York, "Little Red", the first TB Sanatorium in the country was opened. Left,
exterior of Little Red; Right, interior of Little Red.

However, shortly afterwards he adopted the sanatorium ideas of Brehmer and

Dettweiler, and likewise instituted the strict rest cure at his clinics on the
European model.
The next few years saw the development in America of organizations for
combating TB similar to those already existing in Europe. In 1892, the
Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Tuberculosis was founded by
Lawrence F. Flick in the belief that public health is the responsibility
of the government.

26
Fresh air was a part of the regimen to battle tuberculosis. The above photo is of the patients
on the sun porch at Waverly Tuberculosis Hospital in Louisville, Kentucky.

Ohio and New York soon attached themselves to this movement, which
ultimately led to the foundation of the American Lung Association and
American Thoracic Society at a joint conference at Atlantic City in 1904.
As in Europe, the symbol of the movement was the double-barred cross of
Lorraine, the historical emblem of the crusades of the Middle Ages.
From this point onwards the organizations for combating TB and the scientific
study of the disease for the time being followed largely parallel courses in
Europe and the USA.

27
Chapter Three: Collapse Therapy: Pneumothorax And Thoracoplasty

In the 1930s, pure sanatorium treatment, with its discouraging long-term

results, was gradually supplemented by collapse therapy, leading to a marked
improvement in long-term results.
That lung collapse could aid the recovery of a tuberculous cavity had been
suggested as early as 1771 in an article by Edmond Claude Bourru, librarian of
the Faculté de Médecine in Paris.
In the early 1800s, there were various reports of symptomatic improvement in
TB patients after pleural effusions and spontaneous Pneumothorax.
In 1888, Carlo Forlanini of Pavia created the first artificial Pneumothorax by
filling the pleural cavity with nitrogen, and over the next 18 years he published
successive results on 25 treated cases.
Quite independently, John Benjamin Murphy of the Cook County Infirmary
in Chicago observed that unilateral Pneumothorax resulting from chest
injuries sustained in the Civil War very rarely caused breathing difficulties.
In 1898, he published descriptions of Pneumothorax produced by trocar,
and was probably the first to use the new X-ray technique to dose the size of
the lung collapse.
In 1908, Christian Saugmann in Germany then introduced the Pneumothorax
needle with closing tap and protruding blunt obturator, together with the twin-
bottle Pneumothorax apparatus with manometer, a simple systemthat greatly
simplified Pneumothorax induction, transforming it into a safe routine
procedure.

Pneumothorax Procedure
In 1925, Amberson and Peters reported on their experience with
Pneumothorax therapy from 1911 to 1925 at the Loomis Sanatorium in the
New York Catskill Mountains.
Over the next 25 years, the Pneumothorax technique became the most
frequently practised adjunct to the rest cure.

28
If the lung was sufficiently collapsed, the lung tissue relaxed, the cavity
decreased in volume, its walls came together, and very often the supplying
bronchus became kinked – mechanisms that explain why collapse therapy,
despite having otherwise little effect on the tuberculous process, so often led
to disappearance of bacilli from the sputum.
Occasionally, however, the lung cavities were prevented from collapsing by
cord-like adhesions between the two pleurae.
This problem was partially solved by the invention of the thoracoscope by
Jacobaeus in 1912.
Using thermocautery, the fibrous cords could be divided inside the pleural
space under direct vision without opening the chest cavity (intrapleural
pneumolysis).
In 1933, Banyai in the USA noticed a considerable improvement in a patient’s
pulmonary lesions after he had accidentally injected air into the peritoneal
cavity while replenishing a Pneumothorax.
This chance discovery eventually led to the establishment of pneumo
peritoneum as an accepted treatment method, particularly for
cavities in the lower lung fields.
The procedure was often combined with exposure and crushing of the phrenic
nerve in the right supraclavicular triangle.
The resulting temporary diaphragmatic elevation often caused the cavities
to collapse, with subsequent disappearance of tubercle bacilli from the
sputum, but carried the risk of impaired lung function if the normal movement
of the diaphragm failed to return.
Patients with extensive or complete pleural adhesions close to upper-lobe
cavities were sometimes treated in the 1940s by extra pleural Pneumothorax,
the surgical creation of a space between ribs and adherent pleurae in the
neighborhood of the cavities.
This space was usually kept open by ‘plombage’ with paraffin wax, oil or even
Perspex balls. However, because of its many complications,
this procedure was eventually abandoned.
By contrast, a highly successful measure in the event of failed Pneumothorax
therapy was Thoracoplasty, the surgical procedure of unilateral partial rib
resection to reduce the volume of the thoracic cavity.
The method originated with Max Schede in Germany, who first performed it in
1890.
With good technique, operations in cavitary TB could achieve closure of the
cavities with conversion to negative sputum, well-preserved lung function and
low operative mortality in about 80% of cases.

29
Chapter Four: Tuberculosis Prevention By Vaccination

Attempts to vaccinate against TB date back to well before the discovery of

antibacterial drugs.
Thus, the Frenchmen Calmette and Guérin were able to show in the
early 1900s that after 231 passages through a culture medium containing
glycerin and ox bile, a particular
strain of Mycobacterium bovis (bacille Calmette-Guérin) could no longer
produce progressive tuberculous lesions in laboratory animals.
The first genuine success in immunizing against tuberculosis was called BCG
( Bacillus of Calmette and Guerin).

Albert Calmette
1863–1933

BCG immunization was first carried out in Paris in 1921, particularly in

children at high risk of infection, and soon became popular throughout the
rest of Europe.
Any side effects also vanished after the introduction of the intracutaneous
vaccination technique. However, in 1930, this method suffered a major
setback when 240 children in Lübeck were inadvertently vaccinated with
virulent tubercle bacilli, 73 dying of the disease.
Nevertheless, by 1945, BCG vaccination was again in use, even in Germany.
For a long time, opinions vacillated greatly as to its prophylactic effect.
On the one hand, it was seen that in European countries that had stopped BCG
vaccination because of the Lübeck catastrophe, tuberculosis was again on the
increase in children.
It also emerged that BCG in children virtually abolished the most dangerous
forms of the disease, such as miliary TB and meningitis.
On the other hand, the benefit of vaccination in adults remains a subject of
debate.
BCG is considered one of the safest of all vaccines, except in immuno
suppressed individuals, who may develop local or disseminated bovine TB.

30
Chapter Five: History of Modern Treatment

Then, in the middle of the Second World War, came the final breakthrough in
the treatment of tuberculosis in the shape of antibiotics and synthetic
antituberculosis drugs.
All therapeutic measures employed against TB until then had at best been
able to strengthen and support the human body in its resistance to the
tubercle bacilli.
However, a direct attack on the bacilli had never been possible. While drug
treatment of nontuberculous infections had begun some years earlier with the
introduction of the sulphonamides and penicillin, these substances
proved ineffective against the tubercle bacilli or, in the case of high-dose
sulphonamide therapy, too toxic.
Therapeutic attempts with gold salts, by analogy with the treatment
of rheumatic diseases, were soon abandoned due to lack of success and
excessive toxicity.
The idea of antibiotic treatment of bacterial infections was in itself by no
means new.
In 1885, three years after the discovery of the tubercle bacillus by Robert
Koch, the Italian Cantani reported loss of virulence in tubercle bacilli under the
effect of decomposition processes in human corpses.
From this observation Cantani, in a remarkable deductive step, arrived at the
idea of treating cases of cavity pulmonary TB with inhalations of nebulized
liquid pure cultures of Bacterium Termo, a common saprophytic microbe.
The result was a rapid reduction, and ultimately disappearance, of the
tubercle bacilli from the sputum, abatement of fever and a marked
improvement in the patient’s general state.
In 1888, Victor Babès in Rumania observed that the metabolic products of
various saprophytic microorganisms, such as staphylococci and Bacterium
prodigiosum, inhibited the growth of tubercle bacilli, whereas streptococci and
pneumococci appeared to promote it.

31
Victor Babès(1854-1926)

Thus, as this early point in the history of bacteriology, clear light was shed on a
very important – though repeatedly overlooked– factor in the treatment
of TB, namely the significance of the surrounding microflora.
Finally in 1913, Vaudremer showed that cultured tubercle bacilli lost their
infectivity if they were brought together with culture filtrates of the mould
Aspergillus fumigatus.
Rabbits immunized with tubercle bacilli treated in this way developed only
mild, nonlethal disease on massive infection 1 month later with fully virulent
tubercle bacilli.
These few facts should suffice to show how close researchers had come
before the First World War to solving the problem of antibacterial therapy with
antibiotics.
In 1935, another German scientist named Gerhard Domagk published a
report on the use of "Prontosil," an organic compound containing sulfur
(sulfanilamide), for treatment of bacterial infections.

Domagk was awarded The Nobel Prize in Physiology or

Medicine for his discovery in 1939. Prontosil, and
derivatives of it, had some effect on TB bacteria in
laboratory studies, but only in concentrations that would
be poisonous to humans.
However, what was needed for the final scientific
Gerhard Domagk, breakthrough was the brilliance and persistence of a man
Nobel Laureate, like Selman Waksman, who had been systematically
1939. studying soil fungi and bacteria since 1914, and at the
University of California around 1939 discovered the strong inhibitory effect of
certain soil fungi, particularly of the actinomycete group, on bacterial growth.

32
From cultures of such soil fungi Waksman and his team in 1940 succeeded in
isolating an antibiotic, actinomycin, although this was far too toxic for
therapeutic use in animals or man.
The same obstacle confronted the practical use of a further antibiotic
produced in 1942, streptothricin.
Ultimate success came only in September 1943.
Cultures of another actinomycete, Streptomyces griseus, yielded an antibiotic
– streptomycin – that combined maximum inhibition of the tubercle bacillus
with relatively low toxicity in laboratory animals.

For his outstanding scientific achievement Waksman was

honored in 1952
with the Nobel Prize.
One event then succeeded the other with breathtaking
Selman Waksman, speed. Feldman and Hinshaw, two physicians at the Mayo
Nobel Laureate, Clinic in Rochester, first tested the antibiotic in laboratory
1952 animals infected with TB, and found that it was indeed
able to suppress the growth of the tubercle bacilli almost
completely in the living organism.
Then on November 20, 1994, the step was taken that would lead to the victory
of man over one of his deadliest enemies – the use of streptomycin in a
severely ill TB patient.
Pfuetze, working in collaboration with Feldman and Hinshaw, administered
five 2-week courses of streptomycin to a 21-year-old woman over a period of
15 months. The success was overwhelming.
The rapidly progressive disease was evidently halted, the bacilli disappeared
from the sputum, and the patient speedily recovered.
After 10 years of follow-up she was still completely healthy, had married and
had given birth to three healthy children.
The new drug was certainly not without significant side effects, mainly
affecting the auditory and vestibular systems. But the fact remained: the
tubercle bacillus was no longer a bacteriological exception; it could
be attacked inside the human body and forced to retreat.
A rapid succession of anti-TB drugs appeared in the following years. These
were important because with streptomycin monotherapy, resistant mutants
began to appear within a few months, endangering the success of antibiotic
therapy. However, it was soon demonstrated that this problem could be
overcome by using combinations of two or three drugs.

33
Following streptomycin, p-aminosalicylic acid (1949), isoniazid (1952)
pyrazinamide (1954), cycloserine (1955), ethambutol (1962) and rifampin
(rifampicin; 1963) were introduced as anti-TB agents.
Aminoglycosides such as capreomycin, viomycin, kanamycin and amikacin,
and the newer quinolones (e.g. ofloxacin and ciprofloxacin) are only used in
drug resistance situations.
Combinations of a ß-lactam antibiotic with a ß-lactamase inhibitor enhance
treatment effectiveness, but the newer drugs, including the macrolides, have
not received much clinical testing.
Two properties of anti-TB drugs have proven to be important: their
antibacterial activity (highest with isoniazid, rifampin and streptomycin) and
their capacity to inhibit the development of resistance (isoniazid, rifampin
and ethambutol are the most effective).

Table 1 outlines the current standard chemotherapy protocol for TB in

industrialized nations.

Tab le 1. Chemotherapy protocol for the treatment of Tb

Initial phase (2 months)
Isoniazid 5 mg/kg/day (max. dose 300 mg/day)
Rifampin 10 mg/kg/day (max. dose 600 mg/day)
Pyrazinamide 30 mg/kg/day (max. dose 2 g/day)
Ethambutol 15–25 mg/kg/day (max. dose 2 g/day)

Consolidation phase (4–6 months)

Isoniazid daily, as above
Rifampin daily, as above
or
Isoniazid twice a week 14 mg/kg (max dose 1 g/day)
Rifampin twice a week 10 mg/kg (max. dose 600 mg/day)

First-line drugs are isoniazid, rifampin, ethambutol, pyrazinamide and

streptomycin.

The single exception to multidrug antituberculosis chemotherapy is the

isoniazid chemoprophylaxis program aimed at preventing overt disease by the
single-drug treatment of sub clinical (‘latent’) TB.

34
The program was tested in large cooperative studies, first with children by the
US Public Health Service in 1955 and subsequently in adults, with excellent
results throughout.
With these or similar dosing schedules there should be rapid clinical
improvement and a significant fall in the bacterial count.
After a month the patient should be a febrile, feel well and have gained
weight.
Coughing and sputum should have diminished and improvements show up
on the X-rays. Although bacteria will still be present in the smears, they will be
difficult to culture. X-ray improvements will continue for 3–4 months. However,
if the disease was originally very severe, the endpoint may not be
reached for a year.
The absence of radiological improvement in the first 3 months should be
reason for concern and indicates that a change in therapy is needed.
Patient compliance and the pathogen’s drug sensitivity should be reevaluated.
Relapses usually occur within 6 months of the end of treatment, and in most
cases are due to poor patient compliance; this must be rigorously monitored
during subsequent treatment.
When TB becomes active again in a previously treated patient, there is a high
chance the bacteria will be drug resistant.
Any current therapy must be suspended until two drugs are found to which the
pathogen is fully sensitive, and treatment can be resumed with these.
If the microorganism is resistant to the standard drugs, more toxic compounds
– such as ethionamide, prothionamide, pyrazinamide, cycloserine,
capreomycin, viomycin or kanamycin– will have to be given.

35
Third Unit: World Dangerous
Chapter One: A Global Emergency
Chapter Two: The Worst Year in History of Tuberculosis
Chapter Three: Rising Levels of Drug-Resistant TB

Third Unit: World Dangerous

Chapter One: A Global Emergency

36
TB is a contagious disease. When people with active TB cough, spit, or even
.talk, bacteria that cause the disease are propelled into the air
A person needs to breathe in just a few TB bacteria to become infected.
Without treatment, a person with an active case of TB will infect between 10
.and 15 people a year
.Infection with TB bacteria, however does not necessarily lead to disease
In a person with a healthy immune system, TB germs take up residence in
lung cells, but enter a kind of suspended animation and never cause
.widespread disease
Only between 5 and 10 percent of all healthy people infected with the germ
will develop active TB at some point. In persons with decreased immune
function, whether due to HIV/AIDS infection, poor nutrition, or old age, the
odds are much worse. When infected with both HIV and TB, for example, a
person has a one in ten chance of developing active TB each year (compared
.(with a one in ten chance over a lifetime for people without HIV

.Annual number of new reported TB cases. Data from WHO

37
World TB incidence. Cases per 100,000; Red = >300, orange = 200-300;
yellow = 100-200; green 50-100 and grey <50. Data from WHO, 2006
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), nearly 2 billion people—
.one–third of the world's population—have tuberculosis
Anually 8 million people become ill with tuberculosis, and 2 million people die
.from the disease worldwide
In 2004, around 14.6 million people had active TB disease with 9 million
.new cases
The annual incidence rate varies from 356 per 100,00 in Africa to 41 per
.1oo,oo in the Aemricas
Tuberculosis is the world's greatest infectious killer of women of reproductive
age and the leading cause of death among people with AIDS\HIV
In 2004, the country with the highest incidence of TB was South Africa, with
.718 cases per 100,000 people
.India has the largest number of infections with over 1,8 million cases
In developed countries, tuberculosis is less common and is mainly an urban
disease. In the United Kingdom, TB incidences range from 40 per 100,000 in
London to less than 5 per 100,000 in the rural South West of England; the
.national average is 13 per 100,000
The highest rates in Western Europe are in Portugal(42 per 100,000) and
Spain (920 per 100,000).
These rates compare with (113 per 100,000) in China and (64 per 100,000) in
.Brazil
In the United States, the overall tuberculosis cases rate was (9,4 per 100,000)
.in 2004
The incidence of TB varies with age. In Africa, TB primarily affects adolescents
and young adults. However in countries where TB has gone form high to low
.incidence, such as Afmerica, TB is mainly disease of older people
There are a number of known factors that make people more susceptible to
TB infection; world wide the most important of these is HIV.
Co- infection with HIV is a particular problem in Sub-Saharan Africa, due to the
high incidence of HIV in these countries. Smoking more than 20 cigarettes a
day also increases the risk of TB by two- to four- times.

Chapter Two: The Worst Year in History of Tuberculosis

38
3 million people died and 7 million became sick from tuberculosis in 1997,
according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Although this disease has
been highly preventable and curable for 50 years, more people will die of
tuberculosis in 1998 than in any year in history
in 1998 One-third of the world's population was infected with the TB bacillus,
although up to the majority of those infected have not developed active TB.
Estimates of the number infected with drug-resistant TB run as high as 50
million people.

Chapter Three: Rising Levels of Drug-Resistant TB

39
When the first anti tuberculosis drug, streptomycin, was introduced in the
1940s it was less than completely satisfactory. Multi drug treatment regimens
were discovered in the 1950s.
Using two or more drugs to combat each case proved to virtually eliminate the
resistance that arose from the bacteria's spontaneous mutations.
The danger, however, is that such complex treatments require effective
monitoring and follow-through.
If the regimen is not completed the patient may still remained infected, the
bacteria will develop resistance to a wider spectrum of drugs and the
strengthened bacteria will eventually infect others.
A survey of tuberculosis cases was compiled for the years 1994 to 1997 by
WHO scientists and other researchers and released in the June issue of the
New England Journal of Medicine. Every one of the 35 countries submitting
data reported some level of resistance to anti tuberculosis drugs, confirming
suspicions that a new health emergency has emerged.
The 35 countries were not a random sampling of countries. For example, all of
China and India, except for the Delhi region, were not included.
That reports on drug-resistant TB are so widespread they must be summarized
in such a survey is an indication of the depth of the emergency.
According to a comment by doctors from the US Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC), also published in the NEJM, "from the 1950s through
the 1980s the frequency of the transmission of drug-resistant organisms was
thought to be low.
Reports of outbreaks of drug-resistant tuberculosis were rare and virtually
always deemed worthy of publication. In recent years, the situation has
changed considerably.
From 1990 through 1997, many outbreaks of multi drug-resistant tuberculosis
have been reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention."
The CDC doctors point out that most, but not all, cases of drug-resistant TB
involved people with HIV infection and many occurred in hospitals, correctional
facilities and other institutions. Housing people with AIDS and those with
tuberculosis together in the same indoor environment contributes to the
increasing incidence of tuberculosis. Drug-resistant strains were able to
spread and result in high mortality rates as a result of delays in recognizing
that tuberculosis cases were multi drug resistant.
The NEJM study reported the prevalence of primary resistance to either
isoniazid, rifampin, ithambutol or streptomycin.
This ranged from 2 percent in the Czech Republic to 40.6 percent in the
Dominican Republic. The authors note that the higher figures in the

40
Dominican Republic may be the result of weakness in the tuberculosis-control
program. Or, they note, it could be due to migration between the Dominican
Republic and New York City, where the prevalence of multi drug resistance
was high in the early 1990s.
Among previously treated patients, resistance to any of the four drugs ranged
from 5.3 percent in New Zealand to 100 percent in the Ivanovo province of
Russia. Acquired multi drug resistance (multi drug resistance defined as
resistance to at least isoniazid and rifampin) ranged from zero in Kenya to
54.4 percent in Latvia. The median prevalence of resistance to all four drugs
was 4.4 percent.
The prevalence of multi drug-resistant tuberculosis was higher in the Baltic
states than in any of the other countries surveyed. The authors note: "Eastern
Europe, and particularly the former Soviet Union, has witnessed a recent
reversal of a previously declining rate of tuberculosis, probably because of an
irregular supply of drugs and non-standardized regimen; nosocomial [hospital
caused] infections and outbreaks in prisons may be contributing factors."
Multi drug resistance in Delhi is 13.3 percent, approaching the high levels in
the Baltic countries. India accounts for one-third of the world's tuberculosis
cases. The CDC commentators, Drs. Snider and Castro, also point out, "most
countries affected by the HIV pandemic and increases in tuberculosis also
have poorly functioning tuberculosis-control programs and cannot afford the
anti-tuberculosis-drug programs that are most effective at preventing multi
drug-resistant disease as well as treating it."

Conclusion:

41
Hence we have found that TB is a serious disease. This is correct
since ancient civilization until nowadays.
We also have found that there are many discoveries and studies to
decrease the serious of this disease.
We hope that WHO will give more interest in treatment that disease,
especially in developing countries, this may be achieved through
making modern medications widely available in those countries, in
addition to support its and developing human aid programs.

References:

42
• - http://BioMedNet.com/karger
• -http://www.wsws.org/science/1998/jun1998/tb-j20.shtml
• -http://www.faculty.virginia.edu/blueridgesanatorium/tuberculosis.html
• -http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#Epidemiology
• -http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuberculosis#History
• http://books.google.com/books?id=iWnwrHy3uF0C&dq=tuberculosis+i
n+islamic+history&pg=PA16&ots=43AjrQ7c-
b&sig=BvNHqkALfaoqMGImlkZofFXsafI&prev=http://www.google.com/s
earch%3Fhl%3Dar%26q%3Dtuberculosis%2Bin%2Bislamic%2Bhistory%
26btnG%3D%25D8%25A8%25D8%25AD%25D8%25AB!%26lr%3D&sa
=X&oi=print&ct=result&cd=2
• -http://www.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~mfukuda/english.html
• -http://www.nlm.nih.gov/news/greekex01.html
• -http://www.compendium.ro/pers_detalii.php?id_pers=444
• http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/tuberculosis/read
more.html
• http://www.hsl.unc.edu/Collections/HistoryOfMedicine/klebs001.cfm
• http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/a.html
• http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=223
• http://www.hmc.org.qa/hmc/qmj/june2002/biography/BIO3.HTM

43
 APPENDIX:

Names of TB scientists who gained Nobel prize:

Names of tb Yea r Field of int eres t

scient is t
Robert Koch 1905 For his discovery of mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
Gerhard 1 For his discovery Prontosil and its
Domagk, 939 derivatives.
Selman 1 For his discovery streptomycin.
Waksman, 952

44