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Contents

Concept of an Ecosystem 2
Structure of an Ecosystem 2
Abiotic Components 3
Biotic Components 4
Function of an Ecosystem 6
Energy Flow 7
Ecological Succession 8
Food Chain 9
Food Web 11
Ecological Pyramids 13
Various Ecosystems 15
Forest Ecosystem 15
Grassland Ecosystem 16
Desert Ecosystem 18
Aquatic Ecosystem 20
Concept of an Ecosystem
Ecology is the ancient Greek oikos
(ecos) meaning "house” and can be An ecosystem can be as
defined as the study of how animals, small as a drop of water or
as large as sea or tract of
plants and other living things relate
forest.
to each other and fit into their
environment. It may be a pond, a river, an
ocean or a forest or even an
It is the basic functional unit of ecology aquarium, a dam, a garden.
comprising biotic (living) communities
and abiotic (non-living) environment,
both influencing each other. In a broad
sense, it is a defined area in which living and non-living things
!
interact.

Every ecosystem consists of interacting organisms that

transform and transmit energy and chemicals. The ultimate
source of energy for the entire ecosystem is Sun.

Structure of an Ecosystem
Structure of an ecosystem means the composition of biological
community, the quantity and distribution of the non-living
materials such as nutrients, water etc. and the range of
conditions of existence, such as temperature and light.
Biological community includes species, numbers, biomass and
life history etc.
An ecosystem comprises mainly two components:

i) Autotrophic Component
These components are self-nourishing in nature and
characterized by fixation of light, energy, utilization of simple
inorganic substance and build-up of complex substances. So
they obtain energy principally from the Sun.

ii) Heterotrophic Component

They require nourishment from other sources and are
characterized by utilization and decomposition of complex
materials. This type of system obtains energy from soil or other
preformed organic energy sources. They are primarily import
systems and then dependent on energy from some other
autotrophic ecosystem.

Heterotroph components are also divided into two:

a) Biophages: It includes organisms consuming other living

organisms.
b) Saprophages: It includes organisms which feed on dead
organic matter.

An ecosystem has two main components:

i) Abiotic Components

The non-living environment of an ecosystem is the abiotic

component.
It can be categorized into the following three parts:

a) The Inorganic Components: These are carbon dioxide,

water, nitrogen, calcium, sulphur, phosphorus and
phosphate etc. The amount of these inorganic substances
present at any given time in an ecosystem is designated
as the standing state or standing quality.

b) The Organic Components: These are carbohydrates,

lipids and amino acids. They all are synthesized by the
living forms.

c) The Climatic Factors: These include temperature, light,

humidity, wind and soil etc.

ii) Biotic Components

The living organisms of an ecosystem are known as its biotic

components, which include plants, animals and micro-
organisms.

Biotic components are of following types:

a) Producers
Producers are the autotrophic members of the ecosystem.
They synthesized food from non-living simple inorganic
substances.
Such producers of food are of mainly two types:
 1. Main producers: Green plants are the main
producers. They trap solar energy using chlorophyll
and convert it into chemical energy in the form of
carbohydrates using simple inorganic compounds
namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is
known as photosynthesis.

2. Minor producers: Photosynthetic bacteria and

chemosynthetic bacteria are the minor producers.

b) Consumers or Phagotrophs
Living organisms lack chlorophyll and are unable to
synthesize their own food. Therefore they depend on the
producers for their food. These are known as consumers
or heterotrophs.
Consumers include animals which eat or ingest other
organisms or particular organic matter.

The consumers are of following types:

1. Primary Consumers or Herbivores: These are the

living beings which feed on plants only. Examples are
rabbit, cattle, deer and goat etc.
2. Secondary Consumers or Primary Carnivores:
These living beings eat the herbivores and are called
primary carnivores. Examples are cat, fox, snake etc.
 3. Tertiary Consumers: These are the large carnivores
which feed on the secondary consumers. Example is
wolf.
4. Quaternary Consumers or Omnivores: These are
the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary
consumers and they are not eaten up by any other
animal. Examples are tiger, lion etc.

c) Decomposers, Micro-consumers or Saprotrophs

They are chiefly bacteria and fungi which decompose the
complex compound of dead protoplasm and absorb some
of the decomposed products. These microorganisms
attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simpler compounds and also
release inorganic nutrients.

These inorganic substances together with other organic

substances are reused by the producers, resulting in a
cyclic exchange of materials between the biotic
community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem.
The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs.

Function of an Ecosystem
The main functional aspects of ecosystem are the following:

i) Energy flow
ii) Food chain and trophic levels
iii) Nutrient or biogeochemical cycles
iv) Homeostasis
v) Other factors like diversity pattern, development and
evolution
vi) Ecological pyramids

Energy Flow
Energy is very essential to maintain life activities. Energy from
the sun enters the living world through photosynthetic
organisms and passes from one organism to another in the
form of food. The flow of energy through the ecosystem is
unidirectional and noncyclic. It is from producers to herbivores
to carnivores. The amount of energy decreases with successive
trophic levels.
Green plants capture only a small fraction of solar energy (1-
5% of the solar radiation) and the bulk of unutilized energy is
dissipated as heat, some part of this energy is used by the
green plants for their respiration and maintenance and for
feeding the herbivores (Fig). The unutilized productivity is
converted to detritus which in turn may be used by the
decomposers.

Energy of an ecosystem involves transmission and utilization

which form energy flow circuits.
These circuits may be of different types:
 i) Grazing type: In this the energy is directly consumed by
living plants.
ii) Organic detritus circuit: It involves the accumulation as
well as decomposition of dead materials.

Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is the observed process of change in the
species, structure of an ecological community over time. Within
any community some species may become less abundant over
some time interval, or they may even vanish from the
ecosystem altogether. Similarly over some interval, other
species within the community may become more abundant, or
new species may even invade into community from adjacent
ecosystems.
“The change of plant and animal communities in an orderly
sequence in an area, resulting in establishment of stable or
climax community is called ecological succession.”
Food Chain
Organisms of an ecosystem are interlinked with each other by
food chains. Each organism eats the smaller organism, which is
eaten by the larger one. The different species in a food chain
are called trophic levels.
Green plants in any food chain are the first trophic level and
called the primary producers. These plants are eaten by
herbivores, which are called second trophic level and primary
consumers. Carnivores constitute the third trophic level and are
called the secondary consumers, which eat herbivores.
Carnivores are also eaten by other carnivores at tertiary trophic
level and are called tertiary consumers.
There are some organisms, which eat producers as well as
carnivores. Such organisms are called omnivores and occupy
more than one trophic level in the food chain.

Food chains may be of two types:

i) Grazing Food Chain:

This is a type of food chain in which green plants are
eaten by herbivores, which in turn may be eaten by
carnivores. This food chain starts from green plants and
moves to grazing herbivores. Solar radiation plays an
important role for such type of food chain. This type of
chain thus depends on autotrophic energy capture and the
movement of this captured energy to herbivores. Most of
ecosystem in nature follows this type of food chain.
 This food chain is represented as:
Phytoplankton Zooplankton Small fish Large fish

ii) Detritus Food Chain:

It starts from dead organic matter then to microorganisms
and then to detritivores. Direct solar energy is not the
major factor in such type of food chain.
Food Web
Food chains are interlinked at different trophic levels to form a
complex interaction between different species. This
interconnecting network is called the food web.
If any of the intermediate stage of the food chain is removed,
the succeeding links of the food chain will be affected. AII the
food chain are interconnected with each other at different
trophic levels.
Rabbit eats grass but in absence of rabbit, grass may also be
eaten by mouse. Mouse can be directly eaten by hawk or
through snake. Similarly grasshopper eats grass. Grasshopper
may also be eaten by hawk directly or through lizard as shown
in figure. AII the alternatives constitute some interlocking
pattern that is called as food web. In grassland food web there
are five linear food chains.

Food web in grassland ecosystem

1. Grass Grasshopper Hawk
2. Grass Grasshopper Lizard Hawk
3. Grass Rabbit Hawk
4. Grass Mouse Hawk
5. Grass Mouse Snake Hawk

These all five chains are interlinked with each other at different
points forming food web. The alternative arrangements are
possible for maintenance of stability of the ecosystem. But for
the survival of all living organisms a balanced ecosystem is
very necessary. The complexity of any food web depends upon
the alternatives at different points and also on the length of food
web (Fig).

Food web in a forest

Ecological Pyramids
The representation of different trophic levels in the form of a
plot constitutes ecological pyramid. It can be defined as a plot
of the number of individual in different size classes or number
of the individual productivity in the different trophic levels.
The ecological pyramids represent the trophic structure and
also trophic function of the ecosystem. The first producer level
constitutes the base of the pyramid and the successive levels
make the apex of the pyramid.

Ecological pyramids are usually of two kinds:

i) The Pyramids of Numbers:

It is denoted by the number
of individual organisms at
each level. It illustrates the
population- density
relationship within and
between the trophic levels
and thus in the pyramid,
trophic levels are more
important than size. They
show the relationship
between producers,
A pyramid of numbers in a lake ecosystem
herbivores and carnivores
at successive trophic levels
in terms of their number.
ii) Pyramids of Energy:
Producers are the main reserve of energy, whereas this
energy decreases in consumers. The pyramid of energy
indicates the reduction in the availability of energy in
different trophic levels. The maximum of energy is
available at producer level; this energy decreases as we
move from primary consumers to tertiary consumers. The
primary producers of an ecosystem trap the radiant
energy of the sun and convert it in to potential chemical
energy. This trapping energy flows in the food chain from
the producers to the top carnivore, decreasing at each
successive trophic level. Thus the pyramid of energy is
always up right.

Energy pyramid of an ecosystem

Various Ecosystems

Forest Ecosystem

Forest is composed of trees, shrubs or any other woody

vegetation with closed canopy. It is biotic community. Forest
varies considerably in composition and structure.
Forests maintain soil and water conditions. They contribute to
the maintenance of biological and genetic diversity. Forests
provide fuel, fodder and other materials for local communities.

Characteristic Features of Forest Ecosystem

1. In tropical forests, there are only two seasons (rainy and

dry). The length of day light in 12 hours and varies little.
2. They have a predominance of broad leaved evergreen
trees and the trees can be divided into 4-5 strata.
3. The forest ecosystem includes a complex assemblage of
different kinds of biotic communities.
4. Optimum conditions of temperature and ground moisture
contribute greatly to the growth of trees and establishment
of forest communities.
5. The nature of soil, wind and air currents determines the
distribution of forest vegetation.
6. The abiotic environment of forest ecosystem includes the
nutrients present in the soil on forest floor which are
usually rich in dead and decaying organic matter.
Grassland Ecosystem

The grassland ecosystem occupies vast area of land within

continental interiors. It covers about 10% of the earth’s surface.
Grasslands are areas characterized by plains and 10 to 30
inches of rainfall per year, generally less than in most forested
regions.
A grassland or prairie flora may contain over 120 species in
more than 10 families. The animal populations of grasslands
are also rich and varied. Grassland soils are among the thickest
and richest in the world. Roots of the grasses and forbs
penetrate up to 6 feet in these rich soils. They represent some
of the greatest agricultural areas of the world of cattle, corn and
wheat farming.

Characteristic Features of Grassland Ecosystem

1. Lands are dominated by grasses rather than large shrubs or

trees.
2. The animal populations of grasslands are also rich and
varied. Among the mammals, the ungulates and rodents have
flourished with great populations of bison, antelope, prairie
dogs, ground squirrel, gophers and foxes.
3. Typical birds are prairie chickens, sharp-tailed grouse,
meadowlarks and a variety of sparrows.
4. In North American plains, sudden expansion of agriculture
and excessive grazing reduced the productive grasslands to
dust bowls and desert-like conditions when the grass was
burned.
5. Grasslands have been the home for grazing annuals for
millions of years. Since the grass height is low and trees are
rare, animals found in these areas are exposed to the stress of
sun and sweeping winds.

Type of Grasslands

In India, true grasslands are absent, whereas natural

grasslands are scarce. Most of the grasslands are seral in
nature and do not attain climax formation due to biotic
influences. They mostly developed as a secondary form by the
destruction of the forests. The two major factors-edaphic and
biotic are responsible for the secondary development of the
grasslands.

Based on the moisture status, grasslands are of three types:

i) Xerophilous: Occur in dry areas of north-west India.

ii) Mesophilous: Occur in normal moist areas, also called

savannah.
iii) Hygrophilous: Occur in wet areas, also called wet
savannahs.

Based on their origin, grassland may be of two types:

i) Natural grassland: These have arisen naturally both in

tropical areas (rainfall less than 150 cm) and temperate
areas (rainfall 25-75), by the process of succession.
 ii) Man-made grasslands: Deforestation by man has
converted forests into grasslands. Grasslands are fast
diminishing, because of their conversion to agricultural
lands. Overgrazing and prolonged droughts have also
helped to disturb the grasslands.

Depending upon the size of the grasses, grasslands are of

three types:

i) Plains: having short grasses like Buchloe

ii) Prairies: having tall grasses like Andropogon.

iii) Savannahs: having grasses with scattered trees like

acacia.

Desert Ecosystem

Deserts are arid biomes with usually less than 10 inches of

rainfall per year. They cover about one fifth of the earth surface.
Deserts usually occur in areas of high pressure (Sahara,
Australian), rain shadows of Mountains (Mohave, Iranian) or
high altitudes (Tibetan, Gobi and Bolivan). Some of the dried
deserts may not have any rain for a period of many years. One
such area in Chile has not received precipitation for over 20
years. Such deserts may be virtually devoid of living organisms
over vast areas. There are relatively few large mammals in
deserts because most are not capable of storing sufficient
water and withstanding the heat.
Characteristic Features of Desert Ecosystem

1. Desert soil is generally coarse and many areas are closely,

packed stones.
2. Days are very hot and nights are cold. So the plants and
animals are exposed to both types of extremes.
3. The predominant plants of deserts are succulent species
with waxy surfaces, such as cacti, which can conserve waterfor
long periods of time, or deciduous shrubs, also with thick waxy
leaves. The growing season is very short, and the flowering
period amazingly abrupt, occurring suddenly after flash rains.
4. Many deserts have little or no plant life over extensive areas
of sand and rock.
5. The animal community of deserts is confined. It is dominated
there by burrowing and nocturnal rodents, reptiles, insects and
arachnids (Scorpions, spiders etc.). These animals escape the
temperature extremes and desiccation of desert air by living
beneath the surface during the day and venturing forth only at
night. Most of them have remarkable water conservation
adaptations.
6. Most of animals living here are nocturnal (active only at
night). Common animals are camels, fox, kangaroo, rat squirrel
etc.
7. Kangaroo, rats utilize metabolic water. They require no free
water, but obtain their requirements from the metabolic
breakdown of carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and water.
8. Many of the insects and arachnids have waxy coats and
reduced water loss through the cuticle.
Types of Desert Ecosystem

i) Hot and Dry Desert

ii) Semiarid Desert
iii) Coastal Desert
iv) Cold Desert

Aquatic Ecosystem

Water is essential to all life, it covers about three quarters of the

earth's surface either as oceans or as fresh-water. Most of the
earth's surface water is in oceans which contains dissolved
salts. The remaining found in either lakes or ponds. Fresh
water also becomes available to earth in the form of rainfall,
snow, dew etc. Water forms the biggest ecosystem, that is the
aquatic ecosystem of the biosphere.

Aquatic ecosystem falls into two main categories:

(i) Fresh water €ecosystem

(ii) Salt water ecosystem

Fresh Water Ecosystem

Fresh water is defined as having a low salt concentration
usually less than 1%. Plants and animals in fresh water regions
are adjusted to the low salt content and would not be able to
survive in areas of high salt concentration.
Fresh water ecosystem is physical and biological link between
oceans and land. It consists of rivers, lakes etc. Fresh water
habitats cover relatively small portion of the earth’s surface in
comparison to terrestrial and marine habitat. They form very
cheap and major source of water for various industries and
domestic needs. They act as a quite good waste disposal
system in the cities.

Limiting Factors of Fresh Water Ecosystem

The factors include various physical and biotic factors which

influence fresh water organism and ecosystem, such as:
i) Temperature: It plays a little role in affecting the water
ecosystem, because water has many thermal properties which
minimize temperature changes. All thermal properties render
fresh water ecosystem relatively more resistant to temperature
fluctuations than the terrestrial ecosystem.
ii) Light: The amount of light influences the productivity of the
fresh water ecosystem. The fresh-waters often have a lot of
suspended material. While affording protection to the light
sensitive species, these substances more often obstruct the
light that normally reaches the water.
iii) Oxygen: Chemically pure water is biologically uninhabitable
and all fresh-water contains an array of chemical substances.
The oxygen being most essential chemical component of life
processes, it remains dissolved in fresh-water.
iv) Carbon dioxide: Aquatic vegetation and phytoplanktons
require carbon dioxide for photosynthetic activity. The carbon
dioxide of fresh-water environments is produced as the end
product of respiration and of decomposition. Carbon dioxide
also diffuses directly from the atmosphere and is readily
dissolved in water to result in carbonic acid which increases the
pH of water. The high saturation levels of O2 and CO2 have
been found to have toxic effects on aquatic biota.

Other factors which influence the fresh water ecosystem are

dissolved salts and salinity, current, pressure and density etc.