UNIT-1

Introduction and Graphical User

Interface
Presented By:
P Sindhu
Asst.Professor
Cse Dept
 Contents
• Definition
• Importance of good design
• Benefits of good design
• A brief history of Screen design
• The Graphical User Interface
– Popularity of Graphics
– The concept of Direct Manipulation
– Graphical System
– Characteristics
– Web user-Interface Popularity
– Characteristics-Principles of user interface
 Introduction
• Human–computer interaction (HCI), alternatively man–
machine interaction (MMI) or computer– human
interaction (CHI) is the study of interaction between
people (users) and computers.
• • With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to
create really effective and usable interfaces and screens.
• "Human-computer interaction is a discipline
concerned with the design, evaluation and
implementation of interactive computing systems for
human use and with the study of major phenomena
surrounding them."
 Goals of HCI
• A basic goal of HCI is:
– To improve the interactions between users and
computers
– By making computers more usable and receptive
to the user's needs.
• A long term goal of HCI is :
– To design systems that minimize the barrier
between the human's cognitive model of what they
want to accomplish and the computer's
understanding of the user's task
 User Interface
• Human-computer interaction is the study, planning, and
design of how people and computers work together so
that a person's needs are satisfied in the most effective
way.
• HCI designers must consider a variety of factors:
– What people want and expect, physical limitations and
abilities people possess,
– How information processing systems work,
– What people find enjoyable and attractive.
– Technical characteristics and limitations of the computer
hardware and software must also be considered.
 User Interface
• The user interface is to the part of a computer and its
software that people can see, hear, touch, talk to, or
otherwise understand or direct.
• The user interface has essentially two components: input
and output.
• Input is how a person communicates his / her needs to the
computer. Some common input components are the
keyboard, mouse, trackball, one's finger, and one's voice.
• Output is how the computer conveys the results of its
computations and requirements to the user.
• Today, the most common computer output mechanism is
the display screen, followed by mechanisms that take
advantage of a person's auditory capabilities: voice and
sound.
 User Interface
• The use of the human senses of smell and touch
output in interface design still remain largely
unexplored.
• Proper interface design will provide a mix of well-
designed input and output mechanisms that satisfy
the user's needs, capabilities, and limitations in the
most effective way possible.
• The best interface is one that it not noticed, one
that permits the user to focus on the information
and task at hand, not the mechanisms used to
present the information and perform the task.
 Importance of User Interface
• A well-designed interface and screen is terribly important to our
users. It is their window to view the capabilities of the system.
• It is also the vehicle through which many critical tasks are
presented. These tasks often have a direct impact on an
organization's relations with its customers, and its profitability.
• A screen's layout and appearance affect a person in a variety of
ways. If they are confusing and inefficient, people will have
greater difficulty in doing their jobs and will make more
mistakes.
• Poor design may even chase some people away from a system
permanently. It can also lead to aggravation, frustration, and
increased stress.
 Importance Of Good Design
• With today's technology and tools, and our motivation to create really
effective and usable interfaces and screens, why do we continue to produce
systems that are inefficient and confusing or, at worst, just plain unusable?
Is it because:
• We don't care?
• We don't possess common sense?
• We don't have the time?
• We still don't know what really makes good design?
 Importance Of Good Design
• But we never seem to have time to find out what makes
good design, nor to properly apply it. After all, many of us
have other things to do in addition to designing interfaces
and screens.
• So we take our best shot given the workload and time
constraints imposed upon us. The result, too often, is
woefully inadequate.
• Interface and screen design were really a matter of common
sense, we developers would have been producing almost
identical screens for representing the real world.
• Example bad designs – Closed door with complete wood –
suggestion : glass door
 Benefits of Good Design
• Poor clarity forced screen users to spend one extra second
per screen.
– Almost one additional year would be required to process all
screens.
– Twenty extra seconds in screen usage time adds an additional
14 person years.
• The benefits of a well-designed screen have also been
under experimental scrutiny for many years.
– One researcher, for example, attempted to improve screen
clarity and readability by making screens less crowded.
– Separate items, which had been combined on the same display
line to conserve space, were placed on separate line sin stead.
– The result screen users were about 20 percent more productive
with the less crowded version
 Benefits of Good Design
• Proper formatting of information on screens does have
a significant positive effect on performance.
– In recent years, the productivity benefits of well-designed
Web pages have also been scrutinized.
• Training costs are lowered because training time is
reduced.
• Support line costs are lowered because fewer assist
calls are necessary.
• Employee satisfaction is increased because
aggravation and frustration are reduced.
• Ultimately, that an organization's customers benefit
because of the improved service they receive.
 Benefits of Good Design
• Identifying and resolving problems during the
design and development process also has
significant economic benefits
• How many screens are used each day in our
technological world?
• How many screens are used each day in your
organization? Thousands? Millions
• Imagine the possible savings. Proper screen
design might also, of course, lower the costs of
replacing "broken" PCs
 Introduction Of The Graphical User
Interface
• The Xerox systems, Altus and STAR, introduced
the mouse and pointing and selecting as the
primary human-computer communication method
• The user simply pointed at the screen, using the
mouse as an intermediary
• These systems also introduced the graphical user
interface as we know it a new concept was born,
revolutionizing the human-computer interface.
 A Brief History Of Screen Design
• While developers have been designing screens
since a cathode ray tube display was first attached to
a computer, more widespread interest in the
application of good design principles to screens did
not begin to emerge until the early 1970s, when
IBM introduced its 3270 cathode ray tube text-based
terminal.
• A 1970s screen often resembled the one pictured in
Figure. It usually consisted of many fields (more
than are illustrated here) with very cryptic and often
unintelligible captions.
 A Brief History Of Screen Design

• It was visually cluttered, and often possessed a command field that challenged
the user to remember what had to be keyed into it.
• Ambiguous messages often required referral to a manual to interpret.
• Effectively using this kind of screen required a great deal of practice and
patience.
• Most early screens were monochromatic, typically presenting green text on
black backgrounds.
• • At the turn of the decade guidelines for text-based screen design were finally
made widely available and many screens began to take on a much less cluttered
look through concepts such as grouping and alignment of elements, as illustrated
in Figure 1.2.
 A Brief History Of Screen Design
• User memory was supported by providing clear and
meaningful field captions and by listing commands on the
screen, and enabling them to be applied, through function
keys. Messages also became clearer.
• These screens were not entirely clutter-free, however.
Instructions and reminders to the user had to be inscribed on
the screen in the form of prompts or completion aids such as
the codes PR and Sc
• Not all 1980s screens looked like this, however. In the
1980s, 1970s-type screens were still being designed, and
many still reside in systems today
A Brief History Of Screen Design
 A Brief History Of Screen Design
• The advent of graphics yielded another milestone in the
evolution of screen design, as illustrated in Figure above.
• While some basic "design principles did not change,
groupings and alignment, for example ,Borders were made
available to visually enhance groupings and buttons and
menus for implementing commands replaced function keys
 A Brief History Of Screen Design
• Multiple properties of elements were also provided, including many
different font sizes and styles, line thicknesses, and colors.
• The entry field was supplemented by a multitude of other kinds of
controls, including list boxes, drop-down combination boxes, spin boxes,
and so forth.
• These new controls were much more effective in supporting a person's
memory, now simply allowing for selection from a list instead of requiring
a remembered key entry.
• Completion aids disappeared from screens, replaced by one of the new
listing controls. Screens could also be simplified, the much more powerful
computers being able to quickly present a new screen.
• In the 1990s, our knowledge concerning what makes effective screen
design continued to expand. Coupled with ever-improving technology, the
result was even greater improvements in the user-computer screen interface
as the new century dawned.
 The Graphical User Interface
• A user interface is a collection of techniques and mechanisms to
interact with something.
• In a graphical interface the primary interaction mechanism is a
pointing device of some kind.
• This device is the electronic equivalent to the human hand. What the
user interacts with is a collection of elements referred to as objects.
• They can be seen, heard, touched, or otherwise perceived.
• Objects are always visible to the user and are used to perform tasks.
• They are interacted with as entities independent of all other objects.
• People perform operations, called actions, on objects. The
operations include accessing and modifying objects by pointing,
selecting, and manipulating. All objects have standard resulting
behaviors
 Popularity Of Graphics
• A graphical screen bore scant resemblance to its earlier
text-based colleagues.
• Older text-based screen possessed a one dimensional
• Graphic screens assumed a three-dimensional look.
• Controls appeared to rise above the screen and move
when activated.
• Information could appear, and disappear, as needed.
• Text could be replaced by graphical images called icons
 Popularity Of Graphics
• These icons could represent objects or actions
• selection fields such as radio buttons, check boxes, list boxes, and palettes
coexisted with the reliable old text entry field
• More sophisticated text entry fields with attached or dropdown menus of.
• Objects and actions were selected through use of pointing mechanisms.
• Increased computer power.
• User's actions to be reacted to quickly, dynamically, and meaningfully.
• WIMP interface: windows, icons, menus, and pointers.
• Graphic presentation is much more effective than other presentation
methods.
 Popularity Of Graphics
• Properly used, it reduces the requirement for
perceptual and mental information recoding and
reorganization, and also reduces the memory
loads.
• It permits faster information transfer between
computers and people by permitting more visual
comparisons of amounts, trends, or relationships;
more compact representation of information;
• Graphics also can add appeal or charm to the
interface and permit greater customization to
create a unique corporate or organization style
 Graphical Systems Advantages and
Disadvantages
• Reduce the memory requirements.
• More effective use of one's information.
• Dramatically reduce system learning
requirements.
• Experience indicates that for many people
they have done all these things.
 Graphical Systems Advantages
• ADVANTAGES – Easily reversible action
– Symbols recognized faster than – Less anxiety concerning use
text – More attractive
– Faster learning – May consume less space
– Faster use and problem solving – Replaces national languages
– Easier remembering – Easily augmented with text
– More natural displays
– Exploits visual/spatial cues – Smooth transition from
– Fosters more concrete thinking command language system
– Provides context
– Fewer errors
– Increased feeling of control
– Immediate feedback
– Predictable system responses
 Graphical Systems Disadvantages
• DISADVANTAGES – Production limitations
– Greater design complexity. – Few tested icons exist
– Learning still necessary – Inefficient for touch typists
– Replaces national languages – Inefficient for expert users
– Easily augmented with text – Not always the preferred style of
displays interaction
– Smooth transition from command – Not always fastest style of
language system interaction
– Lack of experimentally derived – Increased chances of clutter and
design guidelines confusion
– use a pointing device may also – May consume more screen space
have to be learned – Hardware limitation
– Working domain is the present
– Human comprehension limitations
– Window manipulation
requirements
 The Concept Of Direct Manipulation
• The system is portrayed as an extension of the real world: It is
assumed that a person is already familiar with the objects and
actions in his or her environment of interest.
• The system simply replicates them and portrays them on a different
medium, the screen.
• A person has the power to access and modify these objects, among
which are windows.
• A person is allowed to work in a familiar environment and in a
familiar way, focusing on the data, not the application and tools
• The physical organization of the system, which most often is
unfamiliar, is hidden from view and is not a distraction.
• Continuous visibility of objects and actions: Like one's desktop,
objects are continuously visible. Reminders of actions to be
performed are also obvious, labeled buttons replacing complex
syntax and command names.
 The Concept Of Direct Manipulation
• Cursor action and motion occurs in physically obvious and natural
ways. One problem in direct manipulation, however, is that there is
no direct analogy on the desk for all necessary windowing
operations.
• A piece of paper on one's desk maintains a constant size, never
shrinking or growing. Windows can do both. Solving this problem
required embedding a control panel, a familiar concept to most
people, in a window's border.
• This control panel is manipulated, not the window itself. Actions are
rapid and incremental with visible display of results; the results of
actions are immediately displayed visually on the screen in their
new and current form.
• Auditory feedback may also be provided. The impact of a previous
action is quickly seen, and the evolution of tasks is continuous and
effortless. Incremental actions are easily reversible
 Indirect Manipulation
• In practice, direct manipulation of all screen objects and actions may not be feasible
because of the following:
• The operation may be difficult to conceptualize in the graphical system.
• The graphics capability of the system may be limited.
• The amount of space available for placing manipulation controls in the window border
may be limited.
• It may be difficult for people to learn and remember all the necessary operations and
actions.
• When this occurs, indirect manipulation is provided. Indirect manipulation substitutes
words and text, such as pull-down or pop-up menus, for symbols, and substitutes typing
for pointing.
• Most window systems are a combination of both direct and indirect manipulation. A
menu may be accessed by pointing at a menu icon and then selecting it (direct
manipulation).
• The menu itself, however, is a textual list of operations (indirect manipulation). When
an operation is selected from the list, by pointing or typing, the system executes it as a
command.
• Which style of interaction-direct manipulation, indirect manipulation, or a combination
 Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
• A graphical system possesses a set of defining concepts. Included are sophisticated
visual Presentation, pick-and click interaction, a restricted set of interface options,
visualization, object orientation, extensive use of a person's recognition memory, and
concurrent performance of functions
• Sophisticated Visual Presentation: Visual presentation is the visual aspect of the
interface. It is what people see on the screen.
– The sophistication of a graphical system permits displaying lines, including
drawings and icons.
– It also permits the displaying of a variety of character fonts, including different
sizes and styles.
– The display of 16 million or more colors is possible on some screens. Graphics also
permit animation and the presentation of photograph and motion video.
 Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
• The meaningful interface elements visually presented to the user in a
graphical System include windows (primary, secondary, or dialog
boxes), menus (menu bar, pull down, popup, cascading), icons to
represent objects such as programs or files, assorted screen-based
controls (text boxes, list boxes, combination boxes, settings, scroll
bar and buttons), and a mouse pointer and cursor.
• The objective is to reflect visually on screen the real world of the
user as realistically, meaningfully, simply, and clearly possible.
• A graphical system possesses a set of defining concepts. Included
are sophisticated visual presentation, pick-and click interaction, a
restricted set of interface options, visualization, object orientation,
extensive use of a person's recognition memory, and concurrent
performance of functions.
 Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
• Restricted Set of Interface Options:
– The array of alternatives available to the user is what is
presented on the screen or may be retrieved through what is
presented on the screen, nothing less, nothing more. This concept
fostered the acronym WYSIWYG.
• Pick-and-Click Interaction:
– Elements of a graphical screen upon which some action is to be
performed must first identified.
– The motor activity required of a person to identify this element
for a proposed action is commonly referred to as pick, the signal
to perform an action as cue .
– The primary mechanism for performing this pick-and-click
is most often the mouse and its buttons.
Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
– The user moves the mouse pointer to the relevant element
(pick) and the action is signaled (click).
– Pointing allows rapid selection and feedback. The hand
and mind seem to work smoothly and efficiently together.
– The secondary mechanism for performing these selection
actions is the keyboard most systems permit pick-and-click
to be performed using the keyboard as well.
 Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
Visualization: Visualization is a cognitive process that allows
people to understand .Information that is difficult to perceive,
because it is either too voluminous or too abstract
• Presenting specialized graphic portrayals facilitates
visualization.
– The best visualization method for an activity depends on what
People are trying to learn from the data.
– The goal is not necessarily to reproduce a really graphical
image, but to produce one that conveys the most relevant
information.
– Effective visualizations can facilitate mental insights, increase
productivity, and for faster and more accurate use of data.
 Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
Object Orientation: A graphical system consists of objects and actions. Objects
are what people see on screen. They are manipulated as a single unit.
• Objects can be composed of sub objects. For example , an object may be a
document. The document's sub objects may be a paragraph, sentence, word,
and letter.
• A collection is the simplest relationship-the objects sharing a common aspect.
• A collection might be the result of a query or a multiple selection of objects.
Operations can be applied to a collection of objects.
• A constraint is a stronger object relationship. Changing an object in a set
affects some other object in the set.
• A document being organized into pages is an example of a constraint. A
composite exists when the relationship between objects becomes so significant
that the aggregation itself can be identified as an object.
• Examples include a range of cells organized into a spreadsheet, or a collection
of words organized into a paragraph.
• A container is an object in which other objects exist. Examples include text in a
document or documents in a folder
 Characteristics Of The Graphical User
Interface
• A container often influences the behavior of its content. It may add or
suppress certain properties or operations of objects placed within it, control
access to its content, or control access to kinds of objects it will accept.
These relationships help define an object's type. Similar traits and
behaviors exist in objects of the same object type.
• Another important object characteristic is persistence. Persistence is the
maintenance of a state once it is established. An object's state (for example,
window size, cursor location, scroll position, and so on) should always be
automatically preserved when the user changes it.
• Use of Recognition Memory : Continuous visibility of objects and actions
encourages use of a person's more powerful recognition memory. The "out
of sight, out of mind" problem is eliminated
 Web User Interface
• The expansion of the World Wide Web since the early 1990s has been truly
amazing. Once simply a communication medium for scientists and researchers, its
many and pervasive tentacles have spread deeply into businesses, organizations,
and homes around the world
• Unlike earlier text-based and GUI systems that were developed and nurtured in an
organization's Data Processing and Information Systems groups, the Web's roots
were sown in a market-driven society thirsting for convenience and information.
• Web interface design is essentially the design of navigation and the presentation of
information. It is about content, not data
• Proper interface design is largely a matter of properly balancing the structure and
relationships of menus, content, and other linked documents or graphics. The
design goal is to build a hierarchy of menus and pages that feels natural, is well
structured, is easy to use, and is truthful.
• The Web is a navigation environment where people move between pages of
information, not an application environment. It is also a graphically rich
environment.
 Web User Interface
• Web interface design is difficult for a number of reasons. First, its
underlying design language, HTML, was never intended for creating
screens to be used by the general population
• Next, browser navigation retreated to the pre-GUI era. This era was
characterized by a "command" field whose contents had to be learned, and
a navigational organization and structure that lay hidden beneath a mostly
dark and blank screen.
• GUIs eliminated the absolute necessity for a command field, providing
menus related to the task and the current contextual situation.
• Browser navigation is mostly confined to a "Back" and "Forward" concept,
but "back-to where" and "forward-to where" is often unremembered or
unknown.
 Web User Interface
• Web interface design is also more difficult because the
main issues concern information Architecture and task
flow, neither of which is easy to standardize.
• It is more difficult because of the availability of the
various types of multimedia, and the desire of many
designers to use something simply because it is
available.
• It is more difficult because users are ill defined, and the
user's tools so variable in nature.
• The ultimate goal of a Web that feels natural, is well
structured, and is easy to use will reach fruition.
 Interface Popularity
While the introduction of the graphical user interface revolutionized the user
interface, the Web has revolutionized computing.
It allows millions of people scattered across the globe to communicate, access
information, publish, and be heard.
• It allows people to control much of the display and the rendering of Web
pages.
• Aspects such as typography and colors can be changed, graphics turned off,
and decisions made whether or not to transmit certain data over non secure
channels or whether to accept or refuse cookies.
• Web usage has reflected this popularity. The number of Internet hosts has
risen dramatically:
• In 1984, hosts online exceeded 1,000;
• in 1987, 10,000;
• in 1989, 100,000,
 Interface Popularity
• in 1990, 300,000;
• in 1992 hosts exceeded one million.
• Commercialization of the Internet saw even greater expansion of
the growth rate. In 1993, Internet traffic was expanding at a 341,634
percent annual growth rate. In 1996, there were nearly 10 million
hosts online and 40 million connected people (PBS Timeline).
• User control has had some decided disadvantages for some Web site
owners as well.
• Users have become much more discerning about good design.
• Slow download times, confusing navigation, confusing page
organization, disturbing animation, or other undesirable site features
often results in user abandonment of the site for others with a more
agreeable interface.
• People are quick to vote with their mouse, and these warnings
should not go unheeded.
 Principles Of User Interface Design
• An interface must really be just an extension of a person. This means that
the system and its software must reflect a person's capabilities and respond
to his or her specific needs.
• It should be useful, accomplishing some business objectives faster and
more efficiently than the previously used method or tool did.
• It must also be easy to learn, for people want to do, not learn to do.
• Finally, the system must be easy and fun to use, evoking a sense of pleasure
and accomplishment not tedium and frustration.
• The interface itself should serve as both a connector and a separator
• A connector in that it ties the user to the power of the computer, and a
separator in that it minimizes the possibility of the participants damaging
one another.
Principles Of User Interface Design
• While the damage the user inflicts on the computer tends to
be physical (a frustrated pounding of the keyboard), the
damage caused by the computer is more psychological.
• Throughout the history of the human-computer interface,
various researchers and writers have attempted to define a
set of general principles of interface design.
• What follows is a compilation of these principles. They
reflect not only what we know today, but also what we think
we know today.
• Many are based on research, others on the collective
thinking of behaviorists working with user interfaces.
• These principles will continue to evolve, expand, and be
refined as our experience with Gills and the Web increases.
 General Principles

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
• The design goals in creating a user interface are described below.
• They are fundamental to the design and implementation of all effective
interfaces, including GUI and We bones.
• These principles are general characteristics of the interface, and they apply
to all aspects.
• The compilation is presented alphabetically, and the ordering is not
intended to imply degree of importance
Aesthetically Pleasing
• Provide visual appeal by following these presentation and graphic design
principles:
– Provide meaningful contrast between screen elements.
– Create groupings.
– Align screen elements and groups.
– Provide three-dimensional representation.
– Use color and graphics effectively and simply.
 General Principles
Compatibility
Provide compatibility with the following:
– The user - The task and job
– The Product
– Adopt the User’s Perspective
Clarity
• The interface should be visually, conceptually, and linguistically clear,
including
– Visual elements
– Functions
– Metaphors
– Words and Text
 General Principles
Configurability
Permit easy personalization, configuration, and reconfiguration of settings.
– Enhances a sense of control
– Encourages an active role in understanding

Comprehensibility
A system should be easily learned and understood: A user should know the following:
– What to look at
– What to do
– When to do it
– Where to do it
– Why to do it
– How to do it
• The flow of actions, responses, visual presentations, and information should be in a
sensible order that is easy to recollect and place in context.
 General Principles
Consistency
• A system should look, act, and operate the same throughout. Similar components should:
– Have a similar look.
– Have similar uses.
– Operate similarly.
• The same action should always yield the same result
• The function of elements should not change.
• The position of standard elements should not change.
Control
• The user must control the interaction. –
– Actions should result from explicit user requests.
– Actions should be performed quickly.
– Actions should be capable of interruption or termination.
– The user should never be interrupted for errors
•
 General Principles
• The context maintained must be from the perspective of the user
• The means to achieve goals should be flexible and compatible with the user's skills, experiences, habits, and
preferences.
• Avoid modes since they constrain the actions available to the user.
• Permit the user to customize aspects of the interface, while always providing a Proper set of defaults
Directness
• Provide direct ways to accomplish tasks.
– Available alternatives should be visible.
– The effect of actions on objects should be visible.
Flexibility
• A system must be sensitive to the differing needs of its users, enabling a level and type of performance
based upon:
– Each user's knowledge and skills.
– Each user's experience.
– Each user's personal preference.
– Each user's habits.
– The conditions at that moment
 General Principles
Efficiency
• Minimize eye and hand movements, and other control actions.
– Transitions between various system controls should flow easily and freely.
– Navigation paths should be as short as possible.
– Eye movement through a screen should be obvious and sequential.
– Anticipate the user's wants and needs whenever possible.
Familiarity
• Employ familiar concepts and use a language that is familiar to the user.
• Keep the interface natural, mimicking the user's behavior patterns.
• Use real-world metaphors.
Forgiveness
• Tolerate and forgive common and unavoidable human errors.
• Prevent errors from occurring whenever possible.
• Protect against possible catastrophic errors.
• When an error does occur, provide constructive messages
 General Principles
Predictability
• The user should be able to anticipate the natural progression of each
task.
– Provide distinct and recognizable screen elements.
– Provide dues to the result of an action to be performed.
• All expectations should be fulfilled uniformly and completely
Recovery
• A system should permit:
– Commands or actions to be abolished or reversed.
– Immediate return to a certain point if difficulties arise.
• Ensure that users never lose their work as a result of:
– An error on their part.
– Hardware, software, or communication problems
 General Principles
Responsiveness
• The system must rapidly respond to the user's requests provide immediate
Acknowledgment for all user actions:
– Visual.
– Textual
– Auditory.
Transparency
• Permit the user to focus on the task or job, without concern for the
mechanics of the interface.
– Workings and reminders of workings inside the computer should be
invisible to the user.
 General Principles
Simplicity
• Provide as simple an interface as possible.
• Five ways to provide simplicity:
– Use progressive disclosure, hiding things until they are needed
– Present common and necessary functions first - Prominently feature
important functions
– Hide more sophisticated and less frequently used functions.
– Provide defaults.
– Minimize screen alignment points.
– Make common actions simple at the expense of uncommon actions
being made harder.
– Provide uniformity and consistency
Thank You…