Food Toxicology

N Diet 310
 Semester: 2nd
Course Title: Food Toxicology
Course No. : N Diet 310 Credit hours: 2(2+0)

1. Course Description
1.1 Theory:
Introduction and significance of food toxicology. Types, causative factors, signs,
food poisoning. Natural food toxins. Anti-
symptoms and preventive measures of
and carcinogens, their harmful
nutritional factors, fungal and seafood toxins, goiterogens
effects and methods of removal. Concept of microbial toxins and food intoxication,
health, preventive and methods of
measures
sources of contamination, effect on
and radioactive materials
inactivation/ destruction. Chemical toxins pesticides, metallic
-

in food, residual effects, preventive measures,

methods of removal. Food packaging
of packaging during storage and
material and potential contaminants. Hazards plastic
health.
transportation and their effect on

2 Course Objectives
different kinds of food toxins.
2.1 To provide knowledge regarding measures of food poisoning.
2.2 To acquaint the students regarding preventive
3. Scheme of Evaluation
st hourly 15
Mid term 30
Assignment 20
Final 35

Total 100

Lecture Schedule
4. No. of Lectures
4.1 Theory
Introduction and significance of food toxicology
4.1.1 and preventive measures of food poisoning
4.1.2 Types, causative factors, signs, symptoms methods of removal
4.1.3 Natural food toxins, their effects and
effects and methods of removal
4.1 Ant nutritional factors, their
1s" hourly examination
methods of removal
4.1.5 Fungal and sea food toxins, their effects and of removal
methods
their harmful effects and
4.1.6 Goiterogens and carcinogens, intoxication
2
4.1.7 Concept of microbial toxins and food
Mid-term examination measures and method of 3
effect on health, preventive
4.1.8 Sources of contamination,
inactivation/destruction
radioactive materials in food, residual effects, 3
4.1.9 Chemical toxins pesticides, metallic and
methods of removal
preventive measures,
3
and potential contaminants.
Food packaging material and their effect on health 3
4.1.10
packaging during storage and transportation
4.1.11 Hazards of plastic

5. References
 Boca
Francis Group,
CRC Press, Taylor &
of food toxicology.
5.1 Pussa T (2008) Principles Academic Press
York
Ratan. London, New Introduction to
food toxicology.
Shibamoto andBjeldanes L F (1993)
5.2 Brace & Company,
New York.
Ine. Har Court
Francis Group, New York.
Introduction to toxicology. Taylor &
Timbrell J (2002)
5.3
 INTRODUCTIONANDSIGNIFICANCE OF FOOD TOXICOLOGY
Food is a material, consumed in natural or processed form to satisfy the substantial energy needs of
the consumer. Food along with providing nutrition can cause a variety of health problems in which
a whole organism or at least a definite part can be shifted from its original physiological state.
Until recently, eating food in modem industrialized countries has usually been regarded as
a low risk activity, but several highly publicized food safety scares have raised consumer concerns
about the safety of our food supplies.
Very few of the foods that we commonly eat have been subject to any toxicological testing
and yet they are generally accepted as being safe to eat. However, all chemicals, including those
naturally found in foods, are toxic at some dose. Laboratory animals can be killed by feeding them
glucose or salt at very high doses and some nutrients such as vitamin A and selenium are
hazardous at intakes only a few times greater than normal human requirements. Even very
common foods such as pepper have demonstrated carcinogenic activity. Toxicity testing of a food
or ingredient can tell us what the likely adverse effects are and at what level of consumption they
may occur, but by itself this does not tell us whether it is safe to eat in normally consumed
amounts.
Risk'is the probability that the substance will produce injury under defined conditions of
and length of exposure as well as the
exposure. The concept of risk takes into account the dose
toxicity of a particular chemical, and is a better guide to the safety of a food. Consequently, any
be based on the question 'Is this food
attempt to examine the safety of the food supply should not
or ingredient toxic?' (the answer is always'yes'), but rather by finding out if eating this substance
in normal amounts is likely to increase the risk of illness significantly, i.e. Is it safe?"
The word Toxin comes from a Greek word Toxicon- poison and was introduced to
medicine in 1888 by Ludwig Brieger as a name for poison made by infectious agents.

A Toxin is often considered a specific type of poison - a poisonous substance produced

within living cells or organisms.

A Toxicant or poison is a chemical substance, that after entering an organism is capable of
of cells, tissues or even the whole
causing smaller or larger adverse changes in the functioning
organism, perhaps resulting in death of organism.

WHAT IS TOXICOLOGY?
Toxicology is a field of science that helps us understand the harmful effects that chemicals,
on people, animals, and the
environment. Some refer to
substances, situations, can have
or
a science focused on
toxicology the
as "Science of Safety" because as a field it has evolved from
to science devoted to studying
studying poisons and adverse effects of chemical exposures,
a

safety.
how chemicals may cause harm and
Toxicology usesthe power of science to predict what, and
health. When talking about toxicology it is important
then shares that information to protect public
tokeep a few things in mind.

substances in exactly the same way. Many factors, including

N o t everyone will respond to
an individual's susceptibility to a substance, and a
the amount and duration of exposure,
 a disease or not. There are times in a
person's age, all impact whether a person will develop
person's lite when he or she may be more susceptible to chemicals. These times may
include periods of active cell differentiation and growth in the womb and in early
brain is continuing to develop. Just
childhood, as well as during adolescence, when the
because someone is exposed to a harmful substance, does not always mean they will get

sick from it.

to is another important factor in
The dose of the chemical or substance a person is exposed
be toxic if given to humans and other living
toxicology. All substances have the potential to
or levels. For example, one or two
organisms in certain conditions and at certain doses
of may be harmful. The field of
aspirins may be good for you, but taking a bottle aspirinand
toxicology tries to understand and identify at
what dose through what exposure a
substance poses a hazard.
that may seem insignificant may
Toxicologists also realize that even low-dose exposures
effect if the exposure is continuous or
have biological meaning or lead to an adverse health
happens during a critical window of development.

HOW TOxICOLOGY IMPROVES PEOPLE'S LIVES?

that can be used by regulatory agencies,
Toxicology provides critical information and knowledge
decision makers, and others to put programs and policies in place to limit our exposures to these
a disease or other negative health
substances, thereby preventing or reducing the likelihood that
outcome would occur. Food Toxicology investigates ways
and mechanisms of entrance of toxic
and storage, and the way of
substances into the food or their generation during food processing
avoiding or reducing contamination.
Methods of Assessment of Toxicity and rise of food components.
Adverse effects on an Organism produced by harmful components of food and beverages
even death
that can lead to functional disturbances of varying degrees in the organism

Toxicants or toxic substances in food are generally those

substances that produce harmful effects
on ingestion by humans or animals. These contaminants may include Dust, Dirt, Plant material,
inedible parts of animal body in case of flesh foods or Dirty water
in case of Milk. These also
the chemicals used in the feed
might be residues of pesticides and chemicals used in the farm or
milk of animals etc. Many of these contaminants can be removed to
a
that may enter meat or
materials before
greater extent by sieving, manual removal of contaminants or by washing the raw
processing.
CLASSIFICATION OF TOXIC CHEMICALS IN FOOD

Natural contaminants
1. Mixing of edible plants with toxic plants
2. Contamination resulting from intake of toxie substances by animals
3. Microbial toxins

.Natural toxinsentering through contaminants

I. Plant origin- An example of this group is tannic acid, also known as gallotannic
acid, gallotannin, or simply tannin. Tannic acid has been reported to cause acute

liver injury, i.e., liver necrosis and fatty liver.

 Cyanogenic glycosides are glycosides from which cyanide is formed by the activity
of hydrolytic enzymes. They are widely spread in higher plants

2. Microbial Origin- Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed highly depends on

the environnmental co nditions that lead to mold growth and toxin production.

Aflatoxins are the most important mycotoxins, which is produced by certain

species of Aspergillus (A. flavus and A. parasiticus), which develop at high
temperatures and humidity levels. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic substances and may
be present in a large nu mber of foods. This toxin can cause cancer, cirrhosis of the
liver.

3. Biological Origin- Biological toxins are hazardous substances produced by

microorganisms, animals, insects, and plants that can be harmful when inhaled,
ingested, injected, or absorbed. Depending on the toxin and amount and route of
exposure, health effects can range from minor (skin or eye irritation, headache,
nausea) to severe (respiratory distress, muscle weakness, seizures, death)

.Chemical Toxicants of External Origin

1. Toxic metals- e.g. Mercury- High levels attack the Central Nervous System.
2. Pesticide residues and agro chemicals.
3. Contaminants from processing practices.
Contaminants from packing practices.
Accidental contaminants.
6. Contaminants from environment.

Toxicity- Toxicity is the level of harm a toxin can cau: so you would need only a small amount
or a shot exposure to a substance with a high toxicity for it to be harmful, while for a substance
with a low toxicity, you need to have a high dose or a long exposure for it to be harmful. The
toxicity of a substance can be measured by using a bioassay a type of test that uses a living

organism.

The toxicity of a substance usually depends on the following factors:

Form and innate chemical activity

Dosage, especially dose-time relationship
Exposure route

Species
Life stage, such as infant, young adult, or elderly adult
Gender
Ability to be absorbed
Metabolism
Distribution within the body
Excretion
 function and pregnancy, which involves
Health of the individual, ineluding organ
physiological changes that could intluence toxicity
Nutntional status
Presence of other chemicals
Circadian rhythms (the time of day a drug or other substance is administered)

administered to the organism. It is

DOSE- The total biologically active compound is
amount of a

expressed in micrograms per Kg Body Weight.

RESPONSE- Alteration of the biochemical or physiological parameters of the organism exposed
substances. The intensity of the response depends upon the concentration
to the biologically active
of the toxic substance or its active metabolite in the target point.

Acute Toxicity (Acute response)

after an exposure.
Acute toxicity occurs almost immediately (seconds/minutes/hours/days)
series of doses received within a 24-hour period.
An acute exposure is usually a single dose or a
Death can be a major concem in cases of acute exposures. For example:

to
died and 30,000 were permanently disabled due
to exposure
In 1989, 5,000 people
in India.
methyl isocyanate from an industrial accident heaters.
Many people die each year from inhaling carbon monoxide from faulty

Sub chronic Toxicity (subacute response)

several weeks or months. This is a common
Subchronic toxicity results from repeated exposure for
human exposure patterm for some pharmaceuticals and environmental agents. For example:

weeks as a treatment
Ingestion of warfarin (Coumadin") (blood thinners) for several
tablets
for venous thrombosis can cause internal bleeding.
weeks result in anaemia.
Workplace exposure to lead over a period of several can

Chronic Toxicity (chronic response)

and takes many months
Chronic toxicity represents cumulative damage to specific organ systems
or years to become a recognizable clinical disease. Damage due to subclinical individual exposures
or long-term continual exposure, the damage
from this
may go unnoticed. With repeated exposures threshold for
until the damage exceeds the
type of exposure slowly builds up (cumulative damage) function
chronic toxicity. Ultimately, the damage becomes so severe
that the organ can no longer
toxic effects result. Ingestion of Aflatoxin may cause
normally and a variety of chronic may e.g.
tumour which can develop into cancer over
decades.

TYPES OF TOXIC SUBSTANCES

overdose it may be a rare and unusual
. DRUGS- Drug toxicity may be due to either an or

adverse effect.
2. FOOD ADDITIVES- Food additives are usually of low biological activity. Many
additives are added to food to alter the flavour or colour or to prevent spoilage.
3. INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS- Industrial chemicals may contribute to environmental
pollution.
4. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS. The main source of pollution are Industrial
processes. Environmental pollutants may be released into the air, river or sea water or
dumped onto land.
5. NATURAL TOXINS- Natural toxins may lead to poisoning via contamination in food, by
accidental ingestion of poisonous plants or animals.
HOUSEHOLD POISONS- Many of the household substances used for cleaning are
imtants and some are corrosive.
 PREVENTIVE
MEASURES
SIGNS, SYMPTOMS
AND
FACTORS,
TYPES,CAUSATIVE
OF FOOD POISONING through
illness that is acquired
defined as food borne bacterial or n o n
It is which c a n be
Food poisoning
or
intoxication:
microorganisms , or intentionally
contaminated with pathogenic which is accidentally
of food
ingestion
substance
be any poisonous
The toxin may the
bacterial toxins.
microorganisms. It results from
added is an illness caused by and capable of
producing
infection: Food infection bacteria which
are multiplying
Food contains living
food that
consumption of
disease. infection
vs Food
Food poisoning types:
is classified into two
Foodborne illness

Food poisoning FOOD INFECTION

Food infection FOOD POISONING
Living microorganism

Toxin 12-24 hours

CAUSE 2 Hours abdominal pain,
diarrhea, |
Diarrhea,
INCUBATION PERIOD vomiting,
Nausea, vomiting, fever
SYMPTOMS
usually no fever |1-7 days,sometimes
longer
sometimes longer
I day,
DURATION
of food containing: mushroom toxicity
is caused by consumption and animals. Eg. they
tissues ofcertain plants
Food
intoxication while
Biotoxicants:
These is found in excreted
formed and
by microorganisms,
These are
Metabolic products(toxins) transportation
or

during processing
,

multiply in food formed in food

substances
These may be
Poisonous

storage of food.
Classification of food poisoning: into
Food
i n t o x i c a t i o n can be classified
Bacterial intoxications
Fungal intoxications
Chemical intoxications
Biotoxications

BACTERIAL INTOXICATIONS multiplication of

is produced during irritates the lining stomach and
causes

food intoxication, toxin

Bacterial
of
In bacterial
toxin already present abdominal pain is
caused.
consumed, the
cells.When food is diarrhea and
the intestine,
vomiting If toxin reaches
becaused due to
.

intoxication can
foodborne

Staphylococcus aureus
Bacillus cereus
Clostridium botulinum
Clostridium perfringens human
non-spore forming
most resistant
of the
S. a u r e u s is
one
aureus:
1. Staphylococcus
for extended periods in a dry state.
survive
and can
pathogens
 Conditions for growth-
Temperature:
47.8°C, with 35°CStaphylococci
being
are
the optimum
mesophilic. S. growth, in general, ranges from 7°C to
aureus
pH - The growth pH range is temperature for
growth.
Water activity- between 4.5 and 9.3, with an
Staphylococci
activity, with growth demonstratedareatatypical, in that they areoptimum between 7.0 and 7.5.
able to grow at low
of S. aureus occurs
at water
aw as low as
0.83, under ideal conditions. levels of water
activity of >0.99. Optimum
tolerant to salts and
sugars.
For the most
part, strains of S. aureus are growth
Toxin highly
Staphylococcal Enterotoxins (SE) are resistant to
which allows them to transit intact proteolytic
through the digestive tract. enzymes, such as
trypsin and pepsin,
Mness
Onset The onset of
cases
symptoms usually is rapid (1 to
hours) and in many 7
acute,
depending on individual susceptibility
ingested, and general
Complication dehydration caused by health.
to the toxin,
amount of toxin

Symptoms commonly include nausea, diarrhea and vomiting.

abdominal cramping,
more severe
cases, dehydration, vomiting, and dianrhea. In
changes in headache, muscle cramping, and
Duration blood pressure and pulse rate may transient
The illness is occur
relatively mild and usually lasts from only a few
to one hours
day; however, in somne
instances, the illness is severe
Mode of
hospitalization. enough to
require
Mostly human or animals via droplet infection
transmission -
from nasal
passages
Sources-
Foods frequently
implicated in
staphylococcal food poisoning include meat and meat
poultry and egg products; salads, such as egg, tuna,
products, such as cream-filled pastries, cream chicken, potato, and macaroni;products;
Foods that require pies; sandwich fillings; and milk and bakery
considerable handling during dairy products.
refrngeration temperatures for an extended preparation and are kept slightly above proper
staphylococcal food poisoning. period after preparation are
frequently involved
Prevention - in

Keep food refrigerated below 4OF or below

Use pasteurized milk
Avoid cross contamination from raw to cooked food
2. Bacillus cereus:
B.cereus is a
which is often isolated from soil spore forming anaerobic bacteria
and vegetation.
Conditions for growth -
Temperature: The optimal growth temperature is 28°C to
with aminimum growth 35°C
temperature of 4°C and a maximum of 48°C.
pH: Growth can occur in
pH ranges from 4.9 to 9.3, and the organism
tolerates 7.5% salt concentration
Toxin
The organism produces 2 types of enterotoxins:

Diarhocal enterotoxin
Emetic toxin
lness 6 to 15 hours atter consumption of contaminated food.
Onset Dianheal type :

of contaminated foods.
Emetic type : 0.5to6 hours after consumption
illness clinical manifestations like
more severe and fatal forms
of the report
Complication infections,gangrene, septic meningitis,
infant
severe systemic and pyogenic

death. and pain Nausea may

Symptoms Diarhealtype : watery diarrhea,abdominal cramps,
accompany diarhea, but vomiting
(emesis) rarely
occurs.
The symptoms of the emetic type
of food poisoning include
Emetic type
nauseaand vomiting,
Duration 12-24 hours
Mode of Contaminated cereals especially rice, soil
transmission

Sources and fish, have been associated with the

A wide variety of foods, including meats, milk, vegetables,
outbreaks generally have been associated with
diarrheal-type food poisoning. The vomiting-type also have
as potato, pasta, and cheese products,
rice products: however, other starchy foods, such
been implicated.
Prevention
Refrigerate the food at 40 F or below
Reheat the food thoroughly
toxin
Cooking may kill bacteria but not theemetic
Keep short interval between cooking and eating
3.Clostridium botulinum: Clostridium botulinum is an anaerobic, Gram-positive, spore-forming
botulism.There are 2 types of foodborne botulism
rod that produces a potent neurotoxin and causes

Foodborne botulism-This type of botulism most often develops after consumption of improperly
foods.
processed and inadequately cooked home preserved
Infant botulism is a serious illness caused by ingestion of C. botulinum spores that colonize and
of infants.
produce toxin in the intestinal tracts

Illness Adult Usually 18 to 36 hours after ingesting food containing the toxin,
Onset
although times have varied from 4 hours to 8 days.
Infant: Generally follows a period of normal development
Botulinum toxin causes flaccid paralysis by blocking motor nerve
Complication terminals at the neuromuscular junction. The flaccid paralysis progresses
symmetrically downward, usually starting with the eyes and face, to the
throat,chest, and extremities. When the
 diaphragm and chest muscles become fully involved, respiration is
inhibited and, death can oceur.
Symptoms Adult: Initial symptoms may include double vision, blurred
vision,
drooping eyelids, ditticulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness.
Ifthe discase is not treated, symptoms may progress to paralysis of the
ams, legs, trunk, and respiratory muscles.
Infant:
Constipation after a period of normal development is often the first
sign of infant botulism. This is followed
by flat facial expression; poor
feeding (weak sucking); weak cry; decreased movement; trouble
swallowing, with excessive drooling; muscle weakness; and breathing
problems.
Duration Death in 24 hours to 8 days or slow convalescence over 6 to 8 months.
Mode of From soil to food.
transmission
Sources:
Foodborme botulism- A variety of foods, such as
canned corn, peppers, beans, soups, beets,
asparagus, mushrooms, ripe olives, spinach, tuna fish, chicken and green
luncheon meats, ham, sausage, stuffed chicken livers, liver pate,
associated with botulinum toxin.
eggplant, lobster, and smoked and salted fish have been
Infant botulism: Of the various
and foods, honey is the one
potential environmental sources, such as soil, cistern water, dust,
dietary reservoir of C. botulinum spores linked to infant botulism
both laboratory and
epidemiologic studies. Honey should not be fed to infants under 12 months by of
age.
Prevention:
Reject gassy or spoiled canned food
Use approved heat
processes for canned food
Infants should not be fed with
honey till 1 year
Botulinum antitoxin should be given
4.Clostridium
immediately on detection.
perfringens Clostridium perfringens is an anaerobic (but aerotolerant) Gram
positive, spore-formning organism that produces
and animal intestinal enterotoxin.Spores are commonly found in human
foods.
tract,soil,dust.contaminated raw
meat,poultry and some dried
Illness-
Onset about 16 hours after consumption of foods
Complication mild gastroenteritis form of the disease, particularly
among people under 30
years old. Elderly people are more likely to have
as areimmuno prolonged or severe symptoms,
compromised people. The more severe form of the disease may
cause necrosis of the smallintestine.
Symptoms Abdominal pain, diarrhea (sometimes bloody), vomiting(rarely)
Duration 1-2 days
Mode of Direct transmission by human
transmission hands or through vectors such as flies ,cross contamination from raw to cooked
meat
Sources it
(e.g., gravies and stews), although
Meats (especially beef and poultry),meat-containing products foods.
and herbs, and in raw and processed
is also found on vegetable products, including spices
can survive boiling water
for an hour or longer in a
Spores of some C. perfringens strains
cooked-meat medium).
relatively protective medium (e.g., a
Prevention
Thorough cooking of meat preparation
Avoid cross contamination
.Wash fruits andvegetables thoroughly
Reheat food thoroughly before serving

FUNGAL INTONICATIQONS: called mycotoxins produced by fungi , while

These are causedby consumption of metabolites involved.
oilseeds, fruits,vegetables are mostly
growing in food. Poorly stored grains, flavusAspergillus parasiticus.
Aflatoxicosis: It is caused by aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus
Illness
Toxic dose Depends on tolerance level of Person canresult in
Acute exposure to high doses of AFs
Complication From acute exposure: serious liver
the liver, leading to
aflatoxicosis, with the target organ being
damage.
From chronic exposure: cancer,impaired protein formation, impaired
blood coagulation,toxic hepatitis,and probable immunosuppression in animals.
abdominal pain, and vomiting
Symptoms jaundice, edema of the lower extremities,
Sources
tree nuts, copra, cocoa beans, figs, ginger, and
Com (maize), sorghum, rice, cottonseed, peanuts,
nutmeg, may be found in milk and dairy products
Prevention -

Store commodities at low temperature whenever possible;

Using fungicides and preservatives against fungal growth; insecticides.
Control insect infestation in stored bulk grains with approved

CHEMICAL FOOD BORNE INTOXICATIONS:

This type of intoxication occurs due to consumption of food containing poisonous chemicals which
a result of
may be intentionally or unintentionally added to food as

producing.processing,transportation,storage of food.

Mainly occurs due to presence of

Heavy metals like arsenic,antimony, mercury,lead, fluoride
Pesticides and insecticides
Fungicides and herbicides
Radionuclides likeradium,barium,iodine isotopes.
Complications-
Nausea,vomiting.headache, GI irritation, diarrhoea, blurred vision.convulsions
 BIOTOXICATIONS:
hese are the intoxications resulting from ingestion of poisonous substances or biotoxin present in
plants or animals.
PLANTINTOXICATIONS-
One of the common plant intoxication is mushroom poisoning. Mushroom poisoning: It is caused
by consumption of raw or cooked fruiting bodies (mushrooms, toadstools) of a number of species
of higher fungi. The term "toadstool" is commonly used for poisonous mushrooms.These are
generally wild mushrooms.
Toxin -
The toxins involved in mushroom poisoning are produced naturally, by the fungi themselves. Each
poisonous species contains one or more toxic compounds that are unique to few other species.
Several poisonous mushrooms contain amatoxins.
ILLNESS-
Onset average6 to 15 hours
Complication fatty degeneration and necrosis of the liver and kidney
Symptoms severe seizures of abdominal pain, persistent vomiting and watery diarrhea, |

Duration
extreme thirst, and lack of urine production.
Death may occur within 48 hours (large dose), but the disease more typically
lasts 6 to 8 days in adults and 4 to 6 days in children
Prevention-
Most mushrooms that cause human poisoning cannot be made nontoxic
by cooking, canning,
freezing, or any other means of processing. Thus, the only way to avoid poisoning is to avoid
consumption of toxic species.
ANIMAL INTOXICATION:
Most of the animal poisonings is caused by fish. One of them is ciguatera fish poisoning
Ciguatera fish poisoning:
Ciguatera fish poisoning is a human illness caused by consumption of subtropical and tropical
marine finfish that have accumulated a poison called ciguatoxins through their diets.
Illness-
ONSET Usually within6 hoursafter consumption of toxicfish
Complication combination of gastrointestinal, neurological, and, occasionally, cardiovascular
disorders.
|Symptoms nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.perioral numbness and tingling (paresthesias),.
which may spread to the extremities; itching; arrhythmia, bradycardia or
tachycardia, and hypotension.
Duration Symptoms of poisoning often subside within several days of onset. However,in
severe cases,the neurological symptoms may persist from weeks to months or for
many years

Prevention -

Ciguatoxins are not significantly affected bycooking or freezing.So it is better to choose wisely
while eating
Local authorities can be asked about fishes safe to eat iffishing in tropical areas
BACTERIAL FOOD INFECTIONS
SALMONELLOSIS serious. Organisms of the
of bacterial food-borne disease and the most
It is thecommonest cause intestine of humans
infection in the intestine. They are present in the
an in
when living organisms are ingested
salmonella group cause

and animals and are excreted in

the faeces. Illness occurs infections
in food then can
are allowed to multiply
large numbers. If a small number of organisms

result. typhimurium
Viable cells of Salmonella enteritidis, Serotype
Organism
Incubation period 12-24 hours
Duration 1-7 days transmission: direct contact by food handler ill with
Mode of transmission Contact
salmonellosis or a carrier of
the disease
wash hands after
if the food handler does
not
-Cross contamination:
visit to toilet or does not clean the
after a
handling raw meat and poultry,
chopping board adequately.
from faecal matter.
-Vector transmission by rodents and flies
Use of cracked eggs orseafood from polluted waters. enteritis
fever, vomiting, dehydration,
Diarrhoea, abdominal pain, chills,
Symptoms watery, greenish, foul-smelling stools
or local infection may also occur,

Sources from them

shelled and products made
Animal products like meat, poultry, dirty
. Duck eggs
for long hours, e.g., milk, fish,
mutton,
foods exposed to warm temperatures
High risk
biryani.
.Seafood from polluted waters
opened, contaminated and held without refrigerator.
Canned foods that are

Prevention: and fish that have been thoroughly inspected for

Purchase meat, poultry, eggs
wholesomeness.
toilet and after handling raw meat, poultry and any
Wash hands often, especially after using
soiled objects.
should be trimmed and clean.
The food handler's nails
Keep equipment clean and hygienic.
controlled.
Rodents and insects must be sensitive to low
as it is quite
Growth of Salmonella can be prevented by refrigeration
temperature
66°C for at least 12 minutes
at
C a n be destroyed by cooking
Leftover should be reheated quickly and thoroughly.

PARATHYROID (Enteric fever)

TYPHOID AND whereas parathyroid is
caused by Salmonella
It is caused by Salmonella yphi, suffering from disease
Typhoid: faeces and urine of the patients
are excreted in
enetritidis. Both organisms
 or are exoreted by healthy carriers. Outbreaks of both the diseases ure caused by water
contamination by sewage and food contaminated by food handlers directly or indirectly.
Organism Salmonella typhi
Incubationperiod 14 days
Duration 1-8 weeks
Mode of transmission -Vehicle transmission through contaminated water and milk
-Direct contact through hands that are contaminated
Vector transmission by flies and other insects
Symptoms Malaise, headache, high and continued fever, cough, anorexia,
vomiting,
diarrhea, bleeding from bowels
Sources: Raw milk, vegetables grown on sewage farms, especially if eaten raw, and contaminated
water

Prevention:
l person or suspected carrier should not be
allowed in food preparation and service areas.
Use boiled cooled water.
There should be proper
sewage disposal and non-leaky sewage pipe.
Use pasteurized milk and other
dairy products.
.
Control the growth of rodents and insects.
.
Protect by immunization of vaccines.

Paratyphoid:_
Organism Salmonella enetritidis
Incubation period 1-15 days
Duration 1-3weeks
Mode of- Vehicle transmission through contaminated foods like frozen foods,
transmission and ice creams. ice|
-Direct contact through hands that are contaminated.
-Vector transmission by flies and other insects.
Sources: contaminated foods,
especially
Prevention: same as for thyroid. confectionery, frozen foods and ice creams

BACILLARY DYSENTRY OR SHIGELLOSIS

It is causedby rod-shaped bacteria that cause infection in the intestine of humans. The
for spread of thisinfection is poor personal hygiene and main cause
fully sewage disposal.
Organism Shigellasonnei, S. dysenteriae
Incubation period 1-7days
Mode of transmission -Direct contact with hands and
clothing soiled with excreta of a person
who is ill with disease or is a carrier.
-

Vehicle transmission
through contaminated food and water.
-Vector transmission by flies
Symptoms Abdominal cramps, fevr, chills, diarrhea, watery stools
containing blood and or mucous), nausea, dehydration (frequently
Sources:
cutlets
Moist, mixed foods like fish or macroni salad, mutton

Mutton pie, blancmanges and puddings

Milk, beans and potatoes.

Prevention:
hygiene. ll or carriers should not be allowed in food
Practice methods personal
of persons
preparation and service areas.
Cook food thoroughly. Chill foods promptly in small portions.
Protect and treat water.
Control flies and other pests.
Dispose of sewage in a sanitary manner.
CHOLERA
is present in water
Cholera is caused by the comma-shaped bacteria Vibrio cholera, which
contan
nated by faeces of people suffering from cholera. When bacteria enters the body, they
in. this infection mainly in
multiply rapidly in the small intestine and violent diarrhea sets ocurs

Asiaand Southern Europe.

Organism Vibrio cholera
Incubationperiod 1-6 days
- Direct contact with hands and clothing soiled with excreta of a person
Mode of transmission
who is ill with disease or is a carier.
-Ingestion of polluted and contaminated water, food and aerated water.

-Contaminated equipment
-Vector transmission by flies
Sudden onset of severe watery diarrhea, vomiting, cramps in the legs,
Symptoms
thirst and rapid dehydration; the stools are compared to rice water, there
may be griping pain in the abdomen; epidemics take serious turn and
mortality rate varies from 5-75% or more.
Sources:
Fish and shellfish from polluted waters
Aerated drinks prepared from polluted waters
Contaminated, stale food

Prevention:
Protect food and drink from flies and dust
Use suitable disinfectants and wash hands properly
Dispose of wastes and excreta properly
Water should be chlorinated and boiled before consumption
D o not consume suspected food which may be raw, stale or over ripe fruit which may be
exposed to the source of infection
Cook food thoroughly as vibrios are killed by boiling for a few seconds
 VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYCTICUS
This is a common cause of food poisoning in Japan. These non-cholera vibrios are found in
seafood such as fish and shellfish and in coastal waters. The infection occurs when seafood is not
cooked thoroughly.
Organism Vibrioparahaemolycticus
Incubation period | 12 hours
Mode of-Contaminated seafood and seawater
transmission Cross-contamination from salt water fish and sea water used for cleaning
foodand food contact surfaces.
Symptoms Acute diarrhea, abdominal pain, mild fever, vomiting, chills, headache and
prostration
Sources: salt water fish, prawns, crabs and other shellfish
Prevention:
Cook foods thoroughly
Chill foods to be immediately
Avoid cross contamination from salt-water fish
Do not use sea water for washing foods which are to be eaten raw
Sanitise equipment and work surfaces
Do not use sea water for cleaning production areas
ENTEROPATHOGENIC INFECTION OR GASTRO-ENTERITIS
Although Escherichia coli is a normal inhabitant of the intestinal tract of humans, many strains
cause acute diarrhea in infants and some can infect adults also. It is also often the cause of
gastro-
intestinal upset called 'traveller's diarrhoea'. The disease causing strains are enteropathogenic, i.e.,
they cause disease in the enteron or intestine. They are present in the human and animal intestine
and are excreted in faeces.

Organism Enteropathogenic Escherichiacoli(EEC)

Incubation period 12hours-2 days
Mode of transmission Raw food contaminated with sewage, contaminated hands, cross-
contamination of food and careless storage, sewage pollution of water.
Symptoms Two types of infections are seen.
-In this 1 type E.coli produce an enterotoxin result in cholera-like illness.
The ingested organism colonises in the upper small intestine and
the toxin resulting in travellers' diarhhoea and infantile diarrhea.
produces
The 2n type of E.coli infection results in an invasive type of illness. This
is dysentery-like syndrome with fever, chills,
profuse watery diarrhea
with mucous and blood and colitis
Sources: Raw meat and poultry contaminated with excreta, salads and other vegetables consumed
raw.
Prevention:
Cook foods thoroughly.
Chill foods to be immediately.
Practice methods of personal hygiene.
 like
sulad vegetables and chutney ingredients
Wash all vegetables thormughly, especially
conander leaves, mint and green chillies.
Protect and treat water.
manner.
Dispose sewage in à sanitary

LISTEROSIS the
bacteria that can cause serious food borne infection in
Listeria are acrobic., non- spore forming women and
particularly the old, infirm, chronically ill patients, pregnant
vulnerable age groups. borne illness
found in soil, vegetables and animal feed. This fatal food
infants. These bacteria are was
Listeria mononcytogenes
of death are high.
is uncommon but if infected, the chances
in the United States in 1985.
responsible for causing more than 40 deaths
a bacterium
Organism | Listeria mononcytogenes, Listeria is consumed, the
bacteria
Incubation period When food contaminated with
listerosis
multiplies in the gastrointestinal tract causing
susceptible foods which are
infected animals;
Mode of transmission Milk and meat of
salads, sausages. Listeria is a ubiquitous
refrigerated, like softe cheese, difficult to keep out.
its ubiquitous nature it is
organism and because of
cracks and cevices in the kitchen,
Cockroaches, backflow in drains,
cutting boards etc. harbour Listeria. women and septicaemia
in infants
Symptomns Miscarriages, still births in pregnant

contaminated and cannot be

heated like soft
foods that are likely to be
Sources: Refrigerated chilled raw
meat, milk products
and foods served in Deli's, also
cheese, prepared salads, sausages, of growing at 5°C, hence the
Since the organism is capable
chicken and unpasteurized milk. cannot be relied upon to
most other pathogens
which is used to control the growth of been
refrigerator acidic conditions. They have
The bacterium grows in mildly
control the growth of Listeria.
meats and seafood.
isolated from fruits, vegetables, ,ilk, cheese,

Prevention:
of
grease trap systems
in the kitchen to prvent backflow
Proper maintenance of drains and
water.
thrive in drains can spread the
fruit flies and cockroaches that
Regular pest control as

disease. that
for floor drains, sinks grease traps and
Introducing technically sound cleaning practices from drain water, which gets
prevent the formation
of potentially harmful airborne droplets
methods.
sprayed into air through traditional cleaning a food contact
falls on the floor before placing on
Washing any item that accidentally
surface.
fall the floor.
Discarding food items that accidentally
on
contact areas especially difticult to
contact and non-food
Thorough cleaning of both food around
missed nooks and corners in the kitchen. Areas in and
clean and frequently
 equipment, especially wet and refrigeration areas,
grinding chopping boards and slicers as

well as wash-up areas, sinks and drainage boards.

Thorough heating up of frozen and refrigerated foods.
Pasteurisation of milk and use of the same for making cheese.

VIRAL INFECTIONSS
INFECTIOUS HEPATITIS
This is an acute communicabledisease caused by a virus. It is very common in India, especially in
overcrowded areas where standards of personal hygiene are low. It spreads through contaminated
water or food. The hepatitis virus is found in the faeces, urine and vomit of infected person and in
polluted water. The disease has a fairly long incubation time as well as duration. Because of severe
nausea and dehydration, the
patient may need to be hospitalized. The virus may survive ordinary
cooking practices.
Organism Hepatitis A virus
Incubation period 25 days
Mode of-Contact transmission: food contaminated by direct contact with faecal-oral route
transmission of the diseased person or carrier.
-contact with hands of an infected person which are not adequately washed.
-Vehicle transmission by consuming contaminated food,
polluted drinkingg water or
shellfish.
-Vectortransmission by houseflies.
Symptoms Jaundice, loss of appetite, abdominal discomfort, severe nausea and
could result in dehydration, fever, weakness, marked
vomiting
weight loss.

Sources: Milk and other beverages, shellfish, contaminated

foods, contaminated water
Prevention:
T h e food handler should maintain
proper standards of cleanliness.
Prevent the entry of persons sick with
hepatitis
or those who are carriers in
food
preparation and service areas.
Control the growth of houseflies.
Shellfish should be cooked thoroughly and foods like milk should be
adequately heated.
Keep plumbing in excellent order, prevent contact of sewage
with food or food contact
services.
 PARASITIC INFESTATIONS
AMOEBIC DYSENTRY
Amoebiasis is caused by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica. The disease may occur with or
witout clinical manifestations. Amoebic dysentery is considered to be the intestinal
manifestation of the disease.

Organism Entamoeba histolytica

Incubation period 3-4 weeks
Mode of transmission -By ingestion of cysts in food and drink,
-vehicle transmission by contaminated vegetables from fields
irrigation with contaminated water
-vector transmission due to flies and rodents that feed and settle on
uncovered food,
infected food handlers can spread the infection through unhygienic
habits- viable cysts could be present on the hands and under the
fingernails ofthese carriers
Symptoms These range from abdominal discomfort or slight diarrhea,
alternatively, constipation orsevere diarrhea.

Sources: Water contaminated with sewage, moist foods contaminated with human faeces.

Prevention:
Use boiled drinking water.
Wash or disinfect uncooked fruits and vegetables
thoroughly
. Protect food against rodent and flies.
Food handlers should be medically examined periodically to identify those who are ill
or are carriers.
They should not be allowed to handle food and equipment in food
preparation area.
Proper sewage disposal methods should be adopted.
TRICHINOSIS
This is a parasitic food infestation caused
by a threadlike round worm found in pigs.
by It is caused
consumption of raw or incompletely cooked pork.
Organism Trichinella spiralis, a nematode
Incubation period Varies between 4 to 28 days and in case of heavy infestation,24 hours.
Mode of transmission Vehicle transmission
through consumption of undercooked, infested meat,
sausages,vector transmission by infected swine, rabbits, rats, etc.
Symptoms Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, colic, fever and swelling, later on there is
muscle soreness, swelling, chills and skin lesions, a severe manifestation
may result in death.
 Sources: Raw or insufficiently cooked pork or pork products containing live larvae.

Prevention:
Purchase and serve only inspected pork and pork products.
Cook pork and susceptible meats thoroughly to at least 68°C (155°F) for 15 seconds. Roasts
should reach the temperature of at least 74°C (165 to 170°F) in the centre of the cut. The
safe end point is when the colour of the pork turns pink to gray.
When cooked in microwave oven, the internal temperature of the pork should reach at least
82C (180°F) and should be allowed to stand covered for 2 minutes after cooking to obtain
temperature equilibrium.
Freezepork at -15°C or lower for 20 days or at -29°c for 12 days
Eliminate rats
Adopt effective methods of garbage disposal

FOOD
An
ALLERGIES
allergy defined as a special reaction of an individual to some ingredient of food. Some
is
people show abnormal sensitivity to foods that are harmless to a non-allergic person. The
substance that causes allergy is called
allergen. Allergens may be present in foods like eggs, wheat,
fish, shellfish, chocolate, strawberries and cow's milk.
Symptoms of allergies vary from utricaria or hives to gastro-intestinal upsets and may be mild to
extremely severe. The food responsible for causing the allergy should be avoided.

CONTROL OF FOOD BORNE ILLNESS

Food-borne diseases are generally transmitted through careless food handlers who are either
suffering from the disease
or are carriers of
microorganisms. A healthy food handler transmit
microorganisms indirectly through cross-contamination. These diseases are a constantmaythreat to the
food industry. They can be
prevented by practicing the basic principles of hygiene below:
1. Food should be handled in a hygienic manner by all the food handlers and infected handlers
should be kept away.
2. Cross-contamination from raw to cooked foods can be
equipment or surfaces in contact with raw food.
prevented by washing hands and
3. The time gap between
preparation and service of food should be reduced to avoid long
storage in warm environment,.
4. Large masses of food, which have to be reheated later should be cooled
and refrigerated immediately. quickly to 15°C
5. Food should be reheated thoroughly so that centre of the food
gets heated to
temperatures
high enough to destroy bacteria.
6. Frozen foods should be thawed
carefully at temperature between 10 and 15°C and frozen
food should not be cooked till it has thawed. Foods once thawed
should not be refrozen
unless it has been cooked very well after thawing.
7. Cooked foods which are to be served hot should be stored above 63°C. Avoid
heating food repeatedly.
cooling and
 it out of danger zone.
8. Leftover food should be refrigerated immediately to keep
and quantities for which adequate
9. Food should be prepared in quantities required
items from
will prevent perishable or high risk
refrigerated storage space is available. This
spoiling immediately without tasting it.
10. Suspect food should be discarded
should be cleaned daily and regular pest control
11. The kitchen and cooking equipment
measures should be taken.
with continuous supply of water should be
toilet and wash basin facilities
a
12. Adequate
provided.
purchased from certified dealers
13. High risk foods like meat, poultry, eggs, milk should be
only.
 REMOVAL
NATURAL FOOD TOXINS, THEIR EFFECTS AND METHODS OF
organis1ms. These toxins
Natural toxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by living
toxic to other creatures, including
are not harmful to the organisms themselves but they may be
and differ in biological
humans, when eaten. These chemical compounds have diverse
structures

function and toxicity.

Some toxins are produced by plants as a against predators, insects or
natural defense mechanism

microorganisms, or as consequence of infestation with microorganisms, such as mould, in response

to climate stress (such as drought or extreme humidity).
or sometimes in lakes
Other sources of natural toxins are microscopic algae and plankton in oceans
that produce chemical eompounds that are toxic to humans but not to fish or shellfish that eat these

toxin-producing onganisms. When people eat fish or shellfish that contain these toxins, illness can

rapidly follow.
Some of the most commonly found natural toxins that can pose a risk to our health are described

below
1. ALKALOIDS_These are nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds that exert
and
pharmacological effects. In plants, it serves the function of defense again animals, parasites
insects. These show alkaline properties and are water-soluble salts. These are located in surface
layer and peel. Alkaloids include further 2 natural toxins - solanine ánd pyrrolizzidine.
iSOLANINE:It is heat stable glycoalkaloid found in green parts of potato. This toxic is produced
in response to stress such as microorganisms, UV light and damage such as bruising. Normal

peeled potato has 7mg/100g of solanine. The level above 20mg/100g is considered toxic. These
impact bitter taste to potato. The usual content of alkaloids in tuber is 20-100mg/kg. The actual
content depend on variety, growing place, climate, light conditions, fertilization, injury and
storage condition. Intoxication symptoms are headache, diarrhoea, vomiting, neurological
symptoms, weakness and even death.

Effects
Nervous system apathy, sleepiness, fast and slow pulse, low blood pressure, in severe
cases, coma and death.
Destroy membrane of erythrocytes and other cells causing vomiting, nausea, diarrhoeas and
hemorrhage.
Intoxication can cause headache and weakness.

(wyTOMATINE: t is a glycoalkaloid derived from the leaves and unripe fruit of wild tomato
species, Iycopersicon pimpinellifolium. It is thought to be similar in characteristics to solanine and
is widely recognized as a strong immunostimulators.

Effects
Vomiting
diarrhoea
 abdominal pain
drowsiness
confusion
weakness
depression

Elimination Method
by boiling, cooking, baking and frying.
NotStoredestroyed
tomatoes in cool and dry places.
damage/insects.
Taking appropriate precautions against

atom in
molecules of which contain nitrogen
(i)PYRROLIZIDINE:It is group of substances the
are toxic. For
These are found in more than
250 species and over half of these
pyrrolizidine cycle. Crotalatia and
human the most important toxic pyrrolizidine
containing plants are Ragwort,
In case of an adult
Human toxic daily dose of Pas is 0.1-10 mg/kg body weight.
heliotrope
it to about 0.7mg of Pas per day.
coresponds
individual weighing 70kg

Effects
of hepatic and pulmonary blood vessels.
It effects liver cells, endothelial cells
to formation of ascites and
oedema to decrease urinary
blockage of hepatic veins leading
volume.
Acute GI upset with diarrhoea, vomiting
and severe abdominal pain.
confusion, vision disturbances, fever, rapid and
Neurological disorders apathy, weakness,
: etc.
weak pulse, low blood pressure, rapid respiration

Elimination Methods
destroyed by boiling, cooking, baking frying.
or
Alkaloids are not
Store potatoes in dry and cool places
insects.
Taking appropriate precautions against damage/
2.CYANOGENIC GLYCOSIDES :these are glycosides of low toxicity containing cyanic group
and
These are in plants, bacteria, animals
and releasing highly toxic hydrogen cyanide(HCN).
cane etc. From 20 cyanogenic
foods like apples, lemon, cassava, apricots, almonds, sugar well
lenamanin and lotaustralin. The most
glycoside the most common are amygdalin, dhurrin, taste compounds,
known is amygdalin which is present in
bones of fruits of plant. It is bitter
stone and 1-
2.5-3.5% in peach seeds, 2-3% in apricot
readily soluble in water and ethanol. It is be trace in seeds of
stones. Small traces of amygdalin can
1.8% in plum stone abd 0.8% in cherry
apple and peas.

Effects
 Chronic nerve injury
irreversible paralysis o upper matter neuron
diabetes
goitre
dizziness
vomiting

Elimination Methods
N o effects of
cooking/ stewing
Processing eliminate this toxin
Peel and slice cassava, then
cook; process sweet cassava before eating
Don't more than 1-2
apricots
in a day.
3.LATHYRISM, :It is crippling disease caused by excessive consumption of L. Sativus or
a
Khesari dal long period. It is characterized by paralysis of leg muscles. In India the disease
over
occur in Madhya
Pardesh, Bihar and Uttar Pardesh. The disease is
Algeria and in certain
reported to occur in Spain,
parts of France and Italy where lathyrus peas are consumed. The toxins are
identified in legumes lathyrus seeds is
oxalyl diamine propionic acid(ODPA). The neurotoxin
ODPA causes small but
significant increase in free ammonia concentration in blood and brain
leading to convulsions.

Effects
4 stages
Weakness of lower limbs, movement at ankle and knee joint restricted and painful

Flexing of knee is more and an inversion of foot with tendency to walk on toes
 Subject only walks with the help of crutehes/sticks. breakdown of thigh
becomes impossible;
Knee becomes completely flexed and walking
and leg muscles.
manifestation
Lathyrism has duo and pathological changes
occur in bones
occurs in animals
1. Osteolathyrism: mainly
deformities.
resulting in skeletal In this muscles of leg are
occurs in human beings.
2. Neurolathyrism: it mainly in severe cases. The
main
convulsion und death
paralysed. Sometime resulting in form was beta
recently obtained in crystalline
neurotoxic substance that was
causes nervous dearrangement in
This compound
Oxalylamino alanine (BOAA).
and mice are not appreciably affected.
young chick but
rates

Elimination Method
low toxin lines.
Genetic approach : cultivating water
Detoxification by parboiling and discarding

Soaking overnight in cold

water.

and discarding it.

Cooking in excess water
berries, beet, coffee, peas.
5.0XALIC ACID :It is present in
rhubarb, tea, spinach, lettuce,

DrjocKERS

pborries t
Cocoae
Powder wds**" Buckwn
other st wa foods
Beets

HIGH-OXALATE Spinach
Nuts & Seeds
FOODS
Rhuberb Potatoes

BibdTea Wheat Bran

Bees

Effects
insoluble and decrease
Oxalic acid bind calcium and
other minerals and make them

bioavailability. convulsions,
decreased bone growth, kidney stones, renal toxicity, vomiting. diarrhea,
coma and impaired blood clotting.

Elimination Methods
 cooking does not remove oxalate.
insoluble in water.
when consuming diets rich in oxalate-containing foods should be supplemented with
minerals such as calcium or potassium to prevent deficiencies.
6. PHYTATES AND PHYTIC ACID :Found in bran and germ of
many plant seeds and in
grains, legumes and nuts.

Food Phytlo Acid

Almonds O.4-9.4%
Beans 0.6 2:4%
Brazil nuts
O.3-8.39%
Hazelnuts 2-099a
Lentilss O.3 1.5%
Maize, corn O-7
Peanuts 45%
Peas O:2-1.2%
Rice o.1-1.1%
Rice bran
Sesame seeds
8.7%
6.4%
Soybeans 1.0-2.2%
Tofu O.1-2.9%
Walnuts
67%3
Wheat 1.4
Wheat bran 7.396
*
Wheat germ 1.1-3.9%
Effects
phytate-mineral complexes are insoluble in the intestinal tract, reducing mineral
bioavailability.
Phytate also has been shown to inhibit digestive enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, a-
amylase and B-glucosidase.
decreased protein and starch digestibility.

Elimination Methods
.Phytate is fairly heat stable.
removed by soaking or fermentation.
people who consume large amounts of soy products, mineral deticiencies can be prevented
by consumption of meat or dairy products or use.

7.AMYLASE INHIBITORS :They are also known as starch blockers because they contain
substances that prevent dietary starches from being absorbed in the body. These are
found in
legumes, beans and soyabean.
Efects
pll
active on a range of 4.5-9.5.
They reduce starch digestion and are
They decrease levels of blood glucose in the body.
lead weight loss.
They nmayalso to
inhibition of panereatic and salivary activity.
Digestion of starch is reduced by

Elmination AMcthods
affects amylase inhibitory activity
Soaking orcooking significantly
effective.
cut cooking is more

antinutrients that bind to carbohydrates .They are

8.LECTINS These are major family of proteins
and grains and legumes
found in many foods such as beans, especially soyabean,

Efects
absorption of digestive end products
Prevent
Lectins such as Hemagglutinins
enable coagulation of RBCs.
interference with nutrient
and cause non specific
They may bind to carbohydrates
absorption.

Elimination Method
Soaking in baking soda and water ovemight.
Pressure cooking.
Fermentation reduces lectins content.

be destroyed by antithiamine
COMPOUNDS : Thiamine in foods can
9.ANTITHIAMINE
mustard
foods such as cotton seeds, linseed, moongbean and
compounds that occur naturally in
tannins and catechols.
seed. Antithiamine factors can distinguished as thiaminases,

Effects
of thiamine and interferes with absorption or digestion of thiamine.
.They alter the structure

This can further cause Beriberi

Elimination Methods
Cooking destroys most thiaminases.
Tannins are heat stable and can't be destroyed by cooking.
 10.PRUSSIC ACID :lt is formed when cyanogenic glycosides found in leaves, cherry,
apPple and
peach pits, oak moss and other plant tissues are damaged and come into contact with beta-
glycosidase or emulsion enzymes.
Effects
Clinicalsigns of prussic acid poisoning include rapid breathing
trembling
incoordination
I n extreme cases, respiratory and/or cardiac arrest

Elimination Method
Upper leaves have more prussic acid than older ones.
Mature plants have more content.

Aquatic biotoxins
Toxins formed by algae in the ocean and fresh water are called algal toxins. Algal toxins are
generated during blooms of particular naturally occurring algal species. Shellfish such as mussels,
scallops and oysters are more likely to contain these toxins than fish. Algal toxins can cause
diarrhea, vomiting, tingling, paralysis and other effects in humans, other mammals or fish. The
algal toxins can be retained in shellfish and fish or contaminate drinking water. They have no taste
or smell, and are not eliminated
by cooking or freezing.
Another example is ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) which is caused by consuming fish
contaminated with dinoflagellates that produce ciguatoxins. Some fish known to harbour
ciguatoxins include barracuda, black grouper, dog snapper, and king mackerel. Symptoms of
ciguatera poisoning include nausea, vomiting, and neurologic symptoms, such as tingling sensation
on fingers and toes. There is currently no specific treatement for ciguatera poisoning.

Furocoumarins
These toxins present in many plants such as parsnips (closely related to carrots and parsley),
are

celery roots, citrus plants (lemon, lime, grapefruit, bergamot) and some medicinal plants.
Furocoumarins are stress toxins and are released in response to stress, such as physical damage to
the plant. Some of these toxins can cause
gastrointestinal problems in susceptible people.
Furocoumarins are phototoxic, they can cause severe skin reactions under
sunlight (UVA
exposure). While mainly occurring after dermal exposure, such reactions have also been reported
after consumption of large quantities of certain vegetables containing high levels of
furocoumarins.

Lectins
Many types of beans contain toxins called lectins, and kidney beans have the highest
concentrations especially red kidney beans. As few as 4 or 5 raw beans can cause severe
stomachache, vomiting and diarrhoea. Lectins are destroyed when the dried beans are soaked for at
 Tinned kidney beans
for at least 10 minutes in water.
least 12 hours and then boiled vigorously further treatnent.
had this process applied and so can be used without
have already

of moulds. Moulds
Mycotoxins toxic compounds produced by certain types nuts and
Mycotoxins are naturally occurring foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits,
on numerous food itself
that can produce mycotoxins grow after harvest, during storage, on/in the
harvest or
can occur before
spices. Mould growth conditions.
often under wam, danmp and humid
food-borne
The effects of
and survive food processing.
Most mycotoxins are chemically
stable
even death appearing
quickly after
of severe illness and
with symptoms health of chronic
mycotoxins can be acute Long term effects on
contaminated food products.
consumption of highly cancers and
immune deficiency.
include the induction of
mycotoxin exposure

cause
Poisonous mushrooms muscarine, which can
several toxins, such as muscimol and of
contain hallucinations. Onset
Wild mushrooms may salivation, and
disturbances,
confusion, visual is usually
vomiting, diarhoea, mushrooms. Fatal poisoning
6-24 hours or more after ingestion of the liver,
symptoms occurs
with toxic effect on

of symptoms which are very severe,

with delayed onset recommended
associated toxins. It is
not inactivate the
systems. Cooking or peeling does
kidney and nervous
identified as non-poisonous.
unless definitively
to avoid any wild mushrooms,
in a variety
it is important to note that they can be present
it to natural toxins toxins are
When the levels of natural
comes

foodstuff. In a usual balanced,

healthy diet,
of different crops and
for acute and chronic toxicity.
well below the threshold are advised to:
health risk from natural toxins in food, people
To minimize the safe;
is 'natural' it is automatically
n o t assume that if something and in particular mouldy foods;
or discolored food,
throw away bruised, damaged an unusual taste;
and
that does not smell or taste fresh, or has identified as
throw away any food definitively been
mushrooms or other
wild plants that have
eat
only
nonpoisonous.

WHO response humans of natural toxins

for assessing the risks to
with FAO, is responsible
WHO, in collaboration
- through contamination i food and for recommending adequate protections.
Committee on
in food done the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
by
Risk assessments of natural toxins Alimentarius Commission
and by the Codex
are used by governments
(JECFA) maximum levels in food
Additives or
Food
standards-setting body for food) to establish
standards are
(the intergovernmental contamination. Codex
risk advice to control or prevent
management so that people
provide other and for trade in food,
international reference for national food supplies
the
 everywhere can be confident that the food they buy meets the agreed standards for safety and
quality, no matter where it was produced.
JECFA sets the tolerable intake level for natural toxins

JECFA or ad hoc FA/WHO scientific

expert groups consist of independent, international experts
who conduct scientific reviews of all
available studies and other relevant data on
toxins. The outcome of such health risk specific natural
assessments can either be a maximum tolerable
(exposure) level, or other guidance to indicate the level of health concern intake
Exposure), including advice on risk management measures to (such as the Margin of
and on the prevent and control contamination,
analytical methods and monitoring and control activities.
Exposure to natural toxins needs to be kept as low as
only pose a risk to both human and animal
possible to protect people. Natural toxins not
health, but also impact food security and nutrition
reducing people's access to
healthy food. WHO encourages national authorities to monitor and by
ensurethat levels of the most relevant natural
toxins in their
comply with both national and international maximum levels,food supply are as low as possible and
conditions and legislation.
ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS, THEIR EFFECTS,METHODS OF
REMOVAL
INTRODUCTION
too humans or
These compounds are found in foods substances which are deleterious
most
the body. These antinutritonal factors
in some in way they limit the nutrient availability to
shown to be highly
are also known as secondary
metabolites in plants and they have been
in the plants to protect themselves and to
biological active. These substances are produced
These secondary metabolites are secondary compounds
prevent them from being eaten.
to the synthesis of primary metabolites
produced as side products of the processes leading
the maximum utilization of nutrients
Antinutrients are chemical substances which reduce
optimal utilization of these
especially proteins, vitamins and minerals. Thus, preventing
the foods. Some of these plant chemicals
nutrents and decreasing the nutrient value of
animal health if consumed in appropriate
have been shown to be beneficial to humans and
amounts.

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTINUTRIENTS

1. Heat stable Antinutrients: - these can be maintained at high temperature. for example:
and protein amino acids
phytic acid, polyphenolic compounds, alkaloids, saponins
non

etc.
sensitive to standard temperature and are lost at
2. Heat labile Antinutrients:- these are

protease inhibitors and

high temperature. For example: lectins, cynogenic glycosides,
-

toxic amino acids etc.

CLASSIFICATION

ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORS PRESENT IN

1.Protease inhibitors
>Wheat, oats and rye
Amylase inhibitors
Lectin hemagglutinins Legumes
Generally in nutrients
Food allergens
>Lathyrus and broadbeans
Toxic amino acids
2.Glycosides
Pulses and oil seeds
Saponins Several food plants and legumes
Cyanogens
Wheat, rice, soyabean
>Soya bean and cruciferous
Estrogens
Vegetables
 Goitrogens
3.Phenols
Gossypol >Pigments glands of cotton seed
>Sorghum, faba beans, lima beans
Tannins and sun flower seed beans
4.Antiminerals
Phytic acid Found in legumes and oil seeds
Spinach family, sesame seeds, green
Oxalates leafy vegetables, and wood apples
S.Antivitamins
Anti vitamin A
Soya beans
Anti vitamin D Soya beans
Anti vitamin E Kidney beans, soya beans, alfa-alfa |
and field pea
Anti vitamin K Sweet clover
Anti thiamine Cotton seed, lin seed, moong bean
and mustard seeds
Present in sorghum
Anti niacin >Linseeds
Anti pyridoxine >Raw soya beans
Anti vitamin B12
6.Anti Enzymes
Choline-estrase inhibitors Solanine(green potatoes)
Amylase inhibitors Wheat, oats and rye
Arginine inhibitors Sunflower seeds
7.Alkaloids
Nicotine Tobacco
Quinine Cinchona bark
Solanine Unripe potatoes and potato sprouts

8.Non-Protein amino acids target present in al organisms, they |

are important in plant-plant, plant-
microbe and plant-herbivore
interactions

EFFECTS OF ANTINUTRITIONAL FACTORs

 There are several heat stable and heat labile anti-nutritional
potentially
or toxic and
Goitrogens,
toxic factors. These include PROTEIN inhibitor, phytohaemaggluttins,
metal binding constituents, estrogenic
cynogenetic glycosides, antivitamin factors,
and unidentified growth inhibitors.
factors, toxic amino acids, lathyrogens, flavogens
cereals could give rise to problems in
These factors in seeds of many legumes and
factor are given:
nutrition. Some details of the anti-nutritional

DProtein
inhibitors found in tissues o plant animals as well
as
(a) Protease (Trypsin) Inhibitors: these protein 10-20% of
microorganisms. They reduce protein digestion. They are decomposed with heat about
bind which are resistant to
total active trypsin is found in human pancreatic juice. They proteases
ensure their removal through
excretion. Trypsin causes
digestion in the small intestine and thus
When legumes are eaten raw or without being
pancreatic enlargement and growth depression.
cooked properly they upset digestive functions
and causes diarrhoea or excessive gas

also known as starch blockers because they contain substances

bAmylase inhibitorS:- they are

starches from being absorbed by the body. so ,they can reduce starch
which prevent dietary
of 4.5-9.5 and are heat labile.
digestion. they are active over a ph range
in nature and are sometimes referred to as
C)Haemagglutinins: -Haemmagglutinins are proteins
most cereals commonly consumed by
human contain
phytoagglutinins or lectins. As in legumes,
where they may
lectins. Many lectins can bind to intestinal epithelial cells,
glycoprotein called
and cause damage that may allow
infiltration of bacteria into the blood
impair nutrient absorption
also enable coagulation of RBC's by effecting erythrocytes.
Although considerable
stream. They evidence
indications are there and these legume lectins can be harmful to humans, virtually no

lectins.
exits of any significant anti-nutritional effect from cereal
reactions that are specific to certain individuals. The level
(dFoodallergens: they cause allergic rather the quantity of the
of harm done
individual's
depends upon sensitivity level of body
are diarrhea and vomiting. Proteins with
substances taken with the food. Most common symptoms
the high weight cause allergies.
molecular Histamine and compounds of histamine derivatives act
as antigens against allergens.

(eToxicamino acids; these commonly found in lathyrus broad beans .Dihydroxy phenyl
are
of faba beans leading to a
alanine responsible for hemolytic anemia in humans by consumption
condition known as fauvism.

(i)Glycosides
biological properties,
range of
(a)Saponins: - Saponins occur widely in plant species and exhibit a the property of
both beneficial and deleterious. Saponins are group of natural products possessing
These of
glycosides high molecular weight.
producing lather or foam when shaken with water. are
 Saponins have been reported in soya bean, sword bean and jack bean. Toxic saponins cause nausea
and vomiting. These toxins be eliminated
can by soaking prior to cooking.they cause
hypocholestrolemia by binding cholesterol thus making it unavailable for absorption. They also
cause
heamolysis of RBCs and are toxie to rats. Legume saponins have moderate toxicity and
present a problem when present in higher concentrations. These saponins can be considered as
resistance factor in legumes against microbial infections.
(b)Cynogenicglycosidases: -Thes are the glycosides which consist of HCN/Prussic acid and they
are potential toxin.
Cyanide can't be destroyed by heat but it separates from legumes during
cooking or washing so it will be beneficial to soak it prior to cooking. HCN is a potent
inhibitor and occur in several food respiratory
plants and legumes including cassava, chickpea, kidney beans,
lima beans, broad beans, pigeon beans, and the oilseeds such linseeds. In addition to the toxic
as
effects, cynogens can serve as mobile nitrogen storage compounds in seeds which are important
during germination.
(c) Estrogens:- These are the phytosterols which exhibit estrogenic activity and are found in wheat,
rice, chickpea, alpha-alpha,
groundnuts, inseed and soyabean. The compounds
estrogenic activity in soya bean have been identified as isoflavones including genistein,exhibiting
daidzein
and coumsterol. Out of which
genistein is the most prominent. They cause growth inhibition,
elevated levels of zinc in liver and bones and increased
deposition of Ca, P and Manganese in the
bones.Estrogen can inactivated by dry or moist heat treatment or by solvent extraction method.
d) Goitrogens: soyabean and cruciferous vegetables contain glycosides or goitrogens.
Glucosinolates are the glycosides which cause growth of
thyroid gland by inhibiting the iodine
intake by the gland. This toxic effect can be reduce with addition
of iodine to the diet
found in broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbage and cauliflower. .They are

(ii)Phenol compounds:
Phenolic and polyphenolic compounds in foods and natural neutraceutical products represents the
most widely distributed plant secondary metabolites exerting their beneficial effects as free
radicals scavengers and chelators of
pro-oxidant metals and thus preventing
lipoprotein oxidation and DNA strand scission or enhancing immune function.low-density Phenolic
compounds have been shown to control certain types of cancer, cardiovascular disease and
of ageing. Polyphenols are secondary plant metabolites distributed ubiquitously within plantprocess
foods
(vegetable, cereal, legumes, fruits, nuts and beverages like tea, wine, cocoa. These levels
vary
greatly even between cultivars of the same species. Environmental factors such as
light,
germination, degree of ripeness, variety, processing and storage, genetic factors can intluence
levels.

a. Gossypol: - it is naturally occurring polyphenolic compound present in pigmented glands

of cotton seeds. Reduced lysine availability has been reported in cotton seed
protein due to
ability of gossypol to bind with reactive amino group of lysine during heat processing.
 Effects of
Cardiac irregularity, poor weight gain.
Toxic symptoms are: depressed appetite,
addition of Ferrous Sulphate to the diet.
gossypol can be reduced by sugar residues,
polyphenolic compounds
which on hydrolysis give
b. Tannins; -These are are two types of tannins:
condensed tannins. There
phenol carboxylic acid and
1. Condensed they are more stable.
down.
2. Hydrolysable fairly broken
-

binds to the proteins including dietary

Tannins the group of compounds which
are
in the gut.
which help in the nutrient absorption
proteins and digestive enzymes
and legumes containing
tannins are heat stable .food crops
Heating is less effective as
tannins.
significant quantities and

Gv) Antiminerals:
are common in the seed of many of
Inositols with 4, 5 or 6 phosphate groups
a. Phytic acid: higher than 10% of dry matter. In
reach concentration
our grain legume and can
of and in the
phytates is present in germ
corn
monocotyledons such as wheat and rice,
However, in diacotyledons
aleurone or bran layer allowing an easy separation by milling.
associated with
seeds such as legumes, nuts and oilseeds, phytates are found closely
concentrated with protein fraction of these foods. They can
proteins and is often isolated or

for phosphate and mineral nutrients

that are important for plant
be regarded as stores
contains complex
nutrition and especially during germination. Since, phytates
vulnerable
mineral ions
ions in the digestive tract; they can cause
zinc, iron, magnesium and calcium
these compounds seem to serve a double response
deficiency in animals and human. Again, food can be lowered by
i.e. defense and and mineral store. Phytates contain of
phosphate
addition of enzymes which hydrolyze them.
in
calcium absorption. Oxalates will also crystallize
b. Oxalates: Oxalates interfere with
arthritis-like symptoms and even kidney stones.
tissues if consumed regularly, creating
oxalates. You can also take a calcium/magnesium
Cooking will slightly reduce levels of in your
Calcium and magnesium bind to the oxalates
supplement with these foods.
stomach and them from being absorbed.
prevent

(v) Anti-vitamin factors:

which destroys carotene and is not destroyed by heat.
a. Anti-vitamin Afactor- present in soyabean
with phosphorous and calcium
b. Anti-vitamin D factor- present in soyabean, it interferes
absorption and is destroyed by autoclaving.
and field pea causing liver
c. Anti-vitamin Efactor- present in kidney bean, soyabean, alpha-alpha
necrosis and muscular dystrophy. It can be destroyed by autoclaving.

d. Anti-vitamin Kfactor- present in sweet clover

 C. Anti-thiamine factor present in cottonseed, linseed, mung beans, mustard seeds

f.
Anti-niacinfactor- present in sorghum
&Anti-pynidoxine factor- present in linseed and destroy by water cxtraction and autoclaving
h. Anti-vitamin B-12- present in raw soyabcan
(vi)Anti-enzyme :
Seeds are used in traditional Chinese medicines. Alkaloids are
commonly removed (or reduced) by
soaking the raw seeds in water prior to use. Cystinine has been identified as selective partial
nicotinic receptor against (nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are affected by Parkinson's and
Alzheimer's diseases) (Nicotine which is found in tobacco is fully against neuronal nAChR's, and
has additional undesirable biological effects). Alkaloid extracts from Lupinus species have shown
antimicrobial activity Many known lupin alkaloids showed significant antifungal activity. Matrine
has shown anti-ulcerogenic and anticancer activities. Quinine which is found in cinchona bark and
solanine which is found in unripe potatoes and potato sprouts .Toxic effect of alkaloids can be
reduced by aqueous extraction. Argemone oil toxic are due to an alkaloid Sanguinarine. The toxict
includes vomiting diarrhea, irregular fever and Anorexia etc.

1. Non-protein amino acids:

Hundreds of types of non-protein amino acids have been found in nature and
they have multiple
functions in living organisms. Microorganism and plants can produce uncommon amino acids .In
humans; non-protein amino acids also have biologically-important roles.
Glycine, gamma-amino
butyric acid and glutamate are neurotransmitter and many amino acids are used to synthesize other
molecules, for e.g. Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter serotonin, Glycine is a
precursor of porphyrins such as heme, Arginine is a precursor of nitric oxide, Camitine is used in
lipid uransport within a cell, Onithine and S-adenosyl methionine are precursors of polyamines
and Homocysteine is intermediate in S-adenosyl methionine recycling. In plants,
an

microorganisms and insects, non-protein amino acids cause reduced growth or even death. Since
non-protein amino acids affect a basic target present in all organisms, they are important in plant-
plant. plant-microbe and plant-herbivore interactions.

METHODS OF REM0VAL:

Thermal treatment: Legume seeds are hardly been consumed raw, they are usually cooked and
by this procedure, lectins and protease inhibitors are inactivated. Low molecular weight
compounds are leached out into cooking water, to be discarded afterwards. All these simple
techniques have been invented by man (even without a profound knowledge of underlying
toxicology) to make legume seeds more palatable and digestible. Today, a deeper knowledge of
chemical structure of the anti-nutrients can help to devise technological strategies to process
legumes seeds in order to obtain toxin free products. Since a diversification will increase the
cconomie value of overall crop plant, food technology and rational processing are an alternative to

breeding of anti-nutritional factors free plants which can be pests and

more susceptible to

pathogens. Followed by modern food technology (separation, fileration etc.), pure nutritionally
chemicals be
dietary products, such as protein, "dietary fiber, oil and other fine
can
valuable
to be discarded, some
generated. The remaining fractions containing the anti-nutrients don't need
of them are useful for the pharmaceutical industry; others might be used
in agriculture as
biorational pesticides. Because of higher costs these considerations are related to the use of
are soya beans for
legumes seeds which will be utilized for human consumption (an example
different in case of feed
which a specialized industry has been developed). These situations is
where pulses are simple ground or
industry (which is a major outlet of legume seeds in Europe)
For this we need to develop varieties which are low
in heat stable nutritional
pelleted. purpose
factors (e.g. alkaloids, saponins, phytates, non-protein amino acids). If heat labile
isoflavones and
denatured by heat treatment during grinding and
compounds (protease inhibitors, lectins) can be
confer resistance to the plants. Thus,
pelleting these compounds might be maintained since they
many fields remain to be explored even in widely known group like the temperate grain legumes.

Deaminocanavanine is well known untoxic deamination product of

a
Chemical detoxification: conditions
canavanine. The degradation of canavanine to deamino canavanine under alkaline
been
occurs therefore a chemical strategy for the detoxification of this compound and has already
canavanine containing seeds of C. ensiformis. The
successfully employed for the processing of the
can be rendered inactive by mild
major anti-nutrients in the seeds of V. sativa (besides vicine)
detoxification procedures can
hydrolysis. It is reasonable to propose that in principle post-harvest
be developed for these anti-nutritional factors.

is
Fermentation: The use of fermentation integral part of food detoxification processes
as an
and eaten around the world.
widely practiced. A wide variety of fermented foods are produced
Fermented foods can be prepared at
Fementation is also an effective means for food preservation.
fermented foods are prepared by very simple
both, an industrial and household scale. Indeed, many
which is already widespread; a fact which
techniques and represent grass roots technology
in underdeveloped countries for the
facilitates their further refinement, transfer and adoption
Indian household preparation techniques for
detoxification of alternative food sources. The various
fermentation step
their effectiveness in sativus and their methods which included a
detoxifying L.
ODPA levels, eliminating 95% of this toxin. Further,
were the most effective in reducing
selection for better ODAP degradation. Such
improvement in detoxifying is likely to be made with
harvest detoxification of Vicia seeds, thus
methods can, in principle, also be used for the post
utilization of these grains without the need for
providing an alternative approach to the wider
anti-nutritive and unpalatability factors. The
genetic removal of their low molecular weight
food technologies also offer good
incorporation of fermentation processes into other simple
for a detoxification of food source while simultaneously giving
flexibility in the
prospects
and color of the raw material.
manipulation of flavour, texture
 Germination: Pea and lentil sprouts have gained popularity in recent years. Traditionally,
Mediteranean, grain legumes have not becn used as sprouts. The potential toxicity of beta-
isoxazolin-S-one-alanine (BIA), the biosynthetic precursor for the lathyrism toxin beta-ODAP may
be a risk factor if consumption increases during the germination of lentils and peas. This kind of
processing. however, which reduces the contents of oligosaceharides and of other N-containing
ANP has a long history in Asia, where it has served to improve the palatability of soya beans. Pea
sprouts are a very recent addition to Chinese cuisine.

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FUNGALANDSEA'Fo0D TOXINS, THEIR EFFECTS AND METHODS OF REMOVAL p oVAL n
toxins in the marine environment, which can co-occur with toxins
algal
Mycotoxins are emerging
to exert synergistic and antagonistic effects for human seafood consumption. The current study
assesses the eytotoxicity of the algal toxin okadaic acid, shellfish, and dust storm associated
mycotoxins alone or in combination on human intestinal and neuroblastoma cell lines.

TOXIC COMPOUNDS may be produced either by:

a) The edible organism that is fish or shellfish themselves

b) The seaplankton or algae which are ingested by fish or shelfish. This group of toxic substances
are called as phycotoxins.

The microorganisms living in water are the main culprits of food intoxication caused by eating
most of the crustaceans (shellfish and fish).

TOXICANTS CAN BE LISTED AS:

SHELLFISH TOXICANTS-

The organisms belonging/shellfish family eg. clams, oysters, mussels ,scallops and crabs which
ingest toxic algae particularly dinoflagellates can be very toxic.

Shellfish are toxic especially,when seawater contains 200 or more microorganisms per milliliter.
As the concentration of algae in sea water becomes higher, the toxicity of shellfish becomes more.
It can be divided into;

(A) PARALYTIC SHELLFISH POISONING (PSP)- Paralytic shellfish poison is a

naturally occurring marine biotoxin that is produced by some species of microscopic algae.
Shellfish eat algae and can retain the toxin. People can become ill from eating shellfish
contaminated with paralytic shellfish poison. This biotoxin affects the nervous system the
nerveus system and paralyzes muscles, thus the term paralytic shellfish poison.High levels
of paralytic shellfish poison can cause severe illness and death.

The most common causative agents of PSP are SAXITOXINS produced by the cyanobacterium
dinoflagellates.
Saxitoxins dissolve well in water and is stable at acidic and neutral ph values at high temperature.
Boiling in slightly alkaline water inactivates the toxin and discarding the broth helps to avoid psp

etLW

naselli,
 hde.dvtt

caused by saxitoxins. The human nervous system is supersensitive to the action of these toxins.
They reversibly block the inflow of sodium ions into a nerve cell via sodium channels so, by
blocking nerve comduction, they cause death by respiratory arrest .The action level of saxitoxins is
fixed at 80 microgram/100 g tissuc.

SYMPTOMS-The first symptoms which appear within a few minutes after eating are-

(anumbness of lips,tonguc and fingertips,which progress to legs hands and neck.

(b) General disorders of muscular coordination appears,which is followed by breath paralysis and
death
c) Symptoms like cardiac deceleration,headache, increased sweating and feeling of thirst have
also been observed.

(B) Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP)-DSP is frequent in japan but now spreading in
Europe as well.It can be caused by eating of shellfish e.g. mussels, scallops and oysters
which have swallowed dinoflagellets of the genus
Dinophysis.
Symptoms include:
Nausea
Vomiting
Diarrhea
Abdominal pain
Thc discasc start from 30 min. to some hours after ingestion of shellfish and lasts for some days in
severe cases.

Fortunately,DSP is not life threatening. A number of toxins causing DSP have been isolated
from dinoflagellates and shellfish, they have been divided into three groups:-
1. Acidic toxins ocadaic acid
2. Neutral pectenotoxins
3. Sulfated yessotoxins.
(C) Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning- Dinoflagellates P. brevis produces nerve poisons
breretoxins A,B,C ,that are toxic to fish. It causes mass death of fish in period from Nov to
March. Brevetoxins cause nausea, diarrhea and tingling sensation within minimum of
digestion of shellfish.

SYMPTOMS- NCP involves a cluster of gastrointestinal and vomiting./ paresthesiasis of the

mouth, lips and tongue as well as distal paresthesiasis, ataxia, slurred speech and dizziness.

Neurological symptoms can progress to partial paralysis; respiratory distress has been recorded.
Recent research has implicated new species of harmtful algal bloom organisms which produce
brevetoxins, identified additional marine species which accumulate brevetoxins. Supraventricular
tachycardia, fever and dizziness.

(D) AMENESTIC SHELLFISH POISONING

It is caused by domoic acid which was first isolated from macroscopic red algae.

DOMOIC ACID- It is a marine biotoxin toxin called amnesic shellfish poisoning which is
produced by the diatom Pseudo-nitzschia sp. a type of naturally occurring microscopic algae.
,

ill from eating shellfish

Shellfish eat these algae and can retain the toxin. People can become
loss.
contaminated with amnesic shellfish poisoning can result in permanent short term memory

SYMPTOMS OF ASP- symptoms include vomiting,

nausea,diarrhea and abdominal cramps
withinc24 hours of ingestion. In more severe cases,neurological
symptoms develop within 48

hours and include headache, dizziness, confusion,

disorientation, short term memory loss, motor
cardiac arrhythmias, coma and possible death.
weakness, seizures, profuse respiratory secretions,
Short term memory loss can be permanent.

FISH TOXINS
hunter gatherer cultures to stun fish, so they
Fish toxins have historically been used by many
toxins paralyse fish, which can then be easily
become easy to collect by hand. Some of these
interest in
collected. The process of documenting many
fish toxins and their use is ongoing, wth
potential uses from medicine, agriculture
fish. It is caused by eating fish which
(a)Ciguatera Fish Poisoning-It is caused by eating spoiled can be
have themselves eaten fish contaminated
with ciguatera.Neither type of fish poisoning
or freezing the fish. Treatment
is available
detected taste or appearance or prevented by cooking
by
is caused from spoiled fish scromboid and ciguatera.
but symptoms may last for months or years.It
have not been refrigerated properly from the time
Scromboid poisoning is caused by fish which
served.Bacteria act on compounds in the fish, releasing
they are caught until the time they were
reactions and also explains why antihistamines help
histamine. This accounts for the allergic
often responsible include tuna, mahi-mahi,
mackerel, marlin,
control the symptoms.The fish most
others have caused scromboid poisoning.
bluefish, amberjack and abalone, though many
fish eat the
associated with coral reefs.Small plant-eating
Ciguatera is produced by a type of algae
fish, and on up the food chain.
algae ,are eaten by larger fish, again by yet larger
of ingestion.
SYMPTOMS-Symptoms appears in less than 6 hours

vomiting, abdominal eramps, diarrheoa ete

DIGESTIVE SYMPTOMS- Nausea,
 NeurologicalDisorders-Headache,flushing. muscular pain, dizziness, low blood pressure
weakness, paraesthesia ,sensitivity of lips ,tongue, mouth and dizziness.

SeverePoisoning -Symptoms may begin within 15 minutes to 24 hours after cating infected fish.
Reversal of hot and cold sensation, also cardiac disorder may occur. Symptoms may disappear
aftesome days but serious disorders after-some days but serious.disorders of the nervous symptom
may remain for months or even years, recurring from time to time. Symptoms may return after
consumptiom of alcohol or eating of toxic fish. The victims are recommended not to eat fish and
drink alcoholic beverages at least for 6 months after the poisoning.
(b) TETRODOTOXIN(TTX) POISIONING- It is a potent marine neurotoxin. Puffer fish and
Porcupine fish are common examples of fish containing tetrodotoxin. Tetrodotoxin has also been
isolated from other animal species including golby, shellfish, California newt, parrotfish, frogs of
the genus Atelopus, the blue- ringed octopus, starfish
, angelfish and xanthid crabs. TTX is an
extremely potent heat stable heat stabte nervgve toxicant. It is specific blocker of the sodium
channels of the skeletal muscles.

SYMPTOMSOFTTXINTOXICATION-It is well absorbed from gastrointestinal tract, In

humans, the leathal dose of tetradotoxin is around 1 to 2 mg and the minimum dose
cause symptoms have been estimated to be 0.2
necessary to
mg. The onset of symptoms of toxicity usually
occurs from 10 to 45 day minutes after ingestion, but may be dlayed by 3 to 5 hours or more.

Paraesthesia appears in the face and extremeties which may be followed

,
by dizziness or
numbness.

Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and epigastric pain may also be present. Later
such as
respiratory symptoms
rapid breathing may follow. Low blood pressure convulsiuons and
may occur.
,
irregular heart rate
MUSHROOM TOXINS
connected various hazards:
Eating of mushrooms can be
1. Real mushroom poisoning:
a) with persistently toxic
mushrooms- many mushrooms loose their toxicity during processing.
of the mushrooms.
b) with old mushrooms: toxic substances are formed during decomposition
bio-accumulated in mushrooms.
2. Poisoning by environmental toxicants, thousand of mushrooms growing
constituents of the several
3. Allergic reaction against mushroom
wild, all are not harmful for people.
Two mushrooms of genus Amanita are fatally toxic:
(a) the green death cap(A.phalloids)
(b) white death cap (A. virosa)
like phalloidin, phalloin,
Which contain amatoxins ( and y- amanitins) and phallotoxins
a-, B-
addition A. virosa contain virotoxins.
phallacidin and phallolysin. In
insoluble in water; they cannot be destroyed by
(A) AMATOXINS: They are heat stable and
mushrooms. These are potent poisons
and acute dose of
cooking or drying of the
boiling,
adult.
0.1mg/Kg BW can be lethal for an
be described into 3 phases:
Development of amatoxin poisoning
can

abdominal
of the first clinical symptoms, then
1.The first phase is from eating to the appearance sufficient water
diarrhea will start. Dehydration may occur due to
spasms, vomiting and profuse
loss. This phase can last for 6-12 hours.

second phase stars usually 24 hours

after eating. Although, the
2. When the first phase is over, the
which is indicated by high
but there is continuous liver damage
patient looks clinically recovered
levels. This phase can last from 2-3days.
serum amino transferases and prothrombin

observable. Death may occur on the third to

3. The hepatic and renal damage become clinically
seventh day of intoxication.
loss and
includes rehydration, balance of electrolyte
Therapy of amatoxin intoxication
administration of activated charcoal.
 (B) MUSCARINE: It is an alkaloid belonging to the group of betaines. It is found in the
mushroom of the genera Imocybe and clitocybe in the concentration of upto 3mg/g of the
dry weight,.
Toxicity symp Salivation, epiphora, headache, diarrhea, vomiting, bronchospasms,
ns:

bradychardia, low blood pressure and shocks. Symptoms develop during 30-60 minute after
ingestion of the mushroom.

Atropine has a blocker effect of muscarine, is used as an antidote in addition to supportive care.

C ISOXAZOLES: The compounds ibutanic acid, muscimol and muscazone

belong to group
of isoxaloes. These can cause
excitability, restlessness, hallucination and delirium.
Sleepiness and sedation may also occur. The physiological effects of these compounds
resemble the effect of ethanol. The first
symptoms appear during 30-90 minutes, the peak
amives 2-3 hours after the intake. The first
very symptom is dizziness, followed by
confusion, coordination disorders, muscle convulsions and spasms. Deep sleep and coma
lasting for 4-8 hours can also occur.
(D) OTHER MUSHROOM TOXINS: There are some other toxic mushrooms such as:- a)
Turbantops or brain mushrooms b) False morel

The brain mushroom contains gyromitrin which is converted into monomethylhydrazine (NMH)
during hydrolysis which is highly reactive compound and highly volatile. There content in
mushroom is substantially reduced during boiling.
Symptoms: nausea, vomitinfg, anorexia, headache, oliguria, tachychardia, paresthesia, severe
buning, thirst, renal insufficiency and GIT disorders.
Elimination takes place mainly through kidnes during a period of upto 3 days.
MYCOTOXINS
Mycotoxins include over 250 toxins which are produced by about 120 different microorganisms-
molds, fungi in favourable conditions. The most important mycotoxin
originate from the species of
the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium,
Byssochlamis and Claviceps.
1.Aflatoxins: are produced by micro fungi belonging to species Aspergillus flavus. The 4 main
aflatoxins, namely B1, B2, GI and G2 are produced by the microfungi in plant feed or food raw
material which is not sufficiently dried after harvesting and stored as half
dry at high temperature.
Letter B- blue colour, G- green colour of the respective aflatoxin.
Aflatoxin Bl and B2 are produce by
Aspergillus flavus and A. paraciticus.
GI and G2 are produced by A.paraciticus. Dominating type is mostly atlatoxin Bl.
The food material often contaminated with aflatoxins are peanuts, followed by various nuts,
cereals, coton seeds, dried figs, soyabean, almonds, paprika, and spices.
Human contact with aflatoxins takes place by eating of plant material that has been contaminated
with these toxins when a domestic animal eats contaminated feed, aflatoxins move into tissue and
milk. In milk it is stable in raw milk and milk products, pasteurized milk and in yoghurt and

cheese.
Acute toxicity of aflatoxins may result in death of animal without any warning sign or in

symptoms of anorexia, depression, ataxia and bleeding from body openings.

Chronic toxicity that happens mainly in animals and also in humans is categorized by jaundice,
liver cirhosis, weight loss, high sensibility to illness.
Methods for inhibition of its formation and for the decomposition of already aflatoxins in foods are
UV radiation, heat. oxidizing agents such H202 or alkaline substances such as ammonia, sodium

bisulphite or gaseous sulfur dioxide have been tested.

20chratoxin (OT)» They are produced by the microfungi A.ochraceus and Pencilium
verocosum. These fungi contaminate barley, corn, wheat, oats, rye, green coffee beans, peanuts,
grape juice, wine, cocoa, dried fruits and spices.

FOODITEM CONCENTRATIOON
Cereals 0.3-1.6 g/Kg
Coffee 0.8 ug/Kg
Wine 0.01-0.1g/Kg
The toxicity by OT depends on animal species. For example, in case of dogs the acute dose is
0.2mg/Kg and in mice it is 59 mg/Kg.
The primary symptoms of poisoning are fatigue, anorexia, abdominal pain, and severe anaemia
followed by the symptoms of renal damage, which can be further followed by death. One more
toxic effect onb the cellular level is connected with the enzymes of glucose metabolism (reduced
gluconeogenesis).
3.Sterigmatocystin: it is structurally related to aflatoxins and is a precursor of aflatoxin B1
produced by microfungi A.flavus, A.versicolor. First detected in brown rice stored at normal
conditions. Also found in wheat, green coffee beans, corns and cheese.

4.Zearalenone: They are endocrine disruptors and synthesized by microfungi Fusarium. Corn is
primarily contaminated, but also wheat, barley, oats, cassava, soy, bananas and other fruits. It is
also known as F2-toxin and found in beer also. Formation in corn is favoured by long term low
temperature.
5.Fumonisins: They belong to the genus Fusarium, the most important of which are F.
proliferatum. They are produced by some molds infecting especially corn.

6.Trichothecenes: They are produced on various cereal grains mainly by microfungi of the genus
Fusarium. They can inhibit protein synthesis in the cell.
 7.Patulin: produced as a secondary metabolite by various species of genera Pencillium,
Aspergillus. PAT can be found in mold apples, plums, pears, apricots, cherries and grapes,
especially when the surface of the fruit is injured. PAT also contaminates fruits, cspecially apple
juice. Also found in feeds and stored cheese. It is resistant to pasteurization. Upto 99% of the PAT
is destroyed during fermentation.
8.Citrinin and citreovirdin: Produced
by several species of genera Pencillium and Aspergillus.
Widespread in all regions of rice cultivation particularly on polished rice. It
that tums the rice into synthesizes a pigment
yellow.
Citrinin is found in yellow
peanut kernels, as well as in wheat, barley, oats, rye and fruits. It is a
potent renal and hepatic poison.
9.Ergot toxins: depending upon the proportion of various alkaloids in the food
either a gangrenous
or convulsive form of ergotism will
develop. The gangrenous form is characterized by prickly heat
and cold sensations in
limbs, swollen extremities. The reason being that there is
blood vessels which cut off the blood narrowing of
supply to the limbs. Convulsive ergotism is characterized by
numbness, cramps and death.
10.Combined toxicity of the mycotoxins: food stuffs of
plant origin may contain different
mycotoxins originating either from the same or different molds. For
combinations such as, example: widespread
Ochratoxin + aflatoxin B1
Patulin+citrinin
During theconsumption of such food, the organism assimilates several toxins that
combined effect in the organism. The may have a
intensity and the character of the toxicity depends on the
capacity of getting absorbed and the individual toxic properties. When the toxins
have similar
molecular structure and action mechanism, the effects
may be additive. But if the effects are very
different then the summary effect may either be
synergistic or antagonistic.
Nowadays, the content of essential mycotoxins in foods is being
strictly watched from the
analytical as well as from the legislative point of view. So the
mycotoxins is continuously decreasing. probability of food-borne
GOITEROGENS AND CARCINOGENS, THEIR HARMFUL EFFECTS AND METHODS
OF REMOVAL
GOITEROGENS:
Goiter is defined as a non-cancerous and non-inflammatory enlargement of thyroid glands.
Goiterogens are substances that disrupt the production of thyroid hormones by interfering with
iodine uptake in the
thyroid gland. This triggers the pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH), which then promotes the growth of thyroid tissue, eventually leading to goiter.
Although the incidence of goiter in the US has decreased considerably with iodine
supplementation, goiter and hypothyroidism still continue to be a serious problem in some areas.

WHO DATA
1993-2004INCREASE
Africa 81.4%
Europe 80.7%
World-wide 31.7%
The increase in iodine deficiency is thought to result from restricted Na intake to reduce
hypertension and CVD.

HARMFUL EFFECTS: For people with thyroid problems, high intake of goitrogens can worsen
thyroid function by:

Blocking iodine: Goiterogens may prevent iodine from entering the thyroid gland, which is
needed to produce thyroid hormones. lodine deficiency. often occurs along with other
antithyroid factors to produce endemic goiter. In very low concentration environmental
goiterogens may be ineffective but if iodine supply is restricted, may become significant.
Increased CVD risk- Both T4 and T3 are related to heart disease because they affect the
heart rate and amount of blood
pumped to heart. They help in relaxing the muscle of blood
 Hypothyroidism can lead
vessels and blood flows smoothly by keeping the blood vessels open.
to increased level of LDL cholesterol, triglycerides and other fats related to heart disease.

coughing, hoarseness and may make

Goiters can create a feeling of tightness in your throat,

breathing and swallowing more challenging.

iodine to the amino
Interfering with TPO: The thyroid peroxidase (TPO) enzyme attaches
acid tyrosine, which together form the basis of thyroid hormones.

Reducing TSH: Goiterogens may interfere with thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH),

which helps the thyroid gland produce hormones.

When the thyroid's function is disrupted, it has trouble producing the hormones that regulate your

metabolism.
This can lead to problems controlling body temperature, heart rate, protein production, calcium et
levels in the blood and how your body uses fats and carbs.

The body can make up for a decrease in thyroid hormone production by simply releasing more

TSH, which pushes the thyroid to produce more hormones.

Goiterogens Can Cause Other Health Problems

Goiters aren't the only health concems to consider.

A thyroid that can't produce enough hormones may cause other health issues, including:
Mental decline: In one study, poor thyroid function increased the risk of mental decline

and dementia by 81% for people under 75 years of age

Heart disease: Poor thyroid function has been linked to a 2-53% higher risk of developing

heart disease and an 18-28% higher risk of dying from it

with poor thyroid function gained up to

Weight gain: During a 3.5-year long study, people
5 1bs (2.3 kg) more weight
thyroid function were 20-113%
Obesity: Researchers found that individuals with poor

more likely to be obese.

Low levels of thyroid hormones during pregnancy, especially

Developmental delays:
during the first trimester, may disrupt fetal brain development
 Bone fractures: A study found that people with poor thyroid function had a 38% higher
risk of hip fractures and a 20% higher risk of non-spine fractures

Environmental antithyroid substances:

Many plants in the mustard family contain thyrotoxic substances such as goitrin, allothiourea and
thiocyanate. These substance are not present in the undamaged plant, but are produced by
enzymatic conversion of glucosinolates. Progoitrin is present in turnips nut at low levels in
cabbage broccoli, cauliíflower. Kale and brussel sprouts. Goiter can be most consistently induced
animals when the seeds of Brassica family especially rapeseed are included in the feed. The
goiterogenic effect of leafy part of the vegetables is less pronounced than the seeds. If iodine
intake is sufficient, the consumption of Brassica plants do not induce thyroid enlargement.
However, if iodine intake is marginal, consumption of high levels of Brassica vegetable may
produce some symptoms of hypothyroidism.
Another dietary goiterogen of much importance is thiocyanate which is found is foods eg. cassava,
millet, yam, sweet potato, com, bamboo shoots and lima beans, Thiocyanate toxicity from cassava
consumption can cause endemic goiter if combined with the deficiency of iodine and selenium.
Other naturally occurring antithyroid substances are the plant polyphenols. Although polyphenols
have many positive effects on human health as it can act as remedy against diseases like cancer
and CVD. However, many polyphenols have antithyroid activities, too. For example:
Daidzein and genisten - Soybeans
catechin- tea
quercetin- apples, onion, red grapes, citrus fruits, broccoli, cherries and berries
kaempherol- grapefruit
rutin- buckwheat
tannins- in nuts
apigenin and luteolin- millet
In West Africa where millet is the staple food, apigenin and luteolin are known to contribute to
high prevalence of goiter in an iodine deficient population.
Contaminated water is also a less defined source of hypothyroid substances. The antithyroid
products such as resorcinol, methoxy-anthracane, phthalate esters and phthalic acid are known to
contaminate water in areas rich in cool. Certain antithyroid disulfides which are similar to those
found in onion and garlic are present in high concentration in water where coal conversion
process
occurs. 60% of herbicides exhibit antithyroid activities. Other antithyroid agents include
polychlorinated biphenyls, perchlorate and mercury.

Foods containing goiterogens:

A surprising variety of foods contain goitrogens, including vegetables, fruits, starchy plants and

soy-based foods.
Cruciferous Vegetables: Broccoli, Brussel sprouts,Cabbage,Cauliflower, Collardgreens,
Horseradish, Kale,, Mustard greens, Rapeseed,Rutabagas,
Spinach,Swedes,Turnips
 Peaches,
Fruits and Starchy Plants: Bamboo shoots, Cassava, Corn, Lima beans, Linseed, Millet,
Peanuts, Pears, Pine nuts, Strawberries, Sweet potatoes

How to Minimize the Efects of Goltrogens

few
If you have an underactive thyroid, or are worried about goitrogens in your diet, there are a

simple ways to reduce the risk of negative effects:

Vary your diet: Eating a variety of plant foods will help limit the amount of goitrogens you

consume. Plus, it'll help you get enough vitamins and minerals.

Cook all veggies: Toast, steam or sauté veggies instead of eating them raw. This helps

break down the myrosinase enzyme, reducing goitrogens

Blanch greens: If you like fresh spinach or kale in smoothies, try blanching the veggies

and then freezing them. This will limit their impact on your thyroid.

Quit smoking: Smoking is an important risk factor for goiters

Increase Iodine and Selenium Intake

Getting enough iodine and selenium can also help imit the effects of goitrogens. In fact, iodine

deficiency is a well-known risk factor for thyroid dysfunction.

Two good dietary sources of iodine include seaweed, such as kelp, kombu or nori, and iodized salt.

Less than 1/2 a teaspoon of iodized salt actually covers your daily iodine need.
However, consuming too much iodine can also affect your thyroid negatively. Yet this risk is less

than 1%, so it should not cause too much concern

Getting enough selenium can also help prevent thyroid diseases

Great sources of selenium include Brazil nuts, fish, meat, sunflower seeds, tofu, baked beans,

portobello mushrooms, whole grain pasta and cheese.

CARCINOGENS:

Cancer is a aleading cause of death worldwide and diet is thought to play a substantial role in
cancer etiology. The salutatory and detrimental effects of diferent foods, food components, and
tood contaminants have been widely studied in the laboratory and in epidemiologic studies. The
National Toxicology Program (NTP) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC)
use different categorisation in their conclusions about the carcinogenicity of substances depending
on the quality of the evidence available. Substances and exposures that can lead to cancer are
called carcinogens. Some carcinogens do not affect DNA directly, but lead to cancer in other
ways. For example, they may cause cells to divide at a faster than normal rate, which could
increase the chances that DNA changes will occur.

nyPES OF FOOD CONTAMINANTS:

There are 4 primary types of potentially carcinogenic compounds that have been examined to
determine if they acts as carcinogens in humans.
The first are natural products that may be present in foods and are unavoidable. Eg., the process
of creating salted fish produces carcinogens which cannot be easily avoided.
Second, are natural products that might be avoided such as the contamination of grain with the
carcinogenic fungal metabolite aflatoxin, which can be reduced or eliminated using best practices
for grain storage.
Third, anthropogenic chemicals may be present in food. For instance, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
p-dioxin has been inadvertently produced during the manufacture of chlorinated hydrocarbons, but
it contaminates the environment, resists degradation, and accumulates in certain food stuffs.
Fourth category of concern is anthropogenic chemicals intentionally added to food such as
saccharin or food colouring.
Carcinogens do not cause cancer in every case, all the time. Substances labeled as carcinogens may
have different levels of cancer-causing potential. Some may cause cancer only after prolonged,
high levels of exposure. And for any particular person, the risk of developing canccr depends on
many factors, including how they are exposed to a carcinogen, the length and intensity of the
exposure, and the person's genetic makeup.

FOOD CONTAMINANTS WHICH ARE CARCINoGENIC TO HUMANS:

The agents with high level of evidence:
AFLATOXINS: these are a class of toxic metabolites produced by certain species of fungi. The
most famous source of aflatoxin is Aspergillus flavus that can infect peanuts, but also infects tree
nuts, and grains. Animals eating infected food stuffs can produce animal food products that contain
aflatoxins. Women consuming infected food stuffs can pass on aflatoxin to infants through breast
milk. Studies suggested an association between aflatoxin exposure and the incidence of cancer.
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES: alcoholie beverages of all types (fermented and those further
distilled) can cause in humans. Numerous epidemiologic studies have demonstrated an association
between alcoholic beverages and cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx and esophagus, and
possibly the breast and liver. The cancer risk appears to be dose dependent. Many of these studies
suggest that the cancer risk from aleoholic beverages is synergistically increased among tobacco
 lower overall
has been linked to a

users. Conversely, moderate consumption of alcohol beveruges

heart diseasc and stroke.
mortality and reduced isk of coronary method that appears to
in several parts of Asia using
a
SALTED FISH: salted fish are poduced
carcinogens have been
result in the production of carcinogenic
by-products. Several potential
identified N-nitrosodimnethylamine, other N-nitroso compounds.
including

The agents with moderate level ofevidence:

many different geologicsl, industrial, and
ACETALDEHYDE: acetaldehyde is produced in
humans from ethanol after ingestion.
biological processes and is the
first metabolite produced in
foods.
the air and from numerous
Humans are exposed to naturally occurring acetaldehyde in
and in
Humans are also exposed to it from automobile exhaust, cigarette smoke, fire places
in
has been demonstrated to cause cancer in animals, mainly
occupational settings. Acetaldehyde indirect and has
is more
the upper respiratory tract. The evidence of human carcinogenicity
rates of
been linked to consumption. Heavy drinkers experience higher
heavy alcohol
generally is that ethanol is
and one hypothesized mechanism
oral, pharyngeal, oesophageal cancers
converted to acetaldehyde.
POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC
HYDROCARBONS: they are produced during the incomplete
foods.
occurs through many roots including
combustion of organic material. Human exposure
use of coal tar for certain
skin conditions. Many
Intentional exposure comes through therapeutic
automobile exhaust,
and through exposure to tobacco,
people are exposed to PAHs occupationally
sources. Food is contaminated
with PAHs during smoking, barbequing,
forest fires, and other
world
in oils, coffee, sausages, etc. In areas of the
grilling present in low concentrations
and is also
smoke.
uncooked food and be contaminated from the cooking
that cook their food using coal, the
N-NITROSODIMETHYLAMINE AND OTHER NITROSAMINES: they are formed during

fluids and are present in including food stuffs

rubberprocessing, are present in metal working
alcoholic beverages. These agents may also be present
in
smoked foods, preserved meat and some
About 25% of dietary nitrate to nitrite and this nitrite
some pharmaceuticals and in tobacco smoke.
studies have
can react with amines to form
nitrosamines spontaneously. No adequate human

demonstrated that this agent is a human carcinogen.

The agents with low level of evidence:

DICHLORODIPHENYLTRICHLOROETHANE (DDT): DDT is the nickname for the

used in US from 1939 until in it was banned for

pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane that was

to DDT
In addition to direct exposure to pesticides applicator, all people are exposed
general use.

but not exclusively through

animal products, but also some vegetables.
through food, especially
The liver appears to be the primary
There is ample evidence that DDT is carcinogenic in animals.
 target organ, but lung tumors and lymphomas have also been noted. Although banned in most
developed countries, DDT is still used in some parts of the world. DDT could appear in the food of

countries with bansthrough food imports.

OCHRATOXIN A: Ochratoxin A can be produced by Aspergillus, Penicillium, and other moulds.
Food is the primary root of human exposure, especially from grain but also through animal
products from animals consuming contaminated feeds and possibly from processed grain products
including beer. The liver and possibly the kidney are target organs for the carcinogenic effects of
Ochratoxin A in laboratory animals.
COFFEE: Coffee is grown and consumed all over the world and was listed in 1991 by IARC as
possibly carcinogenic to humans. Some evidence had linked coffee to an increase of bladder
cancer. Subsequent studies suggest that this association is unlikely or very weak.
PICKLED VEGETABLES: Pickled vegetables have been studied for their association with
cancer mainly in Asia and especially in People's Republic of China. The pickling process is
different from that used in many parts of the world and uses no salt or vinegar. Instead it relies on
natural fermentation and can lead to contamination with mould.

FOODS CONTAINING CARCINOGENS:

Processed meats such as bacon, sausages, hot dogs, pepperoni, prosciutto, beef jerky and salami
(any meat that has been preserved by curing, salting or smoking, or by adding chemical
preservatives
Genetically modified Foods (GMO0s)
Alcoholic beverages
Salted fish (Chinese style)
Burned or heavily barbecued foods
Red meat including, beef, veal, pork, lamb, mutton, horse and goat
Hot beverages above 65°C
Polluted air and water

HARMFUL EFFECTS OF CARCINOGENS:

The increased incidence of cancer over the last 50-60 years may be largely attributed to two
factors: the ageing of the population and the diffusion of agents and situations presenting
carcinogenic risks. Today, we have entered into a new era in which populations are ever-
increasingly exposed to diffuse carcinogenic risks, present not only in the occupational, but also in
the general environment. We must now also consider an additional factor in the carcinogenic
process, that is, the age in which exposure to carcinogenic risks begins.
The key risk factors of exposure to earchnogens are:

Category 1A substances known to cause cancer on the basis of human evidence (including
benzene, chromium (hexavalent) compounds, asbestos, benzidine, coal tar and soot, vinyl
chloride, aflatoxin)
Category IB substances which it is assumed can cause cancer, on the basis of reliable
animal evidence (including beryllium compounds, styrene oxide, ethylene dibromide,
sodium dichromate)
Category 2 substances for which there is some evidence that they may present a
carcinogenic hazard to humans
cumulative (exposure over time) and additive effects (exposure to more than one
carcinogen) is likely to be even more harmful
Synergistic effects (where the effects of a carcinogen is enhanced by exposure to another
substance) can increase harm to the body by carcinogens. For example, exposure to
Toluene may inhibit the release by the body of Benzene (a known carcinogen) and smoking
is known to have a synergistic effect with asbestos exposure
it is generally considered that there is no safe level of exposure to a carcinogen but
exposure above approved WEL's will significantly increase the risk of disease.

How Carcinogens Cause Cancer

Carcinogenic substances can cause cancer in the following different ways:

.By directly damagingthe DNA in cells leading to mutations (disrupting the normal process
of cells)
By not affecting the DNA directly, but instead causing cells to divide at a faster rate than C
normal, this can increase the chances that DNA changes and mutations will occur.

Foods that FIGHT CARCINOGENS:

Cruciferous vegetables. This family of vegetables includes arugula, bok choi (often called
"Chinese cabbage), broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, collard greens,
watercress, and kale, as well as radishes, rutabagas, and turnips. Cruciferous vegetables are
excellent sources of antioxidants, including several phytochemicals (plant compounds)
such as beta-carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin. These compounds may help prevent cancer
by protecting cells from DNA damage, as well as destroying existing cancerous cells.
Berries. Blueberries, strawberries, and blackberries are some of the richest sources of
antioxidants, providing vitamins C and E, anthocyanins (phytochemicals that give these
fruits their vibrant colors), flavonoids, and carotenoids. If berries aren't in season, opt for
the frozen variety: One study found that freezing blueberries actually increases their
anthocyanin concentration.

Excess body fat has been linked to a higher risk of several types of cancer, including breast
cancer, and eating more vegetables and fruits, such as crucifers and berries, can also help
you stay at a healthy weight. Most fruits and vegetables contain fiber, which helps you feel
fuller and helps prevent overeating.
 Omega-3 fats. Consuming foods that are rich in omega-3 fatty acids has been linked with a
reduced risk of colon cancer and lower levels of inflammation. Foods that contain the
omega-3s DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) include fatty fish
Such as salmon, mackerel, herring, trout, sardines, and tuna. The form of omega-3s found
in plant foods, ALA (alpha-linolenic acid), is found in flaxseed and flaxseed oil, canola
oil,
walnuts and walnut oil, almonds and almond oil, soybeans and soybean oil, pumpkin seeds,
and chia seeds.
Tea. Teas made with leaves from the Camellia sinensis
plant--black, oolong, white,
and green teas-are rich in phytochemicals called flavonoids. One flavonoid in
particular,
kaempferol (also found in broccoli), has been shown to provide protection against ovarian
cancer. Drink one or more cups of tea every day to boost your kaempferol
consumption,
but don't overdo it on the caffeine; black tea has the highest caffeine content, while white
tea has the lowest. Decaffeinated teas contain about half of the flavonoids in regular tea.

Reduce carcinogens by doing the following:

1. Use leaner meats.
2. Use an acidic marinade for meats.
3. Use lower temperatures and moist heat.

5.
Don't show
offfor your grilling buddies with flare-ups.
Don't overcook.
Hey, why not eat a veggie burger and a regular burger instead of two regular burgers?
SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION, EFFECT ON HEALTH, PREVENTIVE MEASURE,
METHODS OF INACTIVATION AND DESTRUCTION
Introduction
Food contamination caused by microorganism and oxidation caused by active oxygen species
(ROS) are generally responsible for the food, vegetable ,and fresh fruit spoilage and destruction

during storage. This deterioration and spoilage during storage is a real environmental problem as

well as and in the food industry.

To avoid contamination and deterioration of food, using preservatives in foodstuff is essential.

Usage of synthetic preservatives in foodstuff, to prevent food contamination and deterioration, is

harmful for human health and the environment. Therefore, it is of interest to the food industries to

replace the synthetic preservatives with natural, botanical, and safe preservatives. Using essential
oils of aromatic plants as a natural and safe preservative with the botanical origin in foods has the

ability to prevent food deterioration and food contamination.

Satureja hortensis and its products has been used as a flavouring agent in foods in various
countries for many years. In addition, they have various pharmacological activities. Therefore.
they could be a suitable candidate to be used as natural and safe preservative for foodstuff.

Sources of contamination:

Microbial contaminants
Physical contaminants
. Chemical contaminants
 Types of Food Contamination

Biological Chemical Plystcal

barterie
accidentol acchden.ttal
mod contaminatlon cOnlaminarlon
with chemlcals welth objerts
fenges throughont the due to emplayee
product chaln carelessne
parasites
Lwirans and
othr loxins

Microbial contamination:
infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa) are microorganisms that are
Many
too small to be seen except with a microscope; the adult stages of disease-causing parasites
with the naked eye, but their eggs and immature stages
are
(e.g. woms) may be seen

microscopic.
to be infected with a pathogen and still
Although infections often result in disease, it is possible
appear healthy. This is either because
the disease has not yet had time to develop, or because the
the infectious agent can still be
person's immune system is keeping it under control. However,
food handled by the infected person.
passed on to others, for example by spreading into
infectious agents transmitted to people in the
The majority of foodborne diseases (those caused by
food we eat) are due to bacteria.

Food can become contaminated with disease-causing bacteria anywhere the food is handled or

stored.
Most food has to be prepared in some way before it is eaten. During this preparation the food is
handled by people. There are many ways in which unhygienic practices can cause food poisoning
bacteria to be deposited on the food while it is being handled. Some examples are:

Leaving food uncovered. Pets, flies, cockroaches and other insects carry germs, including
food poisoning bacteria, which contaminate the food

Touching parts of the body while handling food. While preparing food a food handler
might scratch a pimple, touch a sore, push back hair, seratch an ear or rub or pick the nose. Every
 one of these activities contaminates the fingers with bacteria. If the person's hands are not washed
before handling food again, these bacteria will be passed to the food.

Sneezingg over food spreads germs.

Licking fingers while handling food. Human saliva carries staphylococcus bacteria and
licking the fingers could result in these bacteria being passed to the food.

Licking fingers while handling food spreads germs.

Not washing hands after going to the toilet during food handling. If a person goes to the
toilet during food handling activities and does not wash his/her hands afterwards food poisoning
bacteria may be passed onto the food.
Washing hands after going to the toilet helps stop the spread of germs.

Poor handling of high risk foods. High risk foods are those which generally need

refrigerationand have a high moisture content. Poor handling of high risk foods is a common

cause of food poisoning. High risk foods include:

chicken, duck and other poultry

fish and shellfish

raw meat products

dairy products (milk, cheese, cream)
unpasteurized cow or goats milk
eggs and egg products
gravies
Cross contamination. Certain foods will always contain some bacteria. Poor handling of these
foods may result in cross contamination. Cross contamination is the passing of bacteria from
contaminated food to uncontaminated food. Cross contamination can occur when storing or
handling food
An example of crosscontamination during storage is:
A high risk food, such as a raw chicken thawing in a refrigerator, is placed in contact with cooked
meat. The bacteria from the raw chicken contaminates the cooked meat. Since the cooked meat is
not heated again before eating, the bacteria from the chicken pass to the person who eats the meat

An example of cross contamination during handling is:

Before cooking a fish which is contaminated with salmonella bacteria, a person uses a knife and
cutting bourd to cut it up. Bacteria from the fish will be left on the knife and cuting board. The
knife and board without washing them first. The bacteria
person slices cooked ham using the same

are transferred to the ham.

Physical contamination
Physical contaminants include stones, pieces of glass, and metal. Physical contamination can occur
at any stage of the food chain: for example, stones, bones, twigs. pieces of shell or foreign objects
can enter food during handling and preparation. These materials should be removed, if possible,
for example by sieving or picking out the items with clean fingers.

Chemical contamination:
Attention also necds to be given to possible chemical contamination of food. Food can be
contaminated through the misuse or mistaken handling of chemicals, including pesticides, bleach
and other cleaning materials. All chemicals (detergent, disinfectant, sanitiser) used in the food
preparation area should be removed before food preparation begins, to prevent any chemical
contamination of the food.

Other possible sources of chemical contamination are:

reusing containers which have been used for chemicals (Figure 8.7)
using chemical sprays (e.g. to kill cockroaches) in areas where food is exposed
accidentally adding chemicals which have a texture similar to table salt or sugar during
food preparation: they should always be stored separately.

EFFECTS ON HEALTH:
foodborne illnesses are usually infectious or toxic in nature and caused by bacteria, viruses,
parasites or chemical substances entering the body through contaminated food or water.

Foodborne pathogens can cause severe diarrhoea or debilitating infections including meningitis.

Chemical contamination can lead to acute poisoning or long-term diseases, such as cancer.
Foodborne diseases may lead to long-lasting disability and death. Examples of unsafe food include
uncooked foods of animal origin, fruits and vegetables contaminated with faeces, and raw shellfish
containing marine biotoxins.

Bacteria:

Escherichia coli are among the

Salmonella, Campylobacter, and Enterolhaemorrhagie sometimes
most com1non foodborne pathogens that affect
millions of people annually -

with severe and fatal outcomes. Sy1mptoms are fever, headache, nausea, vomiting,.
outbreaks of salmonellosis
abdominal and diarrhoea. Examples of foods involved in
pain Foodborme cases
are eggs, poultry and other products of animal origin.
undercooked poultry and
with Cunmpylobucter are mainly caused by raw milk,
raw or

Enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli is associated with unpasteurized

drinking water.
and vegetables.
milk, undercooked meat and fresh fruits
 death of new-born
Listeria infection leads to unplanned abortions
in pregnant women or
sometimes fatal
babies. Although disease occurrence is relatively
low, listeria's severe and
count them
infants, children and the elderly,
health conscqucnces, particularly amng
foodborne infections. Listeria is
found in unpasteurised dairy
among the most serious temperatures.
foods and can grow at refrigeration
products and various ready-to-eat contaminated water or food. Symptoms include
Vidrio cholera intects people through
diarrhoea, which may lead to
severe

abdominal pain, vomiting and profuse watery and various types of seafood
dehydration and possibly death. Rice,
vegetables, millet gruel
outbreaks.
have ben implicated in cholera
bacteria. However,
treat infections caused by
Antimicrobials, such antibiotics, are essential to
as
the emergence and
linked to
and human medicine has been
their overuse and misuse in veterinary diseases ineffective in animals
resistant bacteria, rendering the treatment of infectious
spread of the animals (e.g. Sulmonellathrough
enter the food chain through
and humans. Resistant bacteria medicine.
Antimicrobial resistance is one of the main threats to modern
chickens).

Viruses:
diarrhoea and
characterized by nausea, explosive vomiting, watery
Norovirus infections are
and spreads typically
A virus can cause long-lasting liver disease
abdominal pain. Hepatitis produce. Infected food handlers
are
seafood or contaminated raw
through raw or undercooked

often the source of food contamination.

Parasites:
transmitted through food. Others,
for
fish-borne treinatodes, are only
such
infect people through food or
Some parasites, as
likeEchinococcus spp, or Taenia solium, may
example tapeworms Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba
such as Ascaris,
direct contact with animals. Other parasites, contaminate fresh produces.
via water or soil and can
histolyrica orGiardia, enter the food chain

Chemicals:
and environmental pollutants.
Of most concern for health are naturally occurring toxins

include mycotoxins, marine biotoxins,

cyanogenic glycosides
Naturally occurring toxins mushrooms. Staple foods like corn or cereals can
contain
and toxins occurring in poisonous grain.
produced by mould
aflatoxin and ochratoxin,
on

high levels of mycotoxins, such as or cause

affect the immune system and noral development,
A long-term exposure can
cancer. in the environment
Persistent organie pollutants (POPs) compounds that accumulate
are
biphenyls (PCBs),
and human body. Known exanples are dioxins and polychlorinated
incineration. They are
which are by-products
unwanted of industrial processes and waste

environment and accumulate in

animal food chains. Dioxins are
found worldwide in the the immune
and developnmental problems, damage
reproductive
highly toxic and can cause
cause cancer.
intetere with hormones and
system,
Heavy metals such as lead, cadmium and mercury cause neurological and kidney damage.
Contamination by heavy metal in food oceurs mainly through pollution of air, water and
soil.
 HOSONINa
Pathogenic Bacterna Source Typical Symptorns Average onset time

Saimonela Raw poultry, eggs,

raw meat, milk,
Abdominal pain, 12 36 hrs
diarrhoea, vomiting9.
animals (including fever
pets). insects and
sewage

Staphylococcus Human body Abdominal pain, 1-6 hrs

aureus especialy skin, nose, abdominal cramps,
cuts and boils and vomiting, low
raw milk temperature
Clostridium Animal and human Abdominal 12 18 hrs
perfringens excreta, soil, dust,. pain,diarrhoea
insects and raw meat

Clostridium botulinum Soil, raw fish and Difficulties in 12-36 hrs

(botulism) meat, vegetables, breathing and
smoked fish, canned swallowing. paralysis
fish or corned beef,
hazelnut purée

Bacillus cereus Cereals (especially Abdomiinal pain, 1- 5 hrs or 8 -16 hrs

rice), soil and dust diarrhoea, vomiting depending on the
form of the food
poisoning

FOOD-BORNE DISEASES
Campylobacterjejuni Raw poultry, raw
meat, milk and
Diarrhoea often
bloody, abdominal
48 6 0 hrs

animals (includingg pain, nausea, fever

pets)
Escherichia coli Human and animal Abdominal pain, 12 24 hrs or longer
E.coli O157) gut, sewage, water, diarrhoea, vomiting.
raw meat kidney damage or
failure

isteria Soft cheese, cheese Flu-like symptoms 1-70 days

made from
unpastuerised milk,
salad vegetables and
paté
Shigella (Bacillary Water, milk, salad Diarrhoea sometimes 1-7 days
Dysentr vegetables bloody, fever,
abdominal pain,
vomiting
Norovirus Gut, sewage Causes infectious 24-48 hours after
contaminated water gastroenteritis, ingestion
vomiting, diarrhoea,
abdominal pain and
headaches
Preventive measures:

Stop contamination

Food contamination colloquially called food poisoning is indeed a public health issue.
However, it is preventable if one maintains high standards when handling food.

Republic Act No. 10611 or the Food Safety Act of 2013 aims to protect consumer health by
strengthening the food safety regulation system by monitoring and preventing "unsanitary
unwholesome, misbranded, and adulterated foods" from reaching the public.
At the household level, food contamination can be prevented if the person assigned in the family to
handle food adopts hygienic practices.
According to WHO, any individual can ensure food hygiene and prevent food contamination by
following the 5 keys to safe food:

Aside from ensuring the cleanliness

of the food, it is also important to make sure that personal
hygiene is followed. One must clean his or her hands before, during, and after preparing meals.

It is also important to
properly sanitize all surfaces and equipment necessary in food preparation.
This is to prevent any dangerous microorganisms from contaminating the materials used.

Make sure that there are no harmful chemicals in the

vicinity of the kitchen area. If it cannot be
helped, just be sure to clearly label these chemicals to avoid them being mistaken for any other
product.

2. Separate raw and cooked

The juices of raw food meat, poultry, and seafood

-

often contain harmful

These may be transferred to other food during preparation and even when stored. microorganisms.
It isimportant to separate them from other food types to prevent cross-contamination. They can be
kept in storages tailored for such type of food.

In addition, utensils such as knives and cutting boards used in handling raw food should also be
sanitized before being used again. If you can afford it, it is
another purpose, such as
suggested that you buy another set for
storing cooked pieces of meat.
3. Cook thoroughly

Proper cooking is one way to "kill" all possible harmful microorganisms in raw food. To be
successful in eliminating the dangerous components, it is
important to maintain a temperature of
70 degrees Celsius as it can help ensure the cooked food is safe for consumption.
When cooking soup, it is safe for it to boil to ensure it has reached the
required temperature. When
it comes to meat, make sure there are no visible "juices" and no trace of pink anymore. It is
recommended to use a thermometer.
 the type of food that needs special attention when cooking are: minced
According to WHO,
meats. large joints of meat, and even whole piece of poultry.

4. Kecp food at safe temperatures

In some cases, microorganisms can reproduce and spread quickly at room temperature. The safest
and above 60 degrees Celsius as the
way to store food is in temperatures below 5 degrees Celsius
growth can be slowed down or better yet, stopped.
It is best not to leave food at room temperature for more than two hours. If not consumed, cooked
and perishable food should be refrigerated immediately.
Meanwhile, it is important to serve food piping hot (or above 60 degrees Celsius) to ensure that it
is properly cooked and free of bad microorganisms.

5. Use safe water and raw materials

It is easy to contaminate water and raw materials with harmful microorganisms and
chemicals. One should be mindful and use safe water and raw materials in either cooking or
consuming food.

If unsure, it is best to treat the water first by either boiling or cleaning using filters. Meanwhile,
raw fruits and vegetables should be checked for bruises or molds. If these are minimal, it can be
removed by cutting the part off.

In addition, expired food should not be consumed anymore. It should be thrown away when the
expiration date has passed as it can contribute to health risks for the entire family.

In short:

As
Every year millions of people get sick through consuming food that has been contaminated.
the amount of cases reported each year attests, food contamination is a common health issue.
Food-borne microbes can cause illnesses such as nausea, yomiting, fever, abdominal cramps.
dehydration and diarrhoea.
There are simple things that can be done to prevent or reduce the incidences of food
contanination. Certain foods, especially poultry, eggs and ground bee, should be cooked
thoroughly and completely. Many of these foods have organisms present inthem while raw, that
can cause illness if consumed. Cooking foods completely generally kills the microbes present,
rendering them harmless. Use of afood thermometer is highly recommended.

Steaks, roasts, lamb and veal should be cooked to an internal temperature of at least 145 degrees
Fahrenheit (63 degrees Celsius). Ground beef should be cooked it reaches 160 degrees Fahrenheit
(71 degrees Celsius). A quick way to determine whether or not ground beefis cooked to the proper
temperature is to ensure that the meat is cooked until it is no longer pink inside.
Porkand should be cooked to 160 degrees Fahrenheit (71 degrees Celsius). Chicken and turkey
should be cooked to an intermal temperature of 180 degrees Fahrenheit (82 degrees Celsius). Eggs
should be cooked until the yolk and whites are firm.

In addition to cooking foods to the proper temperature, it is also important to keep foods
refrigerated or chilled at the proper temperature. Food-borne bacteria and organisms grow most
rapidly at temperatures between 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius) and 140 degrees
Fahrenheit (60 degrees Celsius). Generally, refrigerated foods should not be left sitting out at room
temperature for more than two hours.

Another important aspect of preventing food contamination is to keep foods separated from other
foods that are prone to contamination. Harmful microbes can transfer from raw foods to other
foods when the same plates, knives, utensils and
cutting boards are used again, without washing.
Food can also become contaminated when it comes into direct contact with raw foods or with the
drippings from raw foods.

Washing of hands is another critical component in preventing food contamination. Cross

contamination can occur when ready-to-eat foods are handled after raw meat and poultry has been
touched. Hands should be washed with soap and warm water for at least twenty seconds after
handling raw meat, eggs, and seafood.

Food-bormne pathogens can also be found on fruits and vegetables. Harmful organisms are often
found in animal manure used as agricultural fertilizer.
Thoroughly washing fruits and vegetables
before consuming, cutting or cooking is another important factor in
food contamination.
preventing illness caused by

Methods of inactivation and destruction:

Correct cooking temperatures

Food poisoning bacteria do not grow at temperatures above 60°C. If the temperature falls into the
danger zone between 5°C and 60°C, the bacteria will be able to grow and multiply rapidly.

Before some frozen foods are eaten they will need to be thawed. Foods which are to be eaten hot
should be cooked and served immediately while they are still hot. If they are not to be eaten
straight away they should be placed in the refrigerator or freezer immediately after cooking.

Cooked foods which have been stored in the refrigerator or freezer must be thawed if necessary
and reheated quickly and thoroughly to a temperature of at least 75°C.

No high risk food should be left standing in the danger zone for more than a few minutes.
Correct food storage
Food poisoning bacteria can only muliply in the temperature danger zone of between 5°C and
60°C.
However, food poisoning bacteria do not multiply at the same rate throughout this temperature
range. They multiply most quickly between 36°C and 38°C, which is around human body
temperature
Above 60°C nearly all food poisoning germs are killed. Below 5°C the germs stay alive but they
do not multiply. Keeping food out of the temperature danger zone helps stop the multiplication and
growth of bacteria.

O0

The food temperature danger zone.

Food should be stored according to its food type. For example:

high risk foods such as milk and milk products and fish should be stored in a refrigerator or
freezer. They should never be left in the food temperature danger zone
foods such as fresh fruit and vegetables last longer when they are kept cold, and should be
stored in a refrigerator
dry foods such as flour, breakfast cereals and rice are likely to be attacked by pests and
need to be stored in sealed containers

Use of Heat Treatment (Thermal Processing)

Heat treatment that leads to commercial sterility: heat processing at high temperatures (> 2120F(
100°C)) under pressure with the objective of killing all forms of microorganisms, including the
spores of bacteria. The treated products are shelf-stable without refrigeration. (Lower temperatures
can lead to products that are slhelf-stable in somecases, e.g.. when the pl is low enough to prevent

growth of surviving spore formers.)

Uise of Irradiation as a L.ethality Process Control

The application of radiation treatments to food for the purpose of improving safety (c.g. by
reducingor eliminating pathogenic bacteria) or extending shelf life by (c.g. by reducing
or

eliminating spoilage microorganisms and insects) can use sources that have high enough energy
levels to cause ionization (the creation of ions by expulsion of orbital electrons from atoms) or
have lower energy levels that will not cause ionization. These are known as ionizing and non
ionizing radiation, respectively.

Chemical decontamination

This method is mostly applicable for those soils which have high sorbed concentration of inorganic
heavy metals (IHM). The first process in this method is to understand the nature of bonding
between the pollutant and the soil surface. . suitable extract ant need to be selected for selective
sequential extraction (SSE) of IHM from the soil mass. The extractants include electrolytes, weak
acids, complex agents, oxidizing and reducing agents, strong acids etc. The use of these extractants
in single or in combination will depend upon the concentration of IHM and nature of the soil mass.

Biological methods

Remediation by biological treatment is mostly applicable for soil contaminated with organic
pollutants and the process is termed as bioremediation. In this method, certain soil microorganisms
are used to metabolize organic chemical compounds. In the process these microorganisms degrade
the contaminant. If naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, virus or fungi is not
capable of producing enzymes required for bioremediation, then genetically engineered
microorganisms would be required. At the same time, it should be ensured that such
microorganisms do not produce any undesirable effect on the geoenvironment (such as toxins).
The process of bioremediation is dependent on reactions such as microbial degradation, hydrolysis,
aerobic and anaerobic transformation, redox reaction, process is used for the remediation of oil
spill land.
Process Control Hazard Examples
Subcategory Category Heat treatrments (also called thermal
Lethal Treatments Biological
treatments) (e.g., cooking, roasting,
baking)
High Pressure Processing (HPP)
Irradiation
Antimicrobial fumigation (e.g., with
polypropylene oxide (PPO))

Time/Temperature Biological Refrigeration

of Holding
Freezing
Fomulation Biological Reducing the water activity
Reducing the pH
Adding preservatives
Dehydration/Drying Biological Air-drying (forced air and heating)
Freeze drying
Spray drying
Recipe Chemical Controlling the maximum level of food
Management ingredients
Storage Conditions Chemical . Controlling moisture during storage of
raw agricultural commodities

Physical Sorting Chemical Reducing mycotoxin content through

sorting by color and physical damage in
raw agricultural commodities
Exclusion of Metal
and Glass
Physical Using magnets
Using metal detectors
Using sieves, screens
Using X-ray systems
 MATERIAL IN FOOD & THEIR
CHEMICAL TOXINS, PESTICIDES, RADIACTIVE
RESIDUAL EFFECTS &METHODS OFREMOVAL
toxic
global issue. There are many potentially
food safcty
Chemical contamination is a
include
contaminate foods consumed by people. They
substances in the environment which may
of sources. In certain
and organie substances and may originatc from a wide range
inorganie metals such as
instances. the source of contaminants may be
the environment. This is the case for

lead and nmercury, dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs). Agricultural use of pesticides
and animals may
contamination. Similarly, drugs used in both people
may lead to food
consumers. Additionally, food packagingg
contaminate waterways and pose a health risk to
materials.
methods may be a source of contamination,
so-called "migrants" leaching from packing
route of
toxic effects. Toxicity may relate to the
These contaminants may cause acute or chronic
affect the
characteristics such as age and health condition may
exposure and dose. and personal
individual's susceptibility.

1.METALS AND METALLOIDS

sources. One source of mercury

and lead is
Metals and metalloids in the environment have various
area of Tongguan, Shaanxi, China,
artisanal gold mining. For example, in the gold mining
concentrations of these metals in locally produced grains and vegetables exceeded governmental
Lead and cadmium
tolerance limits and posed a potential health risk to people from consumption.
cadmium in livestock organs higher
from iron mine in Morocco resulted in concentrations of
an
near a mine were found to
have lead
than acceptable limits. Likewise, in Spain, sheep
contamination, with levels in 87.5% liver samples above-European_Union
Maximum Residue
Levels (MRL).Many fruits and vegetables have been
shown to be contaminated by metals. For
navel oranges in China and lead and cadmium
in
example, cadmiumn in soil was detected in levels of
detected in edible seeds, with
soybeans in Argentina. Also in China, various metals were
copper sufficiently high to show an increased health risk to people consuming them.
of 80% of 149 neurologically-disabled children.
According to german laboratory hair samples
uranium.
mainly from Malwa region, had high levels of
Another study by Greenpeace suggested that all the three major types of toxixity- chemical,
radiation and biological - are rampant in Punjab.

The study found the effects of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers in groundwater in agriculture-intensive
areas in three districts of It showed that 20% of all sampled wells have nitrate levels above
Punjab.
the safety limit of 50mg of nitrate per litre, established by WHO,
the of synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. The higher the
Nitrate pollution is clearly linked with use

found in
application of nitrogen (urea) in fields, the higher the nitrate pollution drinking water

from nearby wells

According to a number of studies conducted in the recent past, many harmful chemicals, including
cyanide, are believed to be flowing from factories from Ludhiana, Jalandhar and Phagwara into
drinking water sources, particularly of the Malwa region and the adjoining Rajasthan, as a result of

which disease like cancer is prevalent in these areas.

A report by VD Puranik, head ofthe environmental assessment division, Bhaba Atomic Research
Centre, had revealed the uranium content in water sample in Malwa in the range of 2.2-244.2
micro grams per litre while WHOs safe limit is 15 microgram per litre.

SYMPTOMSS
Heavy metal toxicity can result in:
damaged or reduced mental and central nervous function
lower energy levels
and damage to blood composition, lungs kidneys, liver and other vital organs
long term exposure may result in slowly progressive physical, muscular, and
neurological degenerative processes that mimic Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's
disease, muscular dystrophy and multiple sclerosis. Allergies are not common and
repeated long-term contact with some metals or their compounds may even cause
cancer.
The association of symptoms indicative of acute toxicity is not difficult to recognize because of the
symptoms are usually severe, rapid in onset and associated with a known exposure or ingestion:
cramping, nausea and vomiting
pain
sweating
headaches
difficulty breathing
impaired cognitive, motor,language skills
convulsions
the symptoms of toxicity resulting from chronic exposure (impaired cognitive, motor and language
skills, leaning difficulties, nervousness and emotional instability and insomnia, nausea, lethargy
and feeling ill) are also recognized; however, they are much more difficult to associate with their
cause.

Symptoms of chronic exposure are very similar to symptoms of other health conditions and often
develop slowly over months or even years. Sometimes the symptoms of chronic exposure actually
abate from time to time, leading the person to postpone seeking treatment, thinking the symptoms
are related to something.

1.Mercury (Hg): Most mercury in the atmosphere is found after combustion of fuels like coal or
petroleum. Mercury is used in the production of chlorine, polymers and paints. Mercury exists in
mainly three forms-
 damage to the Central Nervous
a) Elementary mercury- It is absorbed as vapour that causes

System (CNS)
absorbed but absorbed part can cause renal
byalty ví ingnti mecury- they are poorly
damage
c) Easily absorbable organic mereury- the major part of dictary mercury originates from Hg-
The
organic fungicides mereury, chloride and phosphate of methylmercury.
e.g. dimethyl
extremely toxic compounds are liquid soluble, they are easily absorbed and get
accumulated in erythrocytes and CNS.

Inorganic He has been used in the industrial production of plastics, paper and electric batteries.
Waste water contaminated with inorganic Hg can reach rivers and lakes.
to the cells of renal tubule.
Symptoms acute poisoning with inorganic mercury are damaged
of
Organic mercury- causes brain edema, decomposition of brain gray cells and brain atrophy.
is also toxic to the embryo and to the babies through mother's milk. The concentration
of
Mercury
mercury in sea fish may be 1000 times higher than in sea
water.
2.Lead(Pb):it is a toxicant described long ago. The lead poisoning could be caused by used of lead
well of lead in the glaze of the pottery. Industriallead intoxication is connected
plumbing as as use

with mining and melting of lead.

Assimilation: lead is assimilated from food, water and air. Although its concentration in food can
be higher than in air, the pulmonary absorption of lead is considerably more efficient than that
from the gastrointestinal tract.
lead than adults since they assimilate more amounts of
Svmptoms: infants are more susceptible to

lead from the digestive tract.

In children- lead poisoning can lead to encephalopathy, mental fixation, brain attack and paralysis.
Absorption: Metallic lead as well as its salts absorb slowly and incompletely from the mouth
activity. Only 2-20% of ingested lad is absorbed and the remaining part is excreted with faeces.
Acidic diets and the diets deficit in Ca, Zn or protein can enhance absorption of lead.
Excretion: In the case of low concentration in blood, lead is excreted in bile and higher
concentration through urine. It has been shown that 5% the lead found in blood is excreted to milk.

Ioxiceffects: Due to lead synthesis, the lead, haemoglobin is reduced.

An acute exposure in infants can cause renal damage. Triethyllead (the toxic form) penetrates the
skin easily and reaches the brain, causing encephalopathy. Intoxication develops quickly and the
symptoms are the imagining of ghosts, hallucinations and ataxia.
Plants with a large area of leaves like spinach or cabbuge may contain more lead if they are
cultivated in the areas where lead is emitted. When polluted plants are fed to animals, they do not
absorb much of the lead, most is excreted through faeces. However, some lead gets accumulated in
the bones and hair.
3.Cadmiunm (Cd): -Most of cadmium comes into atmosphere by burning of cadmium containing
and
products such as plastics, paints, rubber, battery, domestic waste waste waters.

Fertilizers and fungicides may also be the source.

-Surface and tap water.
Tap water can get the Cd pollution from water made from black polyethylene, Cu or
pipes
galvanized iron. It can travel long distances with dust and rain water, then sucked into soil, from
where it is transported into water and plants. It is relatively a volatile, so it is inhaled easily and
then gets accumulated in the lungs, where is absorbed upto 40%.
Cd ions are well absorbed by some root plants e.g. turnip and leafy vegetable e.g. spinach and also

by mushrooms. It is distributed among all the tissues, so removal of outer layer of a leaf does not

reduce contamination.
The acute toxicity of Cd may lead to pulmonary and renal damage and even to death.
In case of intoxication by food or drinking water gastrointestinal disturbances like increased
The bones
vomiting and diarrhea appear which may cause shock and death.
can
salivation, nausea,
turn fragile (osteomalacia) due to disturbance of calcium metabolism by cadmium. Cadmium may

also cause prostate and pulmonary cancer.

4.Chromium: sources of environmental chromium are combustion of fuels, manufacturing of
several metals and plastics, galvanization, leather processing and printing.
Food and food addivitives: the most significant sources are processed lean meat, full grain

products, cheese, pork kidney, brewer's yeast, legumes and spices.

excreted mainly with faeces; the
Absorption and excretion: Chromium is poorly absorbed and
small absorbed part is transported into liver by combining with blood proteins like transferrin.
Chromium picolinate is better absorbed. The absorbed part is excreted mainly with urine, sweat

and bile.
Functions: -Constituent of some enzymes, so it is necessary for organisms in micro amounts.
-Chromium potentiates the effect of insulin, thus it influences the metabolism of carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.
-Chromium hinders the binding of iron to transferrin, so influences the metabolism of iron.

Recommended daily dose of chromium

Adults-0.05-0.2mg/d
Infants-0.01-0.1mg/d
In larger doses, chromium can be carcinogenic.
manufacture of
5.Copper(Cu) : Cu is a metallic element that reaches to environment through
various metals, paints, rubber and through the wastes of printing and building industry. It is also
present in some pesticides.
-Cu act as a co-factor for various enzymes.

Food sources: liver, oysters, nuts, legumes, cereals and dried fruits. About 6-13% of the need
comes from drinking water.
The daily safe dose of copper is 2-5mg
Deficiency-can cause anemia and hair colour loss.
Cu overdose from drinking water or suicidal attempt with copper sulphate can cause nausea,

vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain.

In case of chronic intoxication: Irritation of the GIT and liver cirrhosis along with injuries of renal
tubule, brain and other organs.
More severe cases: Hepatic necrosis, collapse of blood vessels and death.
The toxicity of Cu can be reduced by antioxidants like vitamin C, E and beta carotene, plant
polyphenols. Se and Zn etc.
6.Nickel (Ni):Ni is a metallic element which transported into food mainly by industrial pollution
and also from equipment and utensils used for food processing.
In case of hot processing of various food for 1 hour, Ni is dissolved into the food from stainless
steel utensil.
Adverseeffects: () Reduction in prolactic secretion in the pituitary gland.
i) Reduction in insulin secretion in pancreas.
At inhalation, it can cause cancer of nasal cavity and lungs. A dose of 30ppm of carbonyl nickel
can be lethal for humans within 30 minutes.

2.PESTICIDES
Pesticides are used to reduce damage to crops from weeds , rodents ,insects and germs.This
increases the yield of fruits,vegetables and other crops.Because there are many kinds of potential
pests.there are several kinds of pesticides. The following are some examples:
-Insecticides: Reduce destruction and contamination of growing and harvested crops by insects and
their eggs.
-Herbicides:Also known as weed killers,these improve crop yields.
-Rodenticides:lmportant for controlling destruction and contamination of crops by vermin and
rodent-borne diseases.
-Fungicides:Especially important for protecting harvested crops and seeds from fungal rot.
Types of Pesticides: Pesticides may be synthetic, meaning they are recreated in industrial labs.or
organic.
-Organic pesticides,orbiopesticides, are naturally occurring chemicals,but they may be reproduced
in labs for use inorganic farming
-Synthetic Pesticides-Synthetic pesticides are designed to be stable,have a good shelflife and be
easy to distribute. They are also designed to be effective at targeting pests and have low toxicity to
non-target animals and the environment.

Classes of synthetic pesticides include the following:

Organophosphates:insecticides that target the nervous system.Several of them have been banned
or restricted due to toxic accidental exposures.

Carbamates:lnsecticides that affect the nervous system similarly to organophosphates,but they're

less toxic ,as their effects wear off more quickly.

Pyrethroids:Also affect the nervous system.They're a laboratory-produced version of a natural

pesticide that's found in chrysanthemums.

Organochlorines: Including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane(DDT),these have been largely
banned or restricted due to negative effects on the environment.

Neonicotinoids:Insecticides used on leaves and trees. They're currently under scrutiny by the
USEPA for reports of unintended harm to bees.

Gyphosate:Known as a product called Roundup,this herbicide has become important in farming

genetically modified crops.

Organic or Biopesticides: Organic farming makes use of biopesticides,or naturally occurring

pesticide chemicals that have evolved in plants..

METHODS OF EXPOSURE TO PESTICIDES:

Dermal exposure: the most common way pesticides enter the body is through skin. To
help reduce dermal exposure wear the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) and
always wash your hands after handling pesticides or contaminated items. Make sure to
remove contaminated clothing & gloves in order to avoid cross contamination with other
things & again wash your hands with plenty of water &soap. Different parts of body absorb
pesticides at different rates. Your head is 4 times more absorbent than hands, while the
genital area is 11 times more absorbent. So take proper care while dealing with pesticides.
Oral exposure: if you or someone you know have accidentaly ingested pesticide, rinse
your mouth with plenty of water. Do not induce vomiting if:
the victim is unconscious
the victim is having convulsions
-the pesticide ingested is a petroleum based product
-
label specifies not to induce vomiting
Inhalation exposure: pesticides can damage your nose, mouth, throat,and lungs when you
breathe in pesticide dusts and vapors. If pesticides are inhaled:
-remove the patient to fresh air
losen tight clothing
-keep air passages clear
perfom artificial respiration, if necessary.
Eye exposure: your eyes also easily absorb pesticides. Eye exposure can cause temporary
orpermanent blindness. If pesticides contact your eyes:
-wash eyes with a gentle stream of clean water for 15 minutes
get medical attention if there is pain or reddening of the eye
 human henlth:
Toxic effects of pesticide residues on

with the type pesticide of

acute pesticide poisoning vary
ACUTE TOXICITY: The symptoms tor hours.
immediately after exposure, or in a few
and the method of exposure. Symptoms may appear
The symptoms include:

Dermal- skin imitation, reddening, itching

weakness
Oral-nausea, muscle twitching, sweating,
Inhalation- burning of throat and lungs, coughing
blindness
Eye-temporary or permanent
and effects. It results due
CHRONIC TOXICITY: There is delayed time lapse between exposure
a

or one with similar mode

of action. Chronic toxicity can
to repeated exposure to same pesticide
or sterility, impotence,
blood disorders, asthma &
cause cancer, tumors, birth defects, infertility
to cause long term effects
problems. Low level exposure to chemicals that have potential
kidney the risk of chronic
not cause immediate injury, but repeated
exposures can greatly increase
may
adverse effects.

which can further trigger an asthma attack, shock, rashes

Pesticides can also allergies
cause

blisters, itchy watery eyes, sneezing

Harmful effects of pesticides on human health:

Cause low birth weight and birth defects

Interfere with child development and cognitive ability
Cause neurological problems
Disrupt hormone function
brain cancer and non-
Cause a variety of cancers, including leukemia, kidney cancer,

Hodgkin's lymphoma do adults because

Children and foetuses suffer more of these effects from pesticides than
children's bodily systems are still developing
most pesticides. Pesticide effects in
the
Children much less able than adults to detoxify
are
effects. For instance, the risk of neurological
or
unborn and in infants can have lifelong the
exposure extends through puberty,
as
behavioural problems following early pesticide
continue to grow.
reproductive system, nervous system and brain
and birds, beneficial
from their share of bad pesticide effects;
Farm workers suffer more
insects and other wild eritters
and impacted, too.
shows that
through means other than food intake, but research
Pesticide exposure can occur
level of
food has an immediate observable effect on body-burden
reducing pesticide via
pesticides
 Exposure to some pesticides during infancy, even at very low levels, can lead to serious
lifelong consequences if the pesticides disrupt hormone driven developmental processes.

PESTICIDES IN OUR POOD:

FRUITS AND VEGETABLES: Most consumers are lured with bigger and fresher look of
vegetables and fnuits without knowing the hidden harmful effects behind the accelerating and
instantaneous ripening of these crops with toxic substance called oxytocin, the naturally-occuring
reproductive hormone which is found in mammals and injected to women during childbirth to
stimulate uterine contractions. They are using hormones in replacement to an extensive fertilizer so
thatvegetables can mature faster. Calcium carbide is very widely used by fruit vendors for ripening
mango. papaya, sapota, plum, banana, etc. When calcium carbide comes in contact with water, it
generates acetylene which includes fruits to ripen. All the calcium carbide used in India for
ripening fruits is of industrial grade which may contain traces of arsenic and phosphorus which can
be harmful for the human health. This is the reason why its use is being discouraged.

MEAT AND POULTRY: Not only vegetables are laced in hormones, but including animals like,
chicken, cattle and cows. There are certain hormones injected in young animals so that they gain
weight faster. It helps the meat and dairy industries to make more profit because of the reduced
waiting time for animal to be slaughtered and sold in the market. Not only that the amounts of
feeds are lessened, but hormones can also increase milk production. Male chickens treated with
DES (diethylstilbestrol) are found to produce juicy breast meat and can be sold in the market faster
than the usual poultry process. Same thing goes with cows injected with bovine growth hormone
or bGH drawn from cow (bovine) pituitary glands. The use of female sex hormone estrogen has
been used in poultry and cattle to speed up the increase in size of chickens and cattle.

DAIRY PRODUCTS: The general types of compounds which have been or are found in milk are
chlorinated pesticides, organophosphates, herbicides, fungicides, anti-helminthetic drugs.
antibiotic and sulfonamides drugs, detergents and disinfectants, Poly Chlorinated (PCBs), Poly
Brominated Biphenyls (PBBs), dioxins, mycotoxins, heavy metals and somtotropin hormone.
Chemical contaminants in milk and dairy products may know to be contributory factors in several
diseases such as cancer, heart disease, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinsonism. The occurrence of
chemical residues in the milk of lactating cows is a matter of public health concem, since dairy
products are widely consumed by infants, children and many adults throughout the world. The
sources of chemical contaminants in raw materials of animal origin, mainly milk, are to a large
extent comparable to those of raw materials originating from plants. The most of chemical
contaminants in milk and dairy products are veterinary drugs such as antimicrobials (antibiotics
and sulfonamides), hormones, antihelminthitic drugs, pesticides, etc.

These drugs are administered to animals by many routes such as injection routes, orally in the food
and water, topically on the skin by intra mammary and intrauterine infusions. Theoretically, all of
 residues appearing in milk and dairy products. Whenever any route with
these routes may lead to

cow, measurable levels of the antibiotic are usually

detectable in the
an antibiotic treats a lactating
milk for a few days atter the last. An important concern of the veterinary toxicology is the possible
transmission of harmful substances from milk and dairy products to human population. This
concems pimanily antibiotics in use feed additives. They include tetracycline, nitrofuranes,
sulfonamides. There may be biologically active metabolites of antimicrobial in milk and dairy
products that could result in and allergic shock in sensitized individuals
anaphylaxis as

penicilin. Penicillin is not inactivated by pasteurization or drying and levels as 0.03 U m/L has
such
caused skin rashes. Overuse of antimicrobial in production cause to toxicity in human and animals.
They can cause some disruptions like aplasia of bone marrow.
Milk can also be considered as a rich source of steroid hormones. The amount of lipphilic
hormones depend on the fat content of the milk and dairy products. Not only progesterone but also
oestrone increases with fat content. Food processing does not seem to influence the amount and
ratios of the hormones. Food processing, such as heating or churning, appears to have no effect on
the hormones in milk and dairy products although cheese ripening does. In fresh cheese as well as
in ripened cheese, testosterone was detected (0.1-0.5 mg/kg)

Parasiticide drugs also use to remove internal parasites such as ticks, tapeworms and roundwornms
are important in animal production system. The oxylosanide, losental and rafoxanide are active
against Fasciola hepatica (liver fluke). Drugs like albendazole and benzimidazole are readily
absorbed from the gut and rapidly transformed to various metabolites, the major metabolites which
can account for all the residues found in milk and dairy products at any time point that are both
bioavailable and of toxicological significance. Toxicological studies of animals have shown
albendazole and its metabolites to be mutagenic.

3.RADIONUCLIDES
Organisms on earth have become used to and adapted to several types of radiation. Radiation
toxicology investigates the adverse effects of radiation on organisms

Radioactive irradiation

NATURAL ANTHROPOGENIC

Cosmic terrestrial medical production nuclear weapons

x-rays, radio of nuclear
medicines, cancer energy
therapy including nuclear
disasters and
radioactive wastes
Atmospherie radionuclides are accumulated in surface water and soil from there transported with
water bodies into underground water, from where they return to the surface and get into biosphere.

Some foods contain small amounts of radioactive elements. Food can gain this radioactivity
in a few ways:

Uptake: roots of plants take in radionuclides from the soil.

Deposition: radioactive particles in the air settle onto crops.
Bioaccumulation: radionuclides accumulate in animals that ingest plants, feed, or water containing
radioactive material.
The most well known examples of naturally-occurring radionuclides in foods are bananas and
Brazil nuts. Bananas have naturally high-levels of potassium and a small fraction of all potassium
is radioactive. Each banana can emit .01 millirem (0.1 microseiverts) of radiation.
Like bananas, Brazil nuts contain potassium, but they also contain a small amount of radium that is
taken up from the soil in which they are grown.
Natural radiation in food should not be confused with food irradiation. Food iradiation is a
process that uses ionizing radiation to prevent foodborne illness ("food poisoning") and food
spoilage.
Food is passed through a radiation beam-like a large flashlight-to kill bacteria, molds and other
pests in food.
The irradiated food does not come into contact with radioactive materials, and food irradiation
does not make food radioactive.
Radioactivity occurs naturally in all food. Natural radioactivity can be transferred into food in
different ways, such as:
-into crops from rocks and minerals present in the soil
-drinking water can pick up radioactivity from the earth
-fish and shellfish can take up radioactivity from the water or sea floor
Artificial radioactivity can also get into food. This can happen when radioactive materials are
discharged into the environment from civil or military nuclear operations.
Artificial radioactivity then passes through the food chain in the same way as natural radioactivity.

4.POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) primarily occur after organic matter undergoes
incomplete combustion or pyrolysis, or from industrial processes Food contamination comes
from the environment, industry, or home cooking (such as when using biomass fuels). These
compounds appear to be genotoxic and carcinogenic. Oil spills from transporter ships in the ocean
are all too common and will result in contamination of seafood.
S.INDUSTRIAL. CHEMICALS
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are synthetic organic chemicals; some are used in industry,
some as pesticides, and some are by-products from industry or combustion. They include
and
pesticides like aldrin, chlordane and DDT, industrial chemicals like PCBs and HCBs,
unintended by-products like dibenzodioxins and dibenzofurans. They persist in the environment.
are distributed globally in air and ocean currents, and accumulate in animals in the food chain
including in humans).
Their side effects depend on the chemical and the contaminated species; for example, they may
have effects on reproductive or immune systems, or increase cancerrisks.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have a variety of uses in industry, inchuding in transformers, as
heat exchange fluids or paint additives, or in plastics. Ingestion of PCB residue-contaminated
food-especially meat, fish, and poultry-is the main source for people, with ready absorption
from the gastrointestinal tract.
Contaminated breast milk is a potential source for nursing infants. Chloracne is reported after
extensive exposure to PCBs, but immune and carcinogenic effects may also result.
Polybrominated and polychlorinated compounds may originate from anthropogenic and natural
sources. They have many uses such as flame retardants and dielectric/coolant fluids in electrical
apparatus. Toxic effects include endocrine disruption, neurotoxicity, and cancer. Polybrominated
ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have been detected in human milk
diphenyl
in China.
This is a particular concern due to the high susceptibility of nursing infants to toxic effects.

6.PHARMACEUTICALS AND PERSONALL CARE PRODUCTS

The term pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) includes a wide range of substances
that may enter the environment and thence food or water sources. Antimicrobials and other drugs
may originate from use in both humans and animals. For example, swine waste containing
antimicrobials may contaminate both water and food. Aside from the very real threat of increased
antimicrobial resistance through exposure to extraneous sources of these chemicals, it has also
been shown th:at any drigs have otlier side effects including endocrine disruption . In some
Circumstances, the medicinal products themselves may be contaminated, for examnple, in many

herbal products.

PREVENTATIVE MEASURES TO CONTROL FOOD cONTAMINATION

9 Ways To Avoid Pesticide Residues In Food

1. Always wash the produce before eating them

2. Grow your fruits and
own veggies in your garden
3. Buy only
unsprayed or organic products
4. Dry the produce before consumption
5. Harvest your products from the forest
6. Never rinse your fruits and
vegetables with soap
7. Use only organic repellents for your garden
8. Pecl the outer layers
9. Tdentify the fruits and vegetables with the highest pesticide load.
PACKAGINGMATERIAL AND POTENTIAL CONTAMINANTS
FOOD PACKAGING

Food packaging is the enclosing of food to protect it from damage, contamination, spoilage, pest
attacks, and tempering during transport, storage and retail sale. The pack i s ften labelled with
infomation such as amount of the contents, ingredients, nutritional ultent, cooking instructions
and shelf life. The package needs to be designed and selected in such a manner that there are no
adverse interactions between it and food. Packaging types include bags, bottles, cans, cartons, and
trays.
Role of food packaging
The principal roles of food packaging are to protect food products from outside influences and
damage. to contain the food, and to provide consumers with ingredients and nutritional
infomation. Traceability, convenience, and tamper indications are secondary functions of
increasing importance.
Packaging and package labelling have several objectives:

Physical protection: the food enclosed in the package may require protection from, among
others thing. shock, vibration, compression, temperature, bacteria, etc. physical protection
shields food from mechanical damage and includes cushioning against the shock and
vibrations encountered during distribution. Appropriate physical
packaging also protects
consumers from vaious hazards. For example, child resistant closures hinder access to
potentially dangerous products.
Biological protection: it provides a barrier to microorganisms, insects, rodents, and other
animals, thereby preventing disease and spoilage. In addition, biological barriers maintain
conditions to control senescence. Some packages contain desiccants or oxygen absorbers to
help extend shelf life. Modified atmospheres or controlled atmospheres are also maintained
in some food packages.
Chemical protection: it minimizes compositional changes triggered by environmental
influences such as exposure to gases (typically oxygen), moisture (gain or loss) or
light(visible, infrared, ultraviolet). Many different packaging materials can providea
chemical barrier. For example: glass and metals.
Containment or agglomeration: small items are typically grouped together in one
package to allow efficient handling. Liquids, powder, and granular materials need
containment. Inadequate preservation/protection, storage, and transportation have been
cited as causes of food waste. Packaging reduces total waste by extending the shelf life of
foods, thereby prolonging there usability.
Marketing and information: a package is the face of the products and often is the only
product exposure the consumers experience prior to purchase. Consequently, distinctive or
innovative packaging can boost sales in competitive package may be
environment. The
the product from the
designed to enhance the product image and/or to differentiate
consumers. For example, package
competition. Packaging also provides information to the
nutritional value,
labelling. satisfies legal requirements for product identification,
information.
ingredients declaration, net weight, and manufacturer
as "the ability to
Traceability: the codex alimentarius commission defines traceability
and
follow the movement of food through specific stage of production, processing
to facilitate
distribution. Traceability has 3 objectives: to improve supply management,
and to differentiate and market foods with
trace back for food safety and quality purposes,
subtle or undetectable quality attributes.
Convenience: it features such as ease of access, handling, and disposal; product visibility;
influence. Packaging plays a vital
reseal ability; microwavabliity greatly influence package
foods.
role inminimizing the effort necessary to prepare and serve
amount of contents to control
Portion control: single serving packaging has a precise
as salt) can be divided into packages
that are a more
usage. Bulk commodities (such
suitable size for individual household. It also aids the control of inventory.
PACKAGING MATERIAL

Traditional materials
These materals have been used since the earliest times for domestie storage and local sales
of foods. A summary of the main types of traditional materials and possible current uses
are as follows:

Leaves, vegetable fibres and textiles

Leaves are cheap and readily available, and are used as wrappers for products such as
cooked foods that are quickly consumed. Banana or
plantain leaves are used for wrapping
traditional cheese and fruit confectionary such as guava cheese. Maize leaves are used to
Wrap com paste or blocks of brown sugar and pan leaves are used for wrapping spices in
India. Fibres from kenaf and sisal
plants are mainly used for making ropes, cord and string,
which can be made into net bags to transport hard fruits. Examples of textile containers are
woven jute sacks, which are used to transport a wide
variety of bulk foods including grain, flower, sugar and
salt. Most textile sacks be
can reused several times after
washing and they are easily marked to indicate the
contents.

Wood
Wooden containers protect food against crushing, have
good stacking characteristics and a good weight-to-
strength ratio. Wooden boxes, trays and crates have traditionally been used as shipping
containers for a wide variety of solid foods including fruits,
vegetables and bakery
products. They continue to be used for some wines and spirits because flavour compounds
from the wood improve the quality of products, but in other applications have been
replaced by aluminium, coated steel or plastic barrels.

Leather
Leather containers made from camel, pig or kid goat hides
have traditionally been used as flexible, light weight, non-
breakable containers for water, milk and wine. The use of
leather has now ceased for most commercial food
applications.

Earthen wear
Pottery is still used domestically for storage of liquid and
solid foods such as yogurt, beer, dried foods, honey, ete. if
 the
moisture and light from entering
they are glazed and well-sealed, they prevent oxygen,
also restrict
are there for suitable
for storage toys and wines. They
food and they
contamination by microorganisms,
insects and rodents.

Industrial materials
and are the main types of
over the last 200-300 years
These materials have been developed
scale food processors.
packaging used by small

Glass
Glass bottles and jars have advantages:
some
and odours.
impervious to microorganisms, pest, moisture, oxygen
They are
foods.
chemicals that migrate into
not react foods or have
They do
They can be heat processed
and they are reusable.
They are recyclable
without damage.
They are rigid, to allow stacking
to display the contents
Unlike metal cans they are transparent
The main disadvantages of glass
are:
of packaging, which incurse higher
The weight than most other types
higher
transport cost.
when transported over rough roads.
Containers are easily broken, especially
variable dimensions than
metal or plastic containers.
They have more that
serious hazards from glass splinters or fragments
There are potentially

Glass containers used in

the production line and
ini
contaminate foods.

also increase and preserve

Metal
Metal is the most
food packaging are often
eliminate scratching or surface
surface coats to provide

the strength of the bottle to

versatile of all packaging

abrasion or line jams. Glass
reduce

forms. It offers a
breakage

combination of

and decorative potential,

lubrication in

coatings

excellent

and barrier properties, formability

physical protection The two metals most predominantly
used in

recyclabilityand c o n s u m e r acceptance.
are aluminium
and steel:
packaging
 Aluminium: Aluminium is light weight, silvery white
metal derived from bauxite ore.
Aluminium is highly
resistant to most forms of corrosion, its natural
of aluminium oxide
coating
provides a highly effective barrier
to the effects of
air,temperature, moisture and chemical
attack. The main disadvantages of aluminium are: its
high cost
compared to other metals (for example: steel)
and its inability to be welded, which render it useful
only for making seamless containers.

Aluminium foil: aluminium foil is made

by rolling pure
aluminium into very thin sheets, followed
by annealing to
achieve dead folding properties, which allows it to be folded
tightly. Aluminium foil provides an excellent barrier to
moisture, air, odours, light and microorganisms. It is inert to
acidic foods and does not
require lacquer and other
protection.
Laminates and metallised films: lamination of
aluminium foil
packaging involves the binding of
to
paper or plastic film to improve barrier properties. Laminated aluminium
is relatively expensive; it is
herbs and spices. A less
typically used to package high value foods such as dried soups,
expensive alternative to laminated
packaging in metallised films. Metallised films are plastic
containing a thin layer of aluminium metal. These films (
have improved barrier
properties to moisture, oils, air and
odours and the highly reflective surface of the
aluminium
is attractive to consumers.

Tin plate: Produced from low carbon

steel, tin plate is the
resulting of coating of both sides of black plate with thin
layer of tin. Tin plate containers are often lacquered to
provide an inert barrier between the metal and the food
product. Tin plate can be heat treated and sealed
hermetically, making it suitable for sterile products. Tin
plate is widely used to form cans for drinks, processed
foods; containers for powdered foods and
sugar or flour
based confections and as
package closures. It is easily
recycled many times without loss of quality.
Plastics

Plastics are made by condensation polymerisation or addition polymerisation of monomer

units. Fluids are moldable: plastics can be made into shects, shapes and structures offering
considerable design flexibility. Plastics are inexpensive and light weight with a wide range
of physical and optical properties. Plastics are now the second most used materials for
packaging.

Polyolefin: Polyolefin is a collective term polyethylene

and propylene, the second most widely used plastic in
the food packaging. The simplest and most expensive
plastic made by addition polymerisation of ethylene is
polyethylene. There are two basic categories of
polyethylene: high density and low density. Harder,
denser and more transparent than polyethylene,
polypropylene has a good resistance to chemicals and
is effective at barring water vapours.

Polyesters: polyethylene terephthalate (PET),

polycarbonate and polyethylene naphthalate (PEN) are polyesters, which are condensation

polymers.
Polyethylene terephthalate: formed when terephthalic
acid reacts with ethylene glycon, PET provides a good
barier to gases and moisture. It also has good resistance
to heat, mineral oils, solvents and acids but not to bases.
The three major packaging applications of PET are
containers (bottles, jars and tubs), semi rigid sheets for
thermoforming (trays and blisters), and thin oriented
films (bags and snack food wrappers).
polycarbonate is formed by
Polycarbonate:
polymerisation of a sodium salt of bisphenol acid with carbonyl dichloride (phosgene).
Clear, heat resistant and durable, it is mainly used as a replacement for glass.
Polyethylene naphthalate: PEN is a condensation polymer of dimethyl naphthalene
dicarboxylate and ethylene glycol. PEN cost 3-4times more than PET. PEN provides

protection against transfer of flavours and odours.

is
Polyvinyl chloride: polyvinyl chloride (PEC), and addition polymer of vinyl chloride,
resistant
heavy, stiff, ductile and a medium strong, amorphous, transparent. It has excellent
to chemicals, grease and oil: good flow characteristics; and stable electrical properties. PES
is primarily used in medical and other non-food applications; its food uses include botles
and packaging films.
Polystyrene. polystyrene is a linear addlition polymer of
styrene. It is a material that is britle and lear and has
high surface gloss. The use of polystyrene in food
packaging is aesthetically appreciated, but material
cannot generally be used when extended shelf life is
required because of its poor water vapour and gas ohtanoh:dia .nitbia
bamier properties. Typical applications include produce
and meat trays, lids for drink cups and
inexpensive party
glasses
Paper and paper board
Paper and paper board are the most commonly used packaging material in the world. Paper
is produced from plant fibres. More than 95% of paper is made from wood, and the
remaining sources are mainly agricultural by-products, such as straw, sugarcane bagasse,
cotton, fiex, bamb0o, corn husk etc. paper and paper boards are commonly used in
corrugated boxes, milk cartons, folding cartons, bags and sacks and wrapping paper. Tissue
paper, paper plates and cups are other examples of paper and paper board products.

Paper: Plain paper is not used to protect foods for

longer periods of time because it has poor barrier
properties and is not heat sealable. When used as
primary packaging paper is almost always treated,
coated, laminated or impregnated with materials such
as waxes, raisins or lacquers to improve functional
and protective properties. The many different types
of paper used in food
packaging are as follows:
Kraft paper- it is the most used packaging paper and
has excellent strength. It is made using the sulphate
chemical pulping process, and is usually produced from
soft wood. Unbleached kraft is the
strongest and most
economical type of paper. It is commonly used for
bags
and wrapping. It is also used to
package flour, sugar, and
dried fruits and
vegetables.
Sulphite paper-lighter and weaker than kraft paper,
sulphite paper is glazed to improve its appearance and to
increase its wet strength and oil resistance. It can be
coated
for higher print quality and is also used in
laminates with
 plastic or foil. It is used to make small bags or wrappers for packaging biscuits and

confectionary.

Greaseproof and glassine- greaseproof is a dense, opaque, A

non-porous paper made from highly refined bleached Kraft
pulp. The prolonged beating during processing results in
short fibres. Glassine derives its name from its glassy
smooth surface. These papers are often used for packaging
butter and other fatty foods.

Parchment paper- parchment paper is made from acid-

treated pulp. The acid modifies the cellulose to make its
smoother and impervious to water and oil, which adds
some wet strength. It is used to package fats such as butter
and lard.

Paperboard: paperboard is thicker than paper with a

higher weight per unit area and often made in multiple layers. It is commonly used to make
containers for shipping- such as boxes, cartons and trays- and seldom used for direct food
contact. The various types of paperboard are as follows:

White board: made from several thin layers of bleached chemical pulp.
white board is typically used as the inner layer of carton. White board
may be coated with wax or laminated with the polyethylene for heat
sealability.

Solid board: possessing strength and durability, solid board

has multiple layers of bleached sulphate board. When
laminated with polyethylene, it is used to create liquid
cartons (known as milk board). It is also used to package
fruit juices and soft drinks.

Chip bourd: chip board is made from recycled paper and

often contains blemishes and impurities from the original
paper, which makes it unsuitable for direct contact with food,
printing, and folding. It is used in packaging of tea and cereals.
 Fibre board: fibre boand can be solid or corrugated. The solid type has an inner white board
and outer kraft layer and provides good protection against impact and compression. It is
used to package dry products such as coffee and milk powder. The corrugated board is
made with 2 layers of kraft paper with centre corrugated material.

Paper laminates
Paper laminates are coated or uncoated papers based on kraft and sulphite pulp. They can
be laminated with plastic or aluminium to improve
various properties. For example, paper can be laminated
with polyethylene to make it heat sealable and to
improve gas and moisture barrier properties. Laminated
paper is used to package dry products such as soups,
herbs and spices.

cOMMON CONTAMINANTS

FOOD FOOD CONTACT TYPICAL MIGRANTS TYPICAL

PACKAGING MATERIAL USES
GLASS Glass container, Phthalates Glass bottles,
Coated metal closure Epoxidised soya bean | yogurt jars,
oil(ESBO) vegetable and
Lead fruit jars

Glass container, plastic UV stabilizer Instant coffee,

closure yogurt glass
bottles
METAL Steel coated with| Tin White fruit cans
tin(tinplate) coated tin, Iron Soft drink and
steel or aluminium Bisphenol diglycidyl beercans
ether(BADGE) Fish and pate
cans
BisphenolA
Fungicide
PAPER Paper (recycled and/or Printing inks(including Dry food
benzophenones) packaging such
printed)
Mineral oils as flour, sugar
anthraquinone
PE (polyethylene)coating| polyolefin oligomerio
 saturated hydrocarbons
(POSH)
Non-stick coating perfluorinated
compounds
and/or printing inks(including | Rice cartons,
CARTON Carton(recycled
BOARD benzophenones) muesli and
printed)
cereal cartons,
mineral oils
infant formula
phthalates
anthraquinone
PE(polyethylene) polyolefin oligomeric | Beverage
saturated hydrocarbons | cartons, frozen
food cartons,
(POSH)
baby formula
UV stabilizer
Aluminium Aluminium Snacks, cough
drops
PP(polypropylene) Polyolefin oligomeric | Bag in box
saturated hydrocarbons
(POSH)
Erucamide oleamide
Antioxidants(BHT)
Benzophenone
Formaldehyde Yogurt cup lids
PLASTIC PET(polyethylene
FOIL terephthalate) Acetaldehyde
Antimony
UV stabilizers
Polybrominated
dimethyesters (PBDE)
oligomeric | Freezer bags,
PE (polyethylene) Polyolefin
saturated hydrocarbons | frozen poultry
(POSH) and ham bags,
.Nonylphenol pre-packaged
fresh produce
food storage
containers
Shrink foil,
PVC(polyvinyl chloride) Vinyl chloride shrink foil pre-
Organo tins
Adipates packaged meat,
Plasticiser cheese, fruit and
vegetables
Nonylphenol
HDPE Antimony Milk, dairy
Polybrominated dimethyl | products
esters
Cellulose Triacetin Meat packaging
PASTIC PET(polyethylene Formaldehyde Soft
drinks:
 BOTTLE terephthalate) carbonated soft
Acetaldehyde
Antinony drinks
UV stabilizer
Adipates
Phthalates
Polybrominated dimethyl
csters(PBDE)
PC(polycarbonate) Bisphenol A Repeated use

Antimony water bottles,

Polybrominated dimethyl| baby feeding
ethers (PBDE) bottles
4-nonylphenol
PVC(polyvinyl chloride) Vinyl chloride Water and soft
Plasticiser drink bottles
Organo tins

PLASTIC
. Nonylphenol
PVC(polyvinylchloride) Vinyl chloride Chocolate box
TRAYS AND
Plasticiser inserts, food
INSERTS
Organo tins trays, biscuit
Plasticiser tins
nonylphenol
PS(polystyrene) styrene (found in cups) Yogurt, dairy
styrene trimmers product, honey
polybrominated dimethyl syrup and ice
csters(PBDE) cream,
marmalade and
jam tubes and
containers; trays
for pre- f
packaged meat
PLASTIC and fruit
PET(polyethylene formaldehyde Oven proof or
TRAYS(OVEN terephthalate)
PROOF) acetaldehyde microwavable
antimony food
PLASTIC UVstabilizer
CUPS
PP(polypropylene) .Polyolefin oligomeric
saturated
hydrocarbons(POSH)
Erucamide, oleamide
Antioxidants
phthalates
PS(Polystyrene) styrene Vending cups
styrene trimmers
polybrominated dimethyl
 esters PBDE
aluminium
PLASTIC Aluminium
POUCHES oligomeric Crisps, biscuits,
PP (polypropylene) polyolcfin
saturated hydrocarbons snack foods,
(POSH) Sugar, grains
erucamide, oleamide and vegetables

antioxidants
Boil in the bag
PET formaldehyde
food
acetaldehyde
antimony
UV stabilizer

materials
Conclusion from the research paper on migration of contaminants from packaging
into dairy products
content of fat, contaminants migrate easily. In order to
Since most of Dairy Products contain high
films has been developed. Since
avoid this contamination. New Packaging Material like edible
flavour retaining and
edible films have many advantages like edible, biodegradable, pollution-free,
cost and
DP like cheese. However due to their high
gas-barriering, they were used to package limited.
to package Dairy Products is quite
immature manufacturing process, their application

HEALTH EFFECTS OF THE CONTAMINANTS

to make The largestexposure human have to BPA is

plastic.
Bisphenol A is pimarily used food and
mouth from such sources as food packaging, the epoxy lining of metal
by
bottles.
beverage cans and plastic
Obesity
Neurological effects
Disruption of the dopaminergic system
Thyroid function
Cancer research
Neuroblastoma

Brain tumor
Reproductive system and sexual behaviour
It can migrate from cling films wrappings to
Diethylhexyl adipate or DEHA is a plasticiser.
food. Microwave cooking of food enhance the migration.

Acute toxicity
Repeated dose toxicity
Mutagenicity
 used
Diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) is the most common class of phthalates which
plasticiser. t has been used as plasticiser in medical devices.
are as

Obesity
Cardio toxicity
HAZARDS OF PLASTIC PACKAGING DURING STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION
ANDTHEIR EFFECT ON HEALTH
WHAT ISPLASTIC?
There's no single substance called 'plastic'. That term covers many materials made from an array
of organic and inorganic compounds. Substances are often added to plastic to help shape or
stabilize it. Proper food storage is important to keeping it safe to eat. Eating food that has been

improperly stored has the potential to make a person sick, particularly if that storage container is a
plastic that contains dangerous chemicals.

TYPES OF PLASTICIZERS
2 of the main plasticizers are:
1) Bisphenol-A (BPA),added to make clear, hard plastic- BPA is a toxic chemical that can leach
into foods from the lacquer lining of cans and from other food containers and bottles made from
certain plastics. BPA is an endocrine disruptor, meaning that it's a chemical that can interfere with
the endocrine (or hormonal system). Endocrine disruptors can cause cancerous tumours, birth
defects and other developmental disorders. Specifically, BPA has been associated with breast and
and behavioral
prostate cancers, genital defects in males, early onset of puberty in females, obesity
problems such as attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.
 BisphenolA
(BPA)
C
HO OH

2) Phthalates added to make plastic soft and flexible- Phthalates are now used in so many products
they are almost impossible to avoid. Because of its low cost, DEHP is the phthalate most often used as
a plasticizer for PVC. Experts now generally agree that low level exposure to DEHP can affect

reproductive development
3) ESBO-ESBO is one of the most frequently used additives to PVC when used for containers or
packaging for food. It functions as a stabilizer as well as a plasticizer. Lid seals are formed at high
temperatures, which causes the PVC in the seal to partially break down and release hydrogen
chloride. ESBO reacts with the hydrogen chloride and prevents further breakdown of the plastic,
but in doing so it forms compounds called chlorohydrins. Chlorohydrins make up, at most, five

be toxic. Chlorohydrins have been detected in foods closed in

percent of the ESB0 but they can

glass screw-cap jars.

THE PROBLEM WITH PLASTIC

Plastic as such isn't problem. The polymer
a molecules from which it's made are far too big to

food. But plastic also contain much smaller

move from the packaging material into the can

molecules that are free to migrate into the food it's in contact with. The plastic itself can slowly
break down, releasing monomer, or other chemicals may be added to the plastic to give it the right

of particular concern are:

mechanical properties. Two plastics
resin
) Polycarbonate -

often used to make food storage containers and bottles, and the epoxy
a chemical that many experts now believe
can
used to line cans. It can release bisphenol A (BPA),
cause serious health problemns.
(1) PVC - used to make bottles, cling wrap and the seals for screw-cap jars. On its own, PVC is
hard and ngid, so extra chemicals called plasticizers are added to make it soft and flexible - in

much the same way water added to clay makes it soft. Plasticisers can make up as much as 40% of
the plastic material. Phthalatesand epoxidised soybean oil (ESBO) are often added as plasticisers
to the PVC that's used for food packaging. Again, recent research raises doubts about the safety of

these compounds.

HAZARDS OF PLASTIC PACKAGING DURING STORAGE:

) BPA and phthalates are believed to be Endocrine disrupters. These are substances that mimic
human hormones, and not for the good.
2) When food is wrapped in plastic or stored in a plastic container and microwaved, BPA and
phthalates may leak into the food. Any migration is likely to be greater with fatty foods such as
meats and oils than with other foods.
3) Whenever hot food or liquid is packed in a plastic bag there is an exchange of toxic chemicals
into the food. Many restaurants, small food kiosks, food delivery systems still use plastic boxes,
covers and cups unsuited for keeping food as it may lead to food poisoning. These should be
avoided at all costs.
4) The toxins and chemicals that leach from plastics into our food have shown to mimic hormones
and cause diseases like- homonal imbalances, infertility, early onset of diabetes, hypertension,
cancers, especially breast cancer. Thus, it's important to try to make reasonable efforts to replace
plastic in our kitchens.
5) Plastic does not last forever. The more it's heated and cooled, the more the chemicals in that
container begin to break own. And when they start to break down, they break down into the food
inside. As a result, detrimental and expensive health issues can arise.

HAZARDS OF PLASTIC PACKAGING DURING TRANSPORTATIOON

Plastic packaging makes transportation very easy. There is no such drawback of plastic packaging
during transportation except the same hazards that occur during storage as well. Instead certain
hazards act upon plastic packaging during transport.

Its important to understand the hazards of distribution. In general, there are four categories
of hazards: Shock (drops, impacts), vibration (during movement ortransportation), compression
(packages stacked in storage or vehicles) and atmospheric (temperature, humidity, altitude, static
electricity, etc.).

ADVERSE EFFECTSOFPLASTICPACKAGING ON HEALTH

Many chemical additives that give plastic products desirable performance properties have negative
environmental and human health effects. These effects include

Direct toxicity, as in the cases of lead, cadmium, and mercury

Carcinogens, as in the case

of diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP)
 and
Endocrine disnuption, which can lead to cancers, birth defects, immune system suppression
developmental problems in children.
but also by using plastic
People are these chemicals not only during manufacturing,
exposed to
to the foods they contain.
packages, because some chemicals migrate from the plastic packaging
with most plastic types, including
Examples of plastics contaminating food have been reported
trom polystyrene, plasticizers from PVC,
antioxidants from polyethylene, and
Styrene
Acetaldehyde from PET.
the nature
the chemical structure of the migrants and
Among the factors controlling migration are and
Additives and Contaminants, LDPE, HDPE,
of the packaged food. In studies cited in Food
PS 800,
levels of BHT, Chimassorb 81, Irganox
polypropylene bottles released measurable Evidence was also
contents of vegetable oil and ethanol.
Irganox 1076, and Irganox 1010 into their
found that acetaldehyde migrated out of PET and into
water.

Common Uses Adverse Health Effects

Plastic Food packaging, plastic wrap, | Can cause cancer, birth defects,
Polyvinyl Chloride (#3PVC)
containers for toiletries, | genetic changes, chronic
ulcers, skin
cosmetics, crib bumpers, floor | bronchitis,
shower diseases, deafness. vision
tiles, pacifiers,
curtains, toys, water pipes, failure, indigestion, and liver
garden hoses, auto upholstery, dysfunction
inflatable swimming pools
Phthalates DEHP, DINP, and | Softened vinyl products Endocrine disruption, linked to |
others)
manufactured with phthalates asthma, developmental and
include vinyl clothing, reproductive effects. Medical
footwear, waste with PVC and phthalates
emulsion paint,
printing inks, non-mouthing is regularly incinerated causing
toys and children's products, | public health effects from the
relese of dioxins and mercury,
product packaging and food birth defects,
wrap, vinyl flooring,
blood | including cancer,

bags and tubing, IV containers | hormonal changes, declining

and components, surgical sperm counts, infertility.
tubes, endometriosis, and immune|
gloves, breathing
general purpose labware, system impairment.
inhalation masks, many other
medical devices
Scientists have linked very
Polycarbonate, with Bisphenol Waterbottles low doses of bisphenol A
A (#7) exposure to cancers, impaired
immune function, early onset
of puberty, obesity, diabetes,
andhyperactivity, among other
 problems (Environment
California)
Polystyrene Many food containcrs for | Can irritate eyes, nose and
meats, fish, chceses, yogurt, | throat and can cause dizziness
foam and clear clamshell and unconsciousness. Migrates
containers, foam and rigid| into food and stores in body
plates, clear bakery containers, fat. Elevated rates of lymphatic
packaging "peanuts", foam and hematopoietic cancers for
packaging, audio cassetteworkers.
housings, CD cases, disposable
cutlery, building insulation,
flotation devices, ice buckets,
wall tile, paints, serving trays,
throw-away hot drink cups,
toys
Polyethylene (#1 PET) Water and soda bottles, carpet Suspected human carcinogen
fiber, chewing gum, coffee
stirrers, drinking glasses, food
containers and wrappers, heat-
sealed plastic packaging
kitchenware, plastic bags,
squeezebottles,toys
Polyester Bedding, clothing, disposable| Can cause eye and respiratory-
diapers, food packaging, | tract iritation and acute skin
tampons, upholstery rashes
Urea-formaldehyde Particle board, plywood,|Formaldehyde is a suspected
building insulation, fabric carcinogen and has been shown
finishes to cause birth defects and
genetic changes. Inhaling
formaldehyde can cause cough,
swelling of the throat, watery
eyes, breathing problems,
headaches,rashes, tiredness
Polyurethane Foamn Cushions, mattresses, pillows Bronchitis, coughing, skin and
eye problems. Can release
toluene diisocyanate which can
produceseverelung problems
Acrylic Clothing, blankets, carpets Can cause breathing
made from acrylic fibers, difficulties, vomiting, diarrhea,
adhesives, contact lenses, nausea, weakness. headache
dentures, floor waxes, food and fatigue
preparation equipment,
disposable diapers, sanitary
napkins, paints
on Can irritate eyes, nose and
Tetrafluoro - ethylene Non-stick coating
cookware, clothes irons, | throat and can cause breathing
 ironing board covers, difficulties
plumbing and tools

PLASTICS AND FUTURRE

Looking ahead, we do not appear to be approaching the end of the 'plastic age' described by
Yarsley and Couzens in the 1940s, and there is much that plastics can contribute to society.

Plastic materials have the potential to bring scientific and medical advances, to alleviate
the planet (Andrady & Neal 2009
suffering and help reduce mankind's environmental footprint on

. For instance, plastics are likely to play an increasing role in medical applications, including
tissue and organ transplants; lightweight components, such as those in the new Boeing 787, will
reduce fuel usage in transportation; components for generation of renewable energy and insulation
will help reduce carbon emissions and smart plastic packaging will no doubt be able to monitor

and indicate the quality of perishable goods.

I n conclusion, plastics offer considerable benefits for the future, but it is evident that our current

and are not sustainable and present concerns for wildlife

approaches to production, use disposal
and human health. We have considerable knowledge about many of the environmental hazards,
and information on human health effects is growing, but many concerns and uncertainties remain.

There is a role for individuals, via appropriate use and disposal, particularly recycling; for
for reuse
industry by adopting green chemistry, material reduction and by designing products
and/or end-of-life recyclability and for governments and policymakers by setting standards and
targets, by defining appropriate product labelling to infom and incentivize change and by funding
relevant academic research and technological developments

Alternatives to plastic productsreduction

Buy food in glass or metal containers; avoid polycarbonate drinking bottles with Bisphenol A
Avoid heating food in plastic containers, or storing fatty foods in plastic containers or plastic
wrap.
Do not give young children plastic teethers or toys.

Use natural fiber clothing, bedding and furniture.

Avoid all PVC and Styrene products.
 Food Adulteration

Introduction
Food is basic necessity of life. We may be eating dangerous dye, sawdust, soap, stone etc.
Contaminated foods and drinks are common sources of infections. Often we invite diseases
instead of good health.

.Whatis Adulteration?
Food Adulteration is an act of intentionally debasing the quality of food offered for sale either by
the mixture or substitution of inferior substances or by removal of some valuable ingredient. It also
includes their incidental contamination during period of growth, harvesting, storage, processing,
transport and distribution.

It is a legal tem meaning that a food fails to meet the legal standards.

Food is declared adulterated if-

A substance is added which depreciates or injoriously affects it.

Cheaper or inferior substances are substituted wholly or in part.
Any valuable or necessary constituent has been wholly or in part abstracted.
*It is an imitation.
It is coloured or otherwise treated, to improve its appearance or if it contains any added
substance injurious to health.
*For whatever reason its quality is below the standards.
What are adulterants?

Adulterant means any material which is or could be employed for making the food unsafe or sub-
Standard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter.

Types of adulterants
Intentíonal Adulterants- The adulterants are added as a deliberate act with intention to
increase profit. For eg- sand, marble chips, stones, chalk powder etc.
2. Incidental Adulterants- Adulterants are found in food due to negligence, ignorance or
lack of proper facilities. For eg- Packaging hazards like larvae of insects, droppings,
pesticide residues, etc,.
3. Metallic adulterants- When the metallic substances are added intentionally or
accidentally. For eg- arsenic, pesticides, lead from water, mercury from efluents, tins from
cans, etc.
* Poisonous or Deleterious substances
 health, it is
poisonous or deleterious substance that may render injurious
It food contains a
it to

adulterated. For eg Apple cider contaminated with E.Coli O157:H7 etc.

Filth and Foreign Matter

as glass, metal,
Filth and extraneous material include any objectionable substances in food, such
leaves etc, and filth
sand etc, undesirable parts of raw plant material such as
stems
wood. plastic,
namely mold, rot, insect, excreta etc.

Economic Adulteration
valuable constituent in whole in part, conceals damage or
or
A food is adulterated if it omits a

or any substance has been added to it to

increase its bulk or weight,
inferiority in any manner;
reduce its strength.

Microbial Contamination and Adulteration

render ir adulterated.
The fact that food is contaminated with pathogens may, or may not,
will render the food adulterated. For
Generally. for ready-to-eat foods, the presence of pathogens
meat will render those products
eg-the presence of Salmonella on fresh foods or in ready-to-eat
adulterated.

Causes of Adulteration
Profit motive of traders: Done as a part of the business strategy.

insecurity: To increase quantity of food production and

Food sales.
fewer investments.
Increased Urbanization: To make maximum profit from food items by
High population demands: Increased food demand of the population and its changing
trends.
Dliteracy of general public: Lack of consciousness of proper food consumption.

Lack of effective food laws.

Lack of government in initiative.

Methods Or Food Adulteration

1. Mixing: Mixing of clay, stones, pebbles, sand, marble chips, etc.

Substitution: Cheaper and inferior substances being replaced wholly or partially with good
2.
ones.
3. Concealing quality: Trying to hide the food standard. For eg- adding captions of
qualitative food to low quality for selling.
decomposed ones are mixed with
4. Decomposed food: Mainly in fruits and vegetables. The
good ones.
Misbranding/ False labels: Includes duplicate food stuffs, changing of manufacture and
.
expiry dates.
6. Addition of toxicants: Adding non-edible substances like argemone in mustard oil, low
quality preservatives, colouring agents, etc.

Common Food Adulterants

Food Stuffs Adulterants

Cereal Soil, stones, dust, damaged grains, insects,
weed seeds etc.
Pulse Clay, stones, gravels, webs, insects, metanil
yellow, khesari dal etc.
Bengal Gram Starch powder, maize powder
Ghee Vanaspati, sweet potato, mashed potatoes
Milk Water, starch, removal of fat, glucose,
sugar, urea, detergent, synthetic milk etc.
Tea Used tea leaves
Pepper Papaya seeds
Clove Clove after extraction
Coriander powder Sawdust, horse dung
Red chilli powder Sawdust, powdered red brick
Turmeric Yellow soil
Honey Sugar, water
Butter Vanaspati or margarine
Sugar Chalk powder, urea
Mustard Oil Argemone oil
lodized Salt Common salt
Saffron Coloured dreid tendrils of maizecob
Coffee powder Cereal starch
Silver Leaves Aluminium leaves

Common Adulterants in Food and Method of Detection

. Milk
Adulterants- Water, starch, removal of fat, glucose, sugar, sodium bicarbonate, urea.
boric acid, vanaspati, detergent, synthetic milk etc.
Method of Detection- The presence of water can be by puting a dop of milk on a
polished surface. The drop of pure milk flows slowly leaving a white trail behind
whereas milk adulterated water will flow immediately without leaving a mark.
To test detergent, shake 5-10ml of milk with equal amount of water, lather indicates the
presence of detergent.
 2. Ghee
Adulterants- Vanaspati, margarine, mashed potatoes, sweet potatoes etc.
of cocn.
Method of Detection- Take 1 tsp of melted sample of ghee with equal quantity
let it rest for 5
HCI in test tube and add a pinch of sugar. Shake for a minute and
minutes. Appearance of crimson colour shows presence of vanaspati/ margarine.

3. Oils
Adulterants- Argemone oil, mineral oil, castor oil, cotton seed oil tec
amount of nitric acid and
Method od Detection- Take small quantity of oil. Add equal
of argemone oi.
shake carefully. Red to reddish brown colour shows presence
4. Sugar
colour etc.
Adulterants- Chalk powder, urea, washing soda, yellow
Method of Detection- Dissolve 10gm of a sample in a glass of water, allow settling,
chalk will settle at bottom.

5. Honey
Adulterants- sugar solution, added water etc.
when lighted with a
Method of Detection- A cotton wick dipped in pure honey
If adulterated, it wont burn and this
matchstick burns and shows the purity of honey.
shows presence water.

6. Food Grains
weevilled grain,
Adulterants- dust, pebbles stones, straw, weed seeds, damaged grain,
insects, rodent hair, excreta etc.
examined visually to see foreign matter, roden
Method of Detection- These may be
contamination etc.

7. Turmeric powder
artificial
Adulterants- coloured sawdust, chalk powder, starch of maize, lead chromate,
colour etc.
in test tube. Add few drops of conc. HCI.
Method of Detection- Take a tsp of turmeric
on dilution with water shows
Instant appearance of pink colour which disappears
colour presists, metanil yellow is present.
presence of turmeric. If

Health Hazards Of Food Adulteration

specific food adulteration incudes-
Some health hazards associated with

Mineral oil if added to edible oil and fats can cause cancers
turmeric powder and spices can cause anaemia, paralysis,
Lead chromate when added to
brain damage and abortions.
natural and processed food can lead to lead
to water, poisoning, foot drop,
Lead added
mental retardation.
insomnia, constipation, anaemia, and
 Cobalt added to water and liquors and can cause cardiac damage also copper, tin, and zinc

can cause colic, vomiting and diarrhoea.

mercury-contaminated fish can cause brain
Mercury in mercury fungicide treated grains, or
damage. paralysis, and death.
Non-permitted colour or permitted food colour like metal yellow, beyond the safe limit in
coloured food can cause allergies, hyperactivity, liver damage, infertility, anaemia, carncer
and birth defects.

Food Lawss

Laws goveming the food industry-

The Indian food processing industry is regulated by several laws which govern the aspects of
sanitation, licensing and other necessary permits that are required to start up and run a food
business. The legislation that dealt with food safety in India was the Prevention of Food
Adulteration Act, 1954 (PFA). The PFA had been in place for over five decades and there was a
need for change due to varied reasons which include the changing requirements of our food
industry.
The act brought into force in place of the PFA is the FoodSafety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSSA)
that overrides all other food related laws. It specifically repealed eight laws which were in
operation prior to the enforcement of FSSA:

The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

The Fruit Products Order, 1955
The Meat Food Products Order, 1973
The Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
The Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) Order, 1998
The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
The Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
Essential Commodities Act, 1955

Mitigation Measures For Food Adulteration

There must be proper surveillance of the implementation food laws.

There should be monitoring of the activities with periodical records of hazards regarding
food adulteration.
There should be periodical training programmes for Senior Officer/Inspector/Analysts for
food safety
There should be consumer awareness programmes organized by holding
exhibitions/seminars/training programmes and publishing pamphlets.
There should be strict actions regarding the punishment for those who are involved in food
adulteration.
 There should be help and support from International INGOs for implementation of food
laws.