Types of Intergranular Corrosion

Prepared by: DSc Dževad Hadžihafizović (DEng)

Sarajevo 2024
Corrosion Testing
Corrosion typically happens when materials are exposed to an aggressive environment, which
results in a degradation of material.

Corrosion testing calculates the material's resistance to corrosion under certain environmental
conditions, such as humidity and temperature. The process is measured and analysed to
determine the likelihood of corrosion.

We can test a variety of metal types, including duplex and austenitic stainless steels and
wrought nickel-rich chromium-bearing alloys.

Our Metallurgical Department offers several different corrosion testing methods, including
Intergranular Corrosion Testing (IGC), Pitting Corrosion Testing, and Rate Corrosion Testing.

We work to the following testing standards:

Pitting and crevice corrosion testing to ASTM G48 (Method A) and ASTM A923 Method C*
Intergranular corrosion tests (ICC) to ASTM A262 Practice A, C and E and BS EN ISO 3651-2
Method A and ASTM G28 (Method A).
Intergranular Corrosion Testing

Intergranular corrosion (IGC) refers to corrosion in between crystals or grains. When a material
such as stainless steel becomes susceptible to IGC, it creates a weakness that then cracks.
Material cracking in service is clearly undesirable.
There are various ways to test intergranular corrosion. These include:
•ASTM A262 – Practice E. is performed to assess attack in austenitic stainless steels.
•ASTM G28 - detects the susceptibility to Intergranular Corrosion in Wrought, Nickel-Rich,
Chromium-Bearing Alloys.
Pitting Corrosion Testing

Pitting corrosion is recognised by the pits that form - although they can be hard to identify, as
well as weight loss.
Susceptibility & Pitting corrosion is often tested by ASTM G48, Method A (ferric chloride testing).
This method looks at Pitting Resistance of Stainless Steels and Related Alloys. A probe of the
area with a needle is then carried out to show any hidden pitting.
A923 Method C, is a Test for detecting the presence of detrimental intermetallic structures in
Duplex Stainless Steels.
Rate Corrosion Testing

Our rate service testing helps to anticipate failures that may occur. It is important to check
materials for weakness or potential damages to ensure they are safe and maintain effective
performance.
These corrosion testing methods are just some of the ways to ensure the safety and reliability of
materials.

https://www.rotechlabs.co.uk/metallography/corrosion-testing
Sensitization and Intergranular Corrosion of a Nozzle Pipe

Background: A nozzle pipe with welds to flanges at either end experienced a leak during a
routine maintenance check before use. The nozzle was constructed of 304 stainless steel and
was located on a tank that saw intermittent use and was then cleaned with water and left empty
until it’s next use. Due to this practice, the client thought that the cause of the leak might be
chloride SCC, and contracted KML to perform a failure analysis on the nozzle.

Figure 1: Photograph (Left) and Optical Micrograph (Right) of the Failed Nozzle Pipe Showing
the Sensitization of the Microstructure, Pitting, and Intergranular Corrosion
Summary: The failure of the nozzle was the result of sensitization of the stainless steel
microstructure and subsequent intergranular corrosion, resulting in deep pitting and through
thickness corrosion of the nozzle pipe material. Sensitization of stainless steel refers to the
precipitation of chromium carbides on the grain boundaries and occurs at temperatures between
approximately 970 and 1470 °F (example shown in Figure). The presence of these carbides
allows for intergranular corrosion of the steel, resulting in pitting and eventual failure of the
material, as can be seen in Figure 1. This intergranular corrosion and cracking can occur in
environments where stainless steel would not normally be subject to corrosion.
The sensitization of the microstructure in this case was caused by improper welding procedures.
This can be seen by the location of the pitting, which occurred adjacent to the welds, and also
by the microstructural changes and changes in the surface coloration of the steel near the weld
areas, as highlighted in Figure.
Take Away: Improper welding or heat-treating procedures in stainless steels can cause
sensitization of the microstructure that greatly increases the susceptibility of the steel to
corrosion, resulting in corrosion failures in environments where stainless steel would not
normally be subject to corrosion.
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IGC Test:
Intergranular Corrosion Testing Explained

Introduction
Intergranular corrosion (IGC) is a type of corrosion that occurs along the grain boundaries of various metals and alloys.
Aggressive saline or acidic environments can damage these regions, common in nuclear reactors, boilers, and heat
exchangers.

Intergranular corrosion can reduce ductility and mechanical strength, increasing the risk of failure. Techniques to minimise
corrosion risk are available, but testing is essential.

This article explains the value of performing an intergranular corrosion test. We describe various test types, factors that
affect testing, and how to interpret results.

Types of Intergranular Corrosion Testing

Engineers and research scientists have developed various intergranular corrosion tests to determine the degree of material
damage. Firms can use this information to decide whether IGC remains within acceptable limits.

Huey Test
The Huey test involves taking a specimen of material and placing it in a boiling solution of 65% nitric acid for five periods of
48 hours each. During the end of each test period, engineers remove the specimen from the solution and weigh it. The
degree of weight loss is indicative of the degree of IGC.

Strauss Test
The Strauss test involves immersing the specimen in boiling copper sulphate and sulfuric acid for up to 72 hours. Engineers
then visually examine the material, bending it to check ductility. IGC samples usually display cracks and fissures during
manual manipulation.

Streicher Test
The Streicher test involves immersing the specimen in boiling ferric sulphate-sulfuric acid solution for 24 to 120 hours and
measuring mass loss.
Other Tests
Researchers and engineers may use other tests involving different acidic solutions and inspection methods.
Popular options include: -
•Copper sulphate test – engineers boil specimens for 120 hours (typically used for low carbon steels)
•Oxalic acid test – a test designed to ensure that no corrosion exists in the sample (only useful for specific material grades)
Additional tests may be suitable when simulating material responses in diverse service environments.
Factors Affecting Intergranular Corrosion Testing
Various factors combine to generate each intergranular corrosion test. These include:-
Test duration and conditions
The greater the test duration, the more severe the corrosion will be. Unwanted reactions have longer to take place, leading
to more extensive IGC damage.
Engineers can also tweak test conditions to make the environment more or less hospitable to the sample. Increases in
mechanical stress, oxygen and flow rate can impact the severity of the test.
Ideally, engineers should perform tests that enable them to make like-for-like comparisons between materials. Changing
several variables at once makes results harder to interpret.
Test solution concentration and temperature
The test solution, concentration, and temperature can also affect the corrosive environment. Higher concentrations and
temperatures can increase the test’s corrosive potential.
Alloy composition and surface preparation
Lastly, alloy composition and surface preparation can impact the corrosiveness of the test. Some metals are more reactive
to acids than others, and proper surface preparation, such as adding a film to the metal, can improve resistance.
Interpretation of Intergranular Corrosion Test Results
After conducting tests, engineers must evaluate the materials to determine the degree of IGC. They must also consider any
countervailing factors that could affect their interpretation of the data.

Evaluation of the test results

Given the diversity of testing methods, engineers should evaluate results according to the accepted criteria for the specific
testing method. Standard tables and charts show IGC levels acceptable for various operating environments. These may
vary considerably across methodologies.

Factors affecting the test results

Engineers should also be aware of the various factors that could affect test results. For instance, some elements, such as
carbon and chromium, can affect the formation of protective oxide films on grain boundaries. These can make samples less
susceptible to IGC testing, skewing the interpretation that might apply in real-world environments.

The orientation and size of the grain may also affect IGC penetration. Larger pieces of metal may have more grain boundary
exposure, resulting in increased corrosion.

Another factor affecting results is heat treatment and processing history of the material. Thermal dynamics can impact the
metal’s microstructure, causing protective elements, such as chromium, to migrate to or from the grain boundary, affecting
its resistive properties.

Finally, engineers should consider the testing environment. Each method has various pros and cons. Some tests are
considerably more sensitive than others or are metal-specific.

Understanding which test to use requires understanding and assessing the impact of various factors, including:-

Agitation
Solution concentrations
Duration
Temperature
Material properties
Effects of intergranular corrosion on the material

Engineers must choose suitable methods to measure IGC in the material. Many look for a reduction in mechanical strength
and ductility, as this indicates the continuing usefulness of the material in high-stress applications.
Changes in parameters such as fatigue and tensile strength, impact toughness, and elongation are indicative of potential
failure.
Testing may reveal decreases in corrosion resistance with the removal of various oxide films or protective layers on the
grain boundary. Such attacks can make the material more susceptible to damage over time.

Conclusion

Intergranular corrosion testing is a way of assessing the susceptibility of metals to cracking and failure along their grain
boundaries. Such testing is essential in critical, high-stress environments, such as shipping, aerospace and nuclear.
IGC testing is not always straightforward. Engineers need to choose a suitable method and calibrate the solution,
temperature, and exposure time to test metals sensibly.
Future developments in IGC testing will involve establishing more generally accepted and universal testing criteria.
Guidelines, analytical tools, and models will give engineers more confidence in the results they obtain.

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Intergranular Corrosion (IGC) Test for ASS ASTM A262 - 2008
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Passing Test Specimen –View of Bent Ares

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Falling Test Specimen –Many intergranular fissues DoublefulTest Result Test Result –Traces of intergranular

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