HISTORY AND

GOVERNMENT
PREPARED BY
MR. ALAMBO WILSON
EDITED BY
DR. MARTIN OTUNDO PHD
Contact: +254 721246744 or +254759819660

FORM FOUR NOTES

EDITED
EDITION

2024
TOPICAL

REVISION

QUESTIONS

INCLUDED
Contents
FORM FOUR............................................................................................................. 2
WORLD WARS............................................................................................................................................ 2
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS .............................................................................................................. 25
CO-OPERATION IN AFRICA ................................................................................................................... 39
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN AFRICA
SINCE INDEPENDENCE .......................................................................................................................... 64
NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF KENYA............................................................................................... 75
SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN KENYA
SINCE INDEPENDNCE............................................................................................................................. 82
DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT .................................................................................................................. 97
THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND THE FUNCTIONS OF GOVRNMENT IN OTHER PARTS OF
THE WORLD ........................................................................................................................................... 112

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 FORM FOUR
WORLD WARS
Introduction
There were two major wars fought during the first half of the 20th Century almost all over the
world although Europe contributed heavily to their outbreak.
The First World War (1914-1918)
It was the first war in the history of humanity to take a long duration and to use modern weapons
such as guns, poison gas, air craft among others. Some of the countries involved were Britain,
Germany, France, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Japan and the United States of America.
Causes of the First World War
The causes of the First World War can be categorized into long term causes and the immediate
cause. Most of the long term factors were connected with the political and economic changes that
followed the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 19th Century.
a) Long term causes
• Desire for revenge
As a result of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871, France felt humiliated and desired to
revenge against Germany in order to regain her two provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
• Systems of Alliances
An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if a war
breaks out. The European powers grouped themselves into alliances such as the Triple Alliance
between Germany, Austria - Hungary and Italy and the Triple Entete between Britain, France
and Russia. These powers promised to support one another in case of attack.
• Rivalry over colonies or imperialism
Due to the Industrial Revolution European powers began to compete for colonies to get raw
materials and markets for their manufactured goods. Britain and France had more colonies than
Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late. This increased rivalry between
Germany and them.
• Economic Rivalry
The Industrial Revolution created the need for territorial expansion to match the needs of the
economy and industry in order to get new sources of raw materials and markets. This created
tension and conflicts among the European nations.
• The Moroccan Crisis

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In 1904, Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted independence.
In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly
avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain Morocco. However, in 1911, the
Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France
and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.
The Arms Race
The European powers equipped themselves with armaments to prove their military superiority.
The arms race made countries more aggressive and militant ready to fight at the slightest
provocation.
• Development of Nationalism in Europe
Nationalism refers to the desire for self-determination. In the first half of the 20th Century, there
was a new surge of nationalism among many nations that had been denied self- expression in the
form of political independence in Europe. Even the nations that had attained independence also
pursued their own national interests leading to clashes with one another.
• The Italo-Turkish colonial dispute over Libya
Italy occupied Libya which a Turkish territory thereby creating tension between her and
Germany who also had interest in Libya. The Germans were ardent supporters of Turkey.
• Nationalism in the Balkans
The Balkan Peninsular had been colonized by the Turks. The Slaviks decided to fight for their
independence and were supported by France, Britain and Russia. This made Turkey fight on the
side of Germany.
b) The immediate cause
• Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo
On 28th June 1914, Archdukes Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, and his wife
Sophie were assassinated in Sarajevo. The murder was committed by a young Bosnian student
named Gavrilo Princip who was sent by a secret Serbian extremist group known as the Black
Hand. The group was opposed to continued Austrian rule in Bosnia, a province largely inhabited
by the Serbs.
Austria accused Serbia of being involved in the assassination. It presented Serbia with a set of
demands as follows:
i) An explanation for the assassination of the archduke and his wife
ii) Apologies to Austria- Hungary
iii) Suppression of all anti-Austrian publications and organizations
iv) Serbia to dismiss all officials whom Austria objected to

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v) Participation of Austrian officials in the inquiry including institution of judicial
proceedings against the suspects
vi) Austria police to be allowed to enter Serbia to ensure that the demands are fulfilled.
NB: Serbia accepted the first five demands, but rejected the sixth, which she suggested could be
left to the International Court of Justice at the Hague for arbitration. Consequently Austria -
Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28th July 1914.
The course of the First World War (1914 - 1918)
The war was fought between the Central Powers which included Germany, Austria-Hungary,
Italy and Turkey and the Allies which included Serbia, Montenegro, Belgium, France, Russia,
Great Britain and later the United States of America.
The war was fought in three continents: Europe, Africa and Asia, and was fought both on land
and sea. In Europe the war was fought on two fronts, the Western Front and the Eastern Front.
The Western Front
The Germans were fighting British and French forces, and later American forces. The war on the
western front was part of the Von Schlieffen Plan. This plan was to attack France through neutral
Belgium and capture Paris thus forcing the British to sign a separate peace treaty with Germany.
This plan failed plan failed due to the following reasons:
• Russia mobilized her forces faster than expected hence the German forces had to be
deployed to the Eastern front earlier than anticipated.
• German invasion of Belgium was too slow due to the British entry into the war.
• Both sides were evenly matched than the Germans had thought
The above factors led to a military stalemate on the western front that lasted for the rest of the
war.
The Eastern Front
The war on the Eastern front involved Russia against Germany and Austria-Hungary. Russia
however withdrew from the war after the Russian Revolution of 1917.
War in Africa
On the African front the war was fought in those regions where the Germans had colonies
neighboring those of the Allied Powers. These were Cameroon, Namibia, Rwanda, Burundi and
Tanganyika.
The war at Sea
Britain used her navy to blockade German ports to ensure that the Germans did not get supplies
of food and raw materials. The Germans responded by sinking ships bound for British ports from
the British Empire and the United States of America.
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Britain was however able to retain her supremacy in the sea. This assisted the Allied Powers in
four ways;
• The British used her navy to blocked German ports to ensure the Germans did not get
supplies of food and raw materials
• The Allies were able to use the British naval supremacy to capture colonies of the Central
Powers
• They were able to maintain uninterrupted communication with other Allied forces
• They were able to safeguard the British food and raw materials supplies from other parts
of the world
NB: Up to 1917 the United States of America had remained neutral due to the following reasons:
i) She did not want to involve herself in European quarrels in line with the Monroe
Doctrine of 1823.
ii) She feared the war would be fought in American soil because of her large German
population
iii) She had trade relations with both alliances
iv) The war had not interfered with her interests before 1917
However, the USA entered the war in 1917 on the side of the allies due to the following reasons:
i) Germany's declaration of Unrestricted Submarine Warfare
ii) Zimmerman Letter which encouraged Mexico to attack the USA from the south if she
joined the war on the side of the Allies
iii) Public opinion in favour of the Allies in the USA
iv) Industrial sabotage by German sympathizers in the USA
NB: The year 1917 remains the decisive year for the end of the First World War due to these two
major events;
i) Russia's withdrawal from the war after the Russian revolution
ii) The entry of the United States of America into the war on the side of the Allies
Reasons for the defeat of the Central Powers (Triple Alliance)
The following factors contributed to the defeat of the Central Powers:
• The Allied Powers had powerful weapons compared to the Central Powers
• The Allied Powers had more financial resources which were used to finance the war

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• The Allies had a strong naval blockade led by the British navy which enabled them to
block food and raw material supplies to the Central powers from the sea
• The Allied powers were led by leaders who were competent and focused such as Lloyd
George, Georges Clemenceau, Signor Orlando and Woodrow Wilson hence inspired members
• The entry of the USA on the Allied powers side gave them vast new resources for the war
• The Allies were more united and organized compared to the Central Powers
• Some members of the Central Powers such as Italy decamped thereby weakening them to
the advantage of the Allies
• The Allied Powers had more soldiers who were deployed during the war
• The Allied Powers received support from other countries which boosted their ability in
war
• There was political unrest in Germany which affected her military strength or capability
• Failure of the Von Schlieffen plan or delayed attack on France diminished the hopes of
the success of the Central Powers
• Germany used young and in experienced soldiers towards the end of the war
• The Spanish influenza weakened the soldiers of the Central Powers
• The invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany helped turn the world opinion against
the Central powers
The Peace Settlement
President Woodrow Wilson of the USA in his address to the Congress in 1918 outlined the
fourteen principles that were essential in maintenance of world peace. Among these were three
great principles that formed the basis of world peace namely;
• Self-determination of all peoples
• The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements (abolition of secret
diplomacy)
• The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue for discussing
all international problems and protect small states from aggression by large ones.
A peace conference was held in Paris in January 1919 attended by statesmen from the Allied
Powers to determine the fate of the defeated Central Powers. Among the key personalities at the
conference were:
• Lloyd George ( British Prime Minister)
• Georges Clemenceau ( French Premier)

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• Woodrow Wilson ( USA President)
• Vittorio Orlando ( Italian Prime Minister)
Five treaties were signed between the Allies and their five chief enemies. These treaties were:
i) The Treaty of Versailles with Germany
ii) The Treaty of St. Germain with Austria
iii) The Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria
iv) The treaty of Trianon with Hungary
v) The Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey
NB: All these treaties put together formed what was called the Treaty of Versailles.
Main terms (results) of the Versailles Treaty
The following were the terms of the Versailles Treaty:
• Germany lost all her colonial possessions which were declared as mandate territories
under the League of Nations
• Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France
• Germany was forced to pay war damages of over 6.5 billion sterling pounds to the Allies
• The city of Danzig became a free city under the League of Nations
• Germany was restricted to an army of 100,000 men and its equipment were limited
• The treaty prevented any possible union between Germany and Austria
• The treaty also established the League of Nations
Results of the First World War
The First World War had far-reaching socio-political and economic effects:
a) Political Effects
• It led to the emergence of new nations such as Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia
• The United States of America emerged as the leading world power thereby upsetting the
existing balance of power in the world.
• It led to the emergence of Communism in Russia which hastened the collapse of the
Tsarist regime
• It created revolutionary ideas which led to the rise of nationalism among the colonized
people such as Indians and Africans who were involved in the war

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• It led to the creation of the League of Nations as an international organization charged
with the responsibility of maintaining international peace and security
• The political boundary of the Turkish empire was reduced as Turkey lost Egypt, Syria
and Palestine
• Germany’s overseas colonies and investments were taken away and given to the League
of Nations
b) Economic Effects
• It led to massive destruction of property such as roads and factories
• It led to the use of huge sum of money thereby weakening the economies of countries
involved
• It slowed down economic development of most countries hence leading to the great
economic depression
c) Social Effects
• It led to massive loss of human life as conflicts between opposing camps continued
• It led to displacement of people thereby creating refugees across the world
• It led to starvation by causing food shortage in many countries as people joined the war
• It created fear and insecurity among people across the world
• It led to outbreak of diseases or epidemics such as the Spanish influenza which caused
death of many people
• It led to the promotion of status of women in Europe and the USA as women took leading
positions in the military and administration
The League of Nations
It was established by the peace conference in Paris of April 1919.
Aims or Objectives of the League of Nations
i) To prevent war
ii) To settle international disputes peacefully
iii) To promote respect of the sovereignty of member states
iv) To gradually work towards disarmament and discourage the production of
weapons of mass
destruction
v) To secure fair and humane conditions of labour
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vi) To supervise the territories taken from the Central Powers during the Paris peace
conference
The Organization Structure of the League of Nations
The League of Nations established the following organs to facilitate and manage its operations;
• The Assembly
It comprised of all the members of the League and met annually at the League headquarters in
Geneva, Switzerland.
The Assembly performed the following functions:
i) It controlled the budget of the League
ii) Appointment of non-permanent members to the League of Nations Council
iii) It ratified treaties
iv) It approved the appointment of the Secretary-General
v) It supervised the work of the other organs of the League
vi) It appointed the 15 judges of the Permanent Court of International Justice
• The Council
It comprised of Permanent and non- permanent members. The permanent members were France,
Great Britain, Italy and Japan. The USA declined to join the League.
The Council performed the following functions:
i) It implemented the recommendations of the Assembly
ii) It appointed the Secretary General of the League with the approval of the Assembly
iii) It prepared the agenda for the Assembly
iv) It dealt with any issue affecting global peace
• The Secretariat
It was the administrative body of the League of Nations. It was based in Geneva, and was headed
by a Secretary General. The secretariat performed the following functions:
i) It prepared the agenda for the Assembly and Council meetings
ii) It carried out all correspondence
iii) It published relevant reports
iv) It carried out research

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v) It registered treaties
The Permanent Court of International Justice
It was based at The Hague, Netherlands. It comprised of eleven judges and four deputy judges.
Its main function was to settle disputes between member states. It also provided judicial advice
to the Council and the Assembly with regard to international disputes.
• Specialized Agencies
There were specialized agencies to tackle problems such as refugees, labour, health, drugs and
slavery. Such agencies included; The International Labour Organization, International Health
Organization among others.
Performance of the League of Nations
Despite the obstacles encountered by the League of Nations in trying to achieve its objectives,
the League succeeded in some of the spheres of its activities.
Achievements of the League of Nations
The following were some of the notable achievements of the League:
• It did much to preserve world peace until 1939 through the Permanent Court of
International Justice
• It helped combat diseases and epidemics such as typhoid, cholera and small pox through
the International Health Organization
• It helped improve the welfare of workers through the International Labour Organization
• It settled several inter-state disputes in a peaceful manner such as disputes between Iraq
and Turkey over Mosul province
• It provided relief for famine areas, refugees and war casualties
• It helped in the reduction of trade in dangerous drugs
• The League successfully supervised mandated territories by supervising the standards of
colonial administration
• It convened disarmament conferences and tried to regulate trade in arms
• It helped in the economic reconstruction of European countries such as Austria
Failure of the League of Nations
The League failed in the prime objective of maintaining international peace and security in the
following instances:
• It failed to raise enough funds to implement some of its programmes

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• The Disarmament Commission of the League failed in persuading members to reduce
armaments as stipulated in the Covenant
• The League was often overruled by the Conference of Ambassadors based in Paris which
had been set up to deal with problems arising out of the Versailles Treaty
• It failed to stop the Japanese invasion of China in 1931and Italian attack of Ethiopia in
1935
• The League failed to stop Germany's remilitarization programme(main reason for the
failure of the League of Nations)
Reasons for the Failure of the League of Nations
The following factors led to the massive failure of the League of Nations:
• It was closely linked or associated with the Versailles Treaty hence most Europeans
nations opposed it because it favoured the Allied nations that had fought against Germany.
• Shortage of funds made it difficult for the League to implement its programmes
• The membership of the League was not all that inclusive. Some countries were left out
while others were not given a chance to join. For instance, Germany was not allowed to join till
1926, while USSR only became a member in 1934
• The United States of America did not join the League because it did not want to get
involved in European affairs in line with the Monroe doctrine
• The league lacked its own army to implement its decisions where peace was threatened.
It depended on the good will of members who at times were not reliable
• The conference of Ambassadors in Paris undermined the activities of the League as it
contradicted and defied the League
• Some members of the League adopted the policy of appeasement towards certain regimes
in order to avoid confrontation thus weakening it
• Most members concerned with their own sovereignty or interest as opposed to the
interests of the League of Nations
• The search for colonies diverted members' attention from the activities of the League of
Nations
• The rise of dictatorial governments in Japan, Germany and Italy undermined the League
as these dictators refused to accept the resolutions of the League
• The economic depression of 1929 weakened most world economies hence they were not
able to support the League financially.
• The League also failed to stop Germany's remilitarization programme after the failure of
the World Disarmament Conference of 1932-1933.
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The Second World War (1939-1945)
The seeds of the Second World War were planted during the Versailles Treaty which devastated
the Germans and made them bitter. The Germans embarked on a campaign to revive her glory
through acts of aggression and blatant violation of the terms of the Versailles treaty.
The War was fought between two opposing powers:
The Allied Powers who included Britain, France, USA, USSR and Belgium
The Axis Powers who included Germany, Italy and Japan
Causes of the Second World War
The following factors contributed to the occurrence of the war
• The unfavourable terms of the Versailles Treaty; Germany lost her colonies, was forced
to pay war damages and was disarmed. As a result, Germany was faced with poverty, inflation,
shortage of food and raw materials and biting unemployment. They felt bitter and humiliated.
Hitler wanted to reverse this treaty by adopting an aggressive policy.
• Growth of Nationalism which made countries to concentrate on their own internal
problems at the expense of international co-operation thereby threatening international peace and
security. The USA continued with her isolationist policy on international issues. Germany under
Adolf Hitler developed a desire to dominate the world and encouraged the German speaking
people who lived in the Sudetenland to demand complete independence from Czechoslovakia.
• The rise to power of Adolf Hitler; Hitler wanted to embark on an expansionist policy in
order to restore the lost glory of Germany. He did this through his National Socialist Party (Nazi
party).
• The Great Economic Depression; It led to mass unemployment, hunger and social
discontent. It greatly affected terms of trade and balance of payment. European nations, in an
effort to revive their economies, adopted protectionist policies for their markets and sources of
raw materials. Countries like Britain, France, Belgium and the USA controlled most of the
World's wealth while Germany, Italy and Japan considered themselves handicapped in
competing for raw materials, markets and colonies, they therefore became very aggressive.
• Emergence of dictators in Europe; A number of dictators came to power in Europe such
as Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy, Joseph Stalin of Russia and General
Francisco Franco of Spain. They overthrew democratic governments; they engaged in
rearmaments and also engaged in acts of aggression thereby causing the outbreak of the war.
• The Arms Race; The arms race characterized by recruitment into the army and navy and
the invention of new weapons such as guns, aircraft and the submarines created tension among
nations.

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• The Weakness of the League of Nations; The organization failed to prevent the
rearmament of Germany, Italy and Japan. These countries ignored the terms of the League. Some
countries also refused to join the League.
• The Policy of Appeasement; It refers to the policy adopted by France and Britain of
giving in to the demands of Adolf Hitler instead of opposing him. This encouraged Hitler to
pursue acts of aggression hence in 1938 Germany invaded Sudetenland which was a violation of
the Versailles Treaty.
• Systems of Alliances; Formation of alliances such as the Berlin - Rome - Tokyo axis
encouraged acts of aggression as they felt they could get support from their allies.
• Territorial Violations; Germany invaded Poland on 1st September 1939 which upset
Britain and France hence they declared war on Germany on 3rd September 1939.
The Course of the Second World War
By 1940 Germany dominated and occupied Western Europe with the exception of Britain.
Germany attacked Russia in 1941 but was unable to capture Moscow before winter. In North
Africa the Italians and the Germans attacked Egypt but were repulsed.
In 1941, Japan attacked American great naval base at Pearl Harbours on the Hawaiian Island.
The attack made the USA to enter the war. On 6th August 1945, the USA dropped an atomic
bomb on the Japanese city of Hiroshima. On 9th August 1945 a second atomic bomb was
dropped at Nagasaki. Japan surrendered and the Second World war ended.
Reasons why the Axis Powers were defeated during the Second World War
• The Allied powers had more supporters and a large army than the Axis powers
• The Allied powers had massive combined financial resources to sustain them in the
prolonged war
• The Allies had aerial and naval superiority which won them carriers battles of the
Atlantic and Pacific
• The Allied powers had superior weapons such as the atomic bomb which they used
against Japan
• The Axis powers suffered from a shortage of raw materials such as rubber, cotton, nickel
and oil for sustaining their military and economy
• The German forces and the Axis powers were overstretched as they were fighting on
many fronts
• The entry of the USA on the side of the Allies gave them a big advantage over the Axis
powers
• The Axis powers made serious tactical mistakes for instance Hitler concentrated on V-
rockets at the expense of developing Jet- aircrafts.
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• Some of German allies like Italy turned against her. This weakened the Axis Powers.
The Results of the Second World War
The Second World War had devastating effects.
a) Political Effects
• The war led to the emergence of the United States of America and the Union of Soviet
Socialist Republic as super powers
• It led to the establishment of communist governments in Eastern Europe like in Hungary
and Czechoslovakia
• It resulted int a cold war between the USA and the former USSR
• It led to the formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO) in 1945 to promote
peace, security and international co- operation
• It led to the division of Germany into East and West thereby creating Capitalist and
Communist Germany
• It led to the creation of the state of Israel to settle the displaced Jews in 1948
• To check the spread of Communism in Europe , the USA assisted weakened European
powers through the Marshal plan
• It strengthened nationalist in Africa and Asia as it eroded the myth of European
supremacy
• The war led to the production of atomic bombs whose use in Hiroshima and Nagasaki
had devastating effects
• It caused the fall of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany and Mussolini of
Italy
b) Economic Effects
• It led to massive destruction of property of unknown value hence weakening European
economies
• It led to decline in agriculture and industry due to lack of equipment, raw materials and
human resources
• It led to disruption of both internal and external trade
• It led to rise of debts as countries involved borrowed a lot of money to finance the war
leading to economic depression
• It led to developments in engineering as engineers built bridges, pipelines and roads

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• It led to massive unemployment as demobilized servicemen and prisoners of war
increased demands for jobs
c) Social Effects
• Many people both soldiers and civilians lost their lives during the war
• It led to widespread suffering and misery as many people were displaced when their
homes were destroyed
• It led to the spread of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis and venereal diseases such
as syphilis
• It led to advancement in medicine especially in surgery and in treatment of mentally and
physically
disabled.
• Bitter feelings and mistrust developed among the countries that were involved
The Cold War
Meaning
It refers to the rivalry which emerged after the Second World War between the West (USA and
her allies) and the former East bloc (USSR and her allies).
The war was so called because it was not waged in battlefields with weapons. The weapons used
during the Cold War were:
i) Propaganda or war of words
ii) Economic sanctions
iii) Military assistance
iv) Financial or Technicalaid
Causes or factors that led to the development of the Cold War
The following factors led to the development of the Cold War:
• The ideological differences pursued by the USA and the USSR created mistrust and
suspicion among them leading to hostility
• The disagreement over disarmament between the USA and the USSR led to the arms race
• The Iron Curtain Policy adopted by USSR which led to the occupation of Eastern Europe
by the Soviet Union caused fear among the USA and her allies in Western Europe.
• The involvement of both the USA and the USSR in European conflicts in the late 1940s
created tension between them.

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• The domination of the United Nations by the USA and her Allies which was checked by
the USSR through the use of her veto power thus increasing the tension
• Formation of military alliances such as NATO by the USA and her allies led USSR and
her allies to form the Warsaw pact thus intensifying the rivalry
• The Construction of the Berlin wall in 1961 by the USSR in Germany to block western
influence led to increased tension
• America's Marshall Plan of 1949 to revive European economies after the war made the
USSR to counteract by forming a similar one called the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
(COMECON)
• Differences over the status of Germany after the Second World War as the USA wanted a
stronger Germany while the USSR wanted a weaker Germany
The Course of the Cold War
The war was experienced from 1946 to 1991. The main combatants were the USA and the
USSR.
The Cold War in Europe
The USA initiated the European economic recovery programme (The Marshall Plan) in 1947 to
facilitate European economic recovery and in order to influence many countries to adopt
capitalist ideology.
The USSR discouraged its satellite states from benefiting from it and closed all land routes to
Berlin forcing the allies to airlift material aid to West Berlin from 1948-1949.
The Western allies formed an anti- Soviet military organization called the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in 1949. The Soviet Union responded by forming the Warsaw Pact in
1955.
The Soviet Union's response to the Marshall plan was the formation of the Council for Mutual
Economic Assistance (COMECON)
In 1961 the Soviet Union built a wall which physically divided Berlin into Soviet controlled east
and the allied controlled west.
The Cold War in Vietnam
The two super powers supported different nationalist leaders leading to the division of Vietnam
into two parts, the Soviet Union controlled the North and the United States controlled the south.
This eventually led to the Vietnam War in which the two superpowers were involved leading to
the defeat of the USA by the Soviet Union.
The Cold War in Cuba

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The Soviet Union supported Fidel Castro to take over power in Cuba in 1959. The USA tried
unsuccessfully to remove him. The Soviet Union gave weapons to Cuba and hoped to use the
island nation as a military launching base against the US leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis.
The crisis ended with the removal of the Soviet missiles after the USA had threatened a naval
blocked on all communist military ships approaching Cuba.
The Cold War in Angola
The Soviet Union supported the MPLA under the leadership of Agostino Neto in the war of
independence. A civil war began and the USA supported FNLA of Holden Roberto and UNITA
of Jonas Savimbi.
The Collapse of the Cold War
The following factors led to the collapse of the Cold War:
• The coming to power of progressive USSR leaders such as Nikita Khrushchev who was
committed to the co-existence between the two systems and signed the Camp David Treaty with
president David Dwight Eisenhower.
• Negotiations between the USA and the USSR on arms reduction resulted into the signing
of strategic arms limitation agreements. This helped in checking the production and spread of
nuclear weapons
• The liberal Economic policy of Mikhail Gorbachev assisted in weakening communism.
He introduced Glasnot meaning openness and Perestroika referring to economic restructuring.
He sought economic assistance from the west hence marking the warming of relationships
• The Collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe as some states such as Latvia, Lithuania
and Estonia attained independence and others such as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and
Czechoslovakia adopted western democracy
• The policy adopted by President Ronald Reagan of the USA who longed for peace also
helped in diffusing tension during the Cold War
• The Re-Unification of Germany after the collapse of the Berlin wall in 1990 under
Chancellor Helmo Kohl diffused tension
• Russia's support for the Gulf War where America led Allied forces to liberate Kuwait
was a sign that tension had gone
• The Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact in 1991 signaled the easing of tension
• The Disintegration of the Soviet Union into many autonomous republics was the final
straw in the ending of the Cold War.
Effects of the Cold War
The Cold War affected the world in several ways:

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• It undermined international peace and security as each of the superpowers struggled to
dominate the world hence causing tension
• It also led to the space race as the two superpowers competed in the development of
spacecrafts
• It led to a series of crises or actual wars in different nations such as Korea, Vietnam
and the Cuban
missile crisis
• There were coups and counter coups in the Third World countries leading to the rise of
dictators
• It led to the spread of capitalist and communist ideologies across the world as each
superpower
attempted to spread its ideology
• It led to the formation of economic and military alliances such as NATO and COMECON
as well as the Warsaw pact and the European Economic Union
• It led to the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement by the Afro-Asian bloc as they
attempted to pursue the policy of neutrality in world affairs
The Non - Aligned Movement (NAM)
Meaning
It refers to the policy of not actively co-operating with any power bloc. Members of the Non-
Aligned movement maintain neutrality in world affairs in the following ways:
• By not entering into military alliances with other countries
• By maintaining independent foreign policies
• By maintaining friendly relations with other countries
• By not involving themselves in the power struggle between communist and capitalist
blocs
Formation of the Non-Aligned Movement
It was established in 1947 with India and Yugoslavia being some of the founding members under
the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru and Marshal Tito respectively.
The first major Non-Aligned meeting was the Bandung Conference held in Indonesia in 1955
attended by the following key Personalities; Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Marshal Tito of
Yugoslavia, Chou End Lai of China, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Ahmed Surkano of
Indonesia.

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Aims of the Non-Aligned Movement
The following were the main aims of the Non-Aligned Movement:
• To safeguard the sovereignty of member states
• To fight for decolonization of the Third World countries
• To work for the disarmament of the superpowers
• To discourage military alliances advocated by the superpowers
• To encourage the members to actively participate in the UNO programmes
• To discourage neo-colonialism by promoting economic independence of member
countries
• To fight all forms of discrimination such as racism
• To establish a new world economic order to ensure favourable terms of trade
• To promote neutrality among member nations
• To pursue an independent policy of peaceful coexistence
Membership of the Non-Aligned Movement
A country needs to fulfill the following conditions in order to become a member of the Non-
Aligned Movement:
i) A country should be independent
ii) A country should not be a member of either NATO or Warsaw pact
The Organization Structure of the Non-Aligned Movement
The movement has set up the following structures;
The Summit
It comprises of the Heads of state and Governments of member states. It is the highest decision
making organ and meets once every three years. The hosting country’s head of state assumes the
chair till the next meeting.
Ministerial Conference
It comprises of ministers of member states in charge of foreign affairs and meets once every 18
months. The conference reviews developments and implementation of decisions of the preceding
Summit.
It also discusses matters of urgency.
The UN Ambassadors Forum

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The Ambassadors of the countries in the movement use their frequent UN meetings to organize
their events.
The Co-ordinating Bureau
It harmonized all the working groups of the Non-Aligned Movement hence, is the focal point in
management of the movement.
The Working Groups, Task Forces and Committees
There are various working groups such as the working group for reconstruction of the UN,
working groups on human rights and the committee on Palestine
Non - Aligned Security Council Caucus
It comprises of the NAM members elected to the Security Council. They work to achieve NAM
objectives within the UN
Joint Co-ordinating Committee
Its main objective is to promote a coordinated approach to NAM activities.
Performance of the Non - Aligned Movement
Achievements
The following are some of the achievement of the Non-Aligned Movement:
• It advocated for political freedom which led to attainment of independence of countries
which were still under colonial rule
• It kept off military activities of the two superpowers which helped reduce international
tension
• It encouraged its members to put their national interests before those of the superpowers
• It provided a forum where members voiced their concerns on international issues such as
racial discrimination/ apartheid
• Its member states have helped to manage crises and solve conflicts thereby contributing
to preservation of peace
• It condemned arms race among countries leading to reduction in the production of
weapons of mass destruction
• It has enabled members to vote as a bloc thereby influencing world affairs
• It has helped its members safeguard their national security or territorial integrity
• It raised funds which were used to cushion frontline states from effects of sanctions
imposed on them by the apartheid regime

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• It has created a new scientific and technological order, so as to bridge the gap between
developed and the developing countries
• A new economic order has emerged due to increased trade among member states
Challenges facing the Non-Aligned Movement
The following are some of the factors undermining the activities of the Non-Aligned Movement:
• Political instability characterized by civil wars and military coups among member states
has undermined effective cooperation
• Border disputes among member states such as Somali and Kenya has created conflicts
thereby undermining the work of the organization
• Poverty among member nations has made many of them to retain ties with their former
colonial masters or donors making it difficult for them to pursue independent policies
• Absence of an Executive Authority or Secretariat has made co-ordination of various
activities very difficult
• Inadequate funds to finance its activities as some member states fail to remit their
contributions in time for the movement
• Personal differences among leaders of the member states sometimes undermines
international cooperation
• Divided Loyalty as member states are also members of other international organizations
such as the UNO, African Union, Commonwealth among others
• The National Interest of individual member states sometimes conflicts with the objectives
of the Nonaligned Movement
• The Collapse of the USSR has destabilized the movement as there was no need for a
country to align with her.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1991 Q26
a) State five causes of the Second World War.
b) Explain five effects of the Second World War on Europe.
2. 1997 Q14
What event prompted the United States of America (USA) to join the First
World War in 1917? (1mark)

3. 1998 Q14
Give two reasons why the Central Powers were defeated in the first
World War (2 marks)

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4. 1999 Q16
State one problem which faced the League of Nations (1 mark)

5. 2000 Q14
State two economic challenges which Tanzania has faced since independence
(2 marks)
6. 2001 Q 11,24
11. Identify tow factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League

of Nations. (2marks)
24. a) Why was the United States of America (USA) reluctant to join
the First World war during the initial stage? (3 marks)

b) Describe the results of the Second World War. (12marks)

7. 2002 Q14, 15
14. Give the main reason why the League of Nations was formed in 1919. (1 mark)

15. State the main cause of the cold war (1 mark)

8. 2002 Q23
(a) Describe three factors that enabled the allied powers to win the
second World War
(b) Explain the results of the Second World War

9. 2003 Q15, 16
15. State two ways in which the treaty of Versailles signed in 1919
Affected Germany. (2 marks)

16. Identify one leader who was a founder member of the non-aligned
movement. (1 mark)

10. 2004 Q16

Give one factor that led to the end of the cold war. (1 mark)

11. 2004 Q23

(a) What were the causes of the first World War (1914 – 1918) (5 marks)

(b) Discuss the results of the First World War (1914 – 1918) (10 marks)

12. 2005 Q23

(a) What were the results of the bombing of Nagasaki and Hiroshima
in Japan in 1945 (3 marks)
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(b) Explain six factors which contributed to the rise of Japan as an
Industrial power after the second world war (12 marks)

13. 2006 Q14

Give the main reason for the failure of the League of Nations (1mark)

14. 2007 Q13

Identify the immediate cause of the First World War. (1mark)

15. 2007 Q22

(a) Identify three terms of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919. (3 marks)

(b) Give six reasons why the Central Powers were defeated in the
First World War.

16. 2008 Q14

State two economic results of the second World War (2marks)

17. 2008 Q21

a) Give two achievements of the League of Nations between 1919
and 1939
(5marks)
b) Why did the League of Nations fail to maintain World peace (10 marks)

18. 2009 Q15

Identify one superpower that was involved in the cold war. (1mark)

19. 2009 Q22

(a) List three European countries tat formed the triple alliance before
the out
(b) Describe six functions of the general Assembly of United Nations (U.N)

20. 2010 Q13

Identify two economic results of the First World War. (2 marks)

21. 2010 Q23

a) State the role plsyed by United State of America in ending the Second
World War. (3 marks)

b) Explain six causes of the Cold War after 1945. (12 marks)

22. 2011 Q12

Give the main reason for the formation of the League of Nations in 1919
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 (1mark)
23. 2012 Q12 P2
State one way in which the rise of dictators in Europe contribute to the
outbreak of the Second World War. (1 mark)
24. 2013 Q14 P2
Highlight one way in which economic rivalries between European
powers contributed to the outbreak of the first world war. (1mark)
25. 2013 Q15 P2
Give the main incident which made Japan to surrender unconditionally
to the allied powers in1945

26. 2014 Q16 P2

Name the country that was blamed for the outbreak of the First World War.
(1 mark)
27. 2014 Q17 P2
Give the main reason why the United States of America adopted the
marshall plan after the Second World War. (1 mark)

28. 2015 Q11 P2

Identify two types of weapons used during cold war. (2 marks)
28. 2015 Q23 P2
(a) Give three reasons why the United States of America did not join
the First World War until 1917. (3 marks)

(b) Explain six effects of the First World War. (12 marks)

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 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Meaning of International Relations
It refers to the co-operation or interaction between nations of the world. The interaction involves
economic and humanitarian assistance, sports, diplomacy, and technical and military aid.
Levels of International Relations
The following are the levels of international relations:
a) Economic relations; This involve trade activities among nations; loans given to other
nations; investments in foreign nations ; offering of grants to other nations as well as debt relief
to other nations.
b) Diplomatic relations; This involves the exchange of ambassadors or high commissioners
as go between by encouraging social, economic and political co-operation.
c) Political relations; it involves co-operation between countries with similar political
systems or ideology. Countries may also form political federations.
d) Social- cultural relations ; It involve exchange of different nations' cultures and social
skills for instance competition in Commonwealth games, provision of humanitarian assistance in
terms of shelter, food and medicine
Benefits of international Relations
• It promotes economic development as countries exchange goods and services across the
world
• Developing countries have been able to acquire financial and technical assistance from
developed countries
• It has promoted peace and security due to the use of diplomatic channels to solve
conflicts
• It has promoted cultural exchange among countries through sports
• It has encouraged collective action to solve problems of global concern such as
desertification, armament, environmental pollution and global warming.
International Organizations
These are organizations whose membership is drawn from different continents of the world.
They are formed to promote political, economic and social relations. They include:
• The United Nations Organization (UNO)
• The Commonwealth
• The Non-Aligned Movement

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The United Nations Organization (UNO)
It is an association of nations whose main aim is the promotion of international peace and
security.
It was formed in 1945 to replace the League of Nations. It has a charter which was ratified in
October 1945. The headquarters of the UN is in New York USA.
Objectives of the United Nations Organization or reasons for the formation of the UN
The UN has the following aims:
• To maintain international peace and security
• To develop friendly relations among nations
• To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms
• To promote social progress and improve standards of living for people
• To promote cultural co-operation among member states
• To prevent the outbreak of another war
• To protect the interests of marginalized groups such as women and children
• To promote economic reconstruction of member states after the war
• To replace the League of Nations for continuity in maintenance of peace and security
• To promote international co-operation among member states
Organization Structure of the United Nations Organization
To fulfil its objectives, the UN established six principal organs. These are:
i) The General Assembly
ii) The Security Council
iii) The International Court of Justice
iv) The Economic and Social Council
v) The Secretariat
vi) The Trusteeship Council
The General Assembly
It is the only body in which all members are represented. Its members meet once a year during
the plenary Session .
Its main duty is to coordinate the activities of the other organs of the United Nations.

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Functions of the United Nations General Assembly
• It maintains peace and security through disarmaments and arms regulation
• It discusses issues relating to international peace and security
• It admits/suspend new members
• Receives reports from the security council and other organs
• It considers and approves the UN budget and apportions the amounts to be paid by each
member state
• It elects the non-permanent members to the security council
• It elects jointly with the security council, the judges of the International Court of Justice
and appoints the Secretary General
• It facilitates the realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms
• It promotes a higher standard of living through enhancement of socio-economic well
being
• Makes recommendations on peaceful settlement of disputes
The Security Council
It is the permanent decision making organ of the UN. It is made up of 15 members, five
permanent members and ten non - permanent members.
The five permanent members are:
• The United Kingdom/ Britain
• The United States of America
• France
• China
• Russia
NB: The five permanent members have Veto Power meaning that if one member votes "NO", no
decision can be reached.
Functions of the Security Council
• It investigates any dispute which are reported to the General Assembly
• It advises member states to settle disputes peacefully
• It uses diplomacy and economic sanctions to bring world peace

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• It may also decide what military action may be taken against aggressor as well as call for
peace keeping force from members
• It regulates the production and use of dangerous arms such as nuclear bombs
• It admits, suspends and expel members from the UN
The International Court of Justice
It is the principal judicial organ of the UN, and is based at the Hague, Netherlands. It has 15
judges who are elected by the General Assembly.
Functions of the International Court of Justice
• It settles disputes over international borders
• It handles cases of human rights violation and crimes against humanity
• It handles other international disputes such as treatment of diplomatic staff, fishing rights,
nuclear tests and delimitation of territorial waters.
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
It has 54 members who serve for three years elected by the General Assembly. It coordinate the
economic and social activities of the UN.
Functions of the ECOSOC
• Making and submitting reports on Economic, Social, Cultural Health and Education
matters to the General Assembly.
• Making and submitting reports to the UN General Assembly for purpose of promoting
human rights.
• Drawing of Conventions for the General Assembly on matters within its mandate
• Organizing international conferences on economic and social matters
• Creating a link between the UN and the Civil Society by supporting activities of Non -
Governmental Organizations working with other UN agencies on international issues.

The Secretariat
It is the main administrative organ of the UN and is headed by the Secretary General elected by
the General Assembly for a five-year term.
Functions of the UN secretariat
• To bring to the attention of the Security Council issues that may threaten international
peace and security

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• To mediate on international disputes and monitor peace keeping operations
• To monitor human rights issues and sustainable development
• To implement the UN resolutions and policies
• To register treaties of the UN
• To conduct research or survey on economic and social trends and problems
• To publish reports of UN deliberations
• To interpret speeches or translate documents into UN official languages
The Trusteeship Council
It was established to supervise countries which were formerly mandates of the League of
Nations.
It was also to take care of territories taken away from the Axis powers at the end of the Second
World War.
Its main duty was to work towards decolonization in these territories.
Specialized and Affiliated Agencies of the UN
These are separate autonomous organizations related to the UN by special agreements. They
report annually to ECOSOC. They include;
• The International Labour Organization (ILO) which promotes the welfare of workers
• The Food and Agriculture Organization which deals with food and agriculture
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
charged with the responsibility of promotion of Education, Science and Cultural activities.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) charged with the mandate of eradicating diseases
on a worldwide scale
• The International Monetary Fund (IMF) which helps to stabilize the different currencies
of the world. It also helps member states having foreign currency exchange problems.
• The World Bank that gives long term loans to finance development projects.
• United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) that provides basic
needs for the children of the world such as medicine, vaccination and milk
• United Nations Environment Programmes which is headquartered in Nairobi and
overseas the implementation of programmes aimed at managing and conserving the environment.

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Performance of the United Nations Organization
The United Nations Organization has had tremendous achievements since its inception in 1945.
Equally it has had its fair share of challenges.
Achievements of the United Nations Organization
• It has promoted world peace and security by putting mechanisms of peaceful resolution
of conflicts
• It has encouraged disarmament which has resulted into the eradication of arms production
and demilitarization of the world
• It has promoted human rights and freedoms of individuals by outlawing all forms of
discrimination based on gender, race, culture, economic status or religion
• It has promoted decolonization by prevailing on colonial powers such as Britain and
France to grant independence to their territories and also recognizing liberation movements.
• It has also provided development assistance to developing nations in the form of skilled
manpower and consultancy through the UNDP
• It has also promoted the interest of persons living with disabilities by prohibiting
discrimination of people on grounds of their disability
• The UN has provided humanitarian assistance by providing relief food, medicine, shelter
and clothing to refugees across the world
• It has promoted democracy and good governance by sending election observers and
monitors, providing financial assistance to countries during national elections and sending peace
keeping force to war torn countries
• It has helped in the fight and eradication of diseases across the world through the World
Health Organization
• It has helped improve the status of Women by adopting conventions on elimination of all
forms of discrimination and encouraging gender equity
• It has secured international co-operation in dealing with global issues such as
environmental conservation, pollution and desertification
• It has successfully led the fight against the production and use of landmines. It has also
carried out awareness programme and supported victims of land mines.
• It has helped in setting safety standards for sea and air travel through the International
Telecommunication Union
• It has promoted cultural exchange and preservation of cultural site through UNESCO
• It has also provided economic assistance through the World Bank and the International
Monetary Fund

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• It has also promoted agriculture which is the economic mainstay of global population
through the Food and Agriculture Organization.
• It condemns all forms of terrorism and has put in place mechanisms of combating it
through international agreements
NB: Ways in which the United Nations promotes peace and security in the world
iii) It sends peace keeping missions to conflict areas in order to prevent confrontation
It uses envoys to mediate disputes between warring groups so as to find amicable solutions to
problems
It hears cases through the International Court of Justice between states with a view of
administering justice
vi) It imposes sanctions against states that defy its resolutions in order to force them to
comply It uses peace messengers to sensitize people on the importance of peace
It encourages disarmament by signing arms control agreements with a view of reducing tension
between states
vii) It promotes human rights and freedoms by enforcing international laws which protect
people against abuse
ix) It promotes humanitarian assistance to the needy by giving them food, shelter and
clothing It promotes democracy and good governance in countries by providing electoral
assistance in order to ensure fairness
x) It condemns all forms of terrorism and has put in place methods of combating it through
international agreements

Ways in which the United Nations promotes Good Governance in the World
ii) It sends observers to monitor national elections in various states
It provides financial and logistical assistance to countries during elections
vi) It helped or supported countries to attain independence or establish democratic governments
It sends peace keeping forces to war torn countries in order to stop confrontation It ensures
representation of member countries in the General Assembly
viii) It arbitrates disputes between countries or warring groups It monitors and condemns
violation of human rights

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Ways in which the United Nations provides humanitarian assistance
iii) It assists refugees with clothes in order to preserve human dignity
It assists in resettling displaced persons by negotiating for their settlement in safe areas It
provides relief food in drought stricken areas in order to avert loss of lives
vi) It provides medical supplies to the victims of war and other calamities so as to restore
human health It provides shelter to the deserving cases by building houses or providing
construction materials It provides education to vulnerable groups in order to promote literacy
viii) It assists in evacuating people affected by flood to safer grounds to avert suffering It
protects refugees by ensuring the observance of basic human rights

Challenges facing the United Nations Organization (UNO)

The following factors have undermined the performance of the United Nations Organization:
Ideological differences pursued by different countries makes it difficult for the organization to
implement its objectives
• Inadequate funds occasioned by failure by some member states to remit their subscriptions
limits the resources available for UNO operations
• Lack of a standing army to implement the UN resolutions undermines it effectiveness
• The Veto Power of the big five encourages them to further their own interest at the expense of
the UN
• Political instability manifested in regional conflicts limits the UNO's ability to effectively
resolve issues
• Divided loyalty among member statutes as they belong to other regional and international
organizations
• National interests among member states which more often than not tend to override
international concerns
• Occurrence of natural disasters such as drought, famine, floods and epidemics places
unexpected economic constrain on the limited UNO's resources
• Accumulation of arms by powerful countries threaten the existence of a peaceful world hence
undermining its ability to promote peace
• Differences in economic development levels of member countries undermines international
cooperation
• Rise in cases of international terrorism has undermined international peace and security.

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The Commonwealth of Nations
Meaning
It is a voluntary association of independent states which were formerly part of the British
Empire. They include dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand and Republics like
Kenya, Nigeria, India among others.
It has also allowed membership from independent non-British colonies such as Mozambique,
Cameroon and Togo.
Common Features of the Commonwealth
• They had the same education system with similar structures
• Many of them use English as the official language of communication
• They have close cultural ties for example the Commonwealth games
• The people of the Commonwealth enjoy universal adult suffrage
• They have close economic ties where rich nations assist the poor ones with economic and
technical aid
• Most of the states have similar legal, administrative and parliamentary system
• They have a common military tradition based on the English one
• They practice consultations and exchange of information
The principles and Ideals/Aims of the Commonwealth
• To promote peace and security. Members are expected to support the UN peace
programmes
• To oppose all forms of colonial domination
• To fight poverty, ignorance and disease and raise living standards
• To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens
• To fight social prejudice as it threatens the healthy development of the human race
The Organization Structure of the Commonwealth
It comprises of three organs; The Heads of State Summit, Ministerial meetings and the
Secretariat.
Heads of States Summit
It is made up of Presidents or Prime ministers of member states and they meet after every two
years.
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It is the main policy-making body of the Commonwealth.
Ministerial Meetings

These are held regularly. They involve the ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs, Defence,
Health and Education. The ministers discuss matters of common interest and their meetings,
precedes the heads of state summit.
The Commonwealth Secretariat
The secretariat is based in London and is headed by the Secretary-General. It performs the
following functions:
• It circulates information of general interest to member countries
• It coordinates business by studying Commonwealth organizations that deals with
economic and financial matters
• It organizes the Heads of State summit which takes place every two years as well as other
conferences
• It encourages projects that are of benefit to members
• It coordinates several programmes of cooperation among member states
Commonwealth Specialized Agencies
There are various agencies that help in focusing particular work of the Commonwealth. These
include:
• The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation which assists in funding projects,
providing advice, expertise and training to member states
• The Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau which provides technical assistance and
research in the field of agriculture
• The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association which provides a forum for
parliamentarians to meet to exchange ideas aimed at improving debates in their respective
countries
• The Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat works to improve the health and general
hygiene of the people of the member states
• The Commonwealth Youth Programmes aims at involving the young people in activities
aimed at achieving their goals
Functions of the Commonwealth
The organization performs the following functions to its members:
• To provide financial assistance to member countries

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• To provide technical assistance to member countries in the field of agriculture, medicine,
industry, transport, communication and engineering.
• To promote education and research among member states
• To grant member countries favourable trading opportunities
• To provide a forum for promoting peace among member states
• To promote democratization amongst member states by sending election observers and
monitors
• To promote friendship and understanding among member states
• To enhance the development of legal systems among member states
• To provide a forum for heads of state to consult on international issues
• To serve as a watchdog against the violation of human rights among members
Achievements of the Commonwealth
The Commonwealth has made several achievements since its formation. Some of these are:
• It maintains peace by sending peace keepers to war-torn member countries such as Sierra
Leone
• It has established a fund to assist the economically poor member states to meet their
financial needs
• It provides technical assistance and expertise to less developed member countries in
various fields
• It promotes the development of education by offering scholarships and organizing
education exchange programmes
• It promotes mutual understanding and cooperation among member states by holding joint
sports games and cultural activities
• It has promoted good governance through holding regular meetings by the members of
Parliament and sending election observers during elections
• It has promoted the development of the youth through the Commonwealth youth
programme
• It has promoted trade among member states through removal of trade barriers

Challenges facing the Commonwealth

The Commonwealth has faced a number of challenges which has undermined its performance.
They include:

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• Shortage of funds to finance its operations since most of the members are from less
developed countries
• Some members put their national interest before those of the association thus making it
difficult for the association to achieve its objectives
• Ideological differences between member countries make it difficult for the members to
speak with one voice on matters of international concern
• Members of the Commonwealth have divided loyalty due to their involvement in other
organizations
• Political instability or civil wars in many member countries in Africa and Asia has
affected the performance of the association in promoting peace and good governance
• The association lacks a standing army or an executive authority to enforce its decisions
• The need to correct colonial injustices has created misunderstanding among the members
thus making it difficult for it to effectively implement its plan
• Racial discrimination reflected by lack of free movement rules adopted by some countries
has undermined social cohesion
• The Commonwealth is dominated by the developed nations. This undermines decisions
made by the less developed members
• Personality differences between heads of states and governments have negatively affected
the association.
REVISION QUESTIONS

1. 1990 Q 24
a) Give five ways in which international commodity agreements help
third world countries.
b) Account for the failure of international commodity agreements.

2. 1990 Q 26
a) State five ways in which the United Nations Organization has
attempted to promote world peace.

b) What problems has the UNO faced in its efforts to achieve world peace?

3. 1992 Q 26
a) State five objectives of the non-aligned movements
b) Explain the factors that undermine the activities of the movement since
1947.

4. 1993 Q 27
Apart form China, name three permanent member states of UNO.
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5. 1994 Q 7
a) State three member states of the commonwealth in West Africa?
b) Six ways the Commonwealth member countries have benefited from
the organization.

6. 1996 Q 14
Name two agencies of the United Nations Organizations (UNO) which
deal with the problems of health.

7. 1998 Q 23
(a) Why was the United Nations Organization (UNO) formed? (5 marks)
(b) Discuss the factors that have undermined the activities of the UNO (10 marks)

8. 1999 Q 9
Give the main aim of the United Conference on Trade and Development
(UNCTAD)

9. 2001 Q 15
Identify one aim of the United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD)?

10. 2004 Q 17
State two reasons for the establishment of the United Nations Organization
(UNO). (2 marks)

11. 2005 Q 24
(a) What are the functions of the security council of the united Nations (3 marks)
(b) Explain six problems which the United Nations is facing in its efforts
to maintain world peace (12 marks)

12. 2007 Q 15
State two duties of the United Nations Secretariat. (2 marks)
13. 2007 Q 16
Give two achievements of the Commonwealth. (2 marks)

14. 2008 Q 16
What is the main duty of the United Nations General Assembly? (1 mark)

15. 2009 Q 14
Name the organ of the United Nations that promotes justice in the world.
(1mark)
16. 2009 Q 23
(a) State five characteristic of the commonwealth member states
(b) Explain five challenge facing commonwealth

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17. 2010 Q 14
Give two principal organs of the United Nations (2 marks)

18. 2011 Q 15
What is ‘veto power’ as used by the United Nations? (1 mark)

19. 2011 Q 23
a) Identify five ways through which the United Nations (UN) promotes
good governance in the world. (5 marks)
b) Explain five achievements of the Non-Aligned Movement(NAM)
since its formation. (10 marks)

20. 2012 Q13 P2

Give two economic benefits enjoyed by members of the Commonwealth. (2 marks)
21. 2012 Q23 P2
(a) State three permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. (3 marks)
(b) Explain six ways in which the United Nations provides humanitarians
assistance. (12 marks)

22. 2013 Q16 P2

State two factors which promote economic relations between nations.
(2marks)

23. 2013 Q17 P2

State two ways in which Non-Aligned members safeguard their
national security.
(2marks)
24. 2014 Q22, P2

(a) Identify five main organs of the United Nations. (5 marks)

(b) Explain five ways through which United Nations promotes peace in
the world.
(10 marks)
25. 2014 Q23 P2
(a) state five functions of the commission of African union. (5 marks)
(b) Explain five achievements of the Pan-African movements. (10 marks)

26. 2015 Q12 P2

State one way in which members of Non-Aligned movement maintain
neutrality in world affairs. (1 mark)

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 CO-OPERATION IN AFRICA
Introduction
Co-operation in Africa refers to the way African countries relate to each other. This is manifested
in the existence of organizations such as the Pan - Africanism movement, the Organization of
African Unity (OAU), the African Union, the East African Community (EAC), the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA).
Pan - Africanism
It refers to a movement that was aimed at uniting all people of African origin all over the world
to fight injustices facing Africans at the hands of the Europeans.
The term Pan - Africanism coined by Henry Sylvester Williams, an African lawyer based in
Trinidad.
Origin of the Africanism Movement
The Pan - Africanism movement was initiated by the African diaspora as a manifestation of
Africans protest against the universal discrimination of the black race.
Factors for the Growth of Pan - Africanism Movement
Pan-Africanism emerged as a result of the following factors:
• The humiliation and exploitation of slave trade and slavery as well as the hard
experiences of Africans in the new World
• Colonial exploitative tendencies such as forced labour, land alienation, taxation, poor
wages and racial discrimination.
• Acquisition of western education by the African diaspora as well as those from the
continent who were studying abroad raised their political awareness
• The realization by Africans that they had close cultural ties made them unite
• Desire by the Africans to work together for mutual support in order to improve their well-
being
Aims of Pan - Africanism
• To unite all people of African origin
• To fight against colonialism which further enhanced the degradation of Africans
• To restore the dignity of the black people
• To fight serious political, economic and cultural disadvantages facing blacks in the
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• To improve the living conditions of black people all over the world
• To challenge the myth of European superiority/ to fight racism
The Pan - African Congresses
The first Pan-African Congress was held in London in 1900 and was sponsored by Henry-
Sylvester Williams.
This conference laid the foundation for future solidarity meetings and sowed the seeds of unity
of the black people.
NB: The most significant of all the conferences was the Fifth Pan-African Congress held in
Manchester in the year 1945.
The Fifth Pan - African Congress, Manchester, 1945
It was chaired by William Du Bois as the President while Kwame Nkrumah and George
Padmore acted as joint secretaries.
It was attended by the following Africans:
• Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya
• Julius Nyerere of Tanzania
• Kwame Nkurumah of Ghana
• Leopald Sedah Senghor of Senegal
• Hastings Kamuzu Banda of Malawi
• Nnamdi Azikiwe of Nigeria
• Obafemi Awolowo of Nigeria
• Peter Abrahams of South Africa
Resolutions of the Fifth Pan - African Congress
The Congress came up with the following resolutions:
• It demanded political independence for African countries
• Africans were to struggle to win political independence through non-violent methods like
strikes and boycotts
• African intellectuals were to mobilize the masses to fight for political liberation
• The deligates condemned the artificial boundaries imposed by the colonial governments
in Africa that divided the African people
• The colonized and other subject peoples of the world were urged to unite

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Reasons why the Fifth Pan- African Congress of 1945 was different from the earlier ones
• It was dominated by Africans from the continent and not outsiders
• It addressed itself to the problems facing Africa
• It was more vocal and radical than the previous ones. For instance, it demanded for
political independence
• Many African trade unions were represented hence making it a mass movement
• It expressed hope that before long the peoples of Asia and Africa would attain political
independence
Reasons why the Pan - African Movement had not Established itself in the African Continent
Before 1945
Before 1945, Pan- Africanist activities were largely undertaken outside the African continent due
to the following reasons:
i) There were very few African representatives in the movement
ii) Colonial authorities did not allow Africans to organize movements opposed to colonial
rule
iii) There was lack of contact and communication between Africans in the various colonies
iv) Divide and rule policy of European powers hindered unity of Africans
v) Little attention given to the movement by Ethiopia and Liberia the two independent
African countries
vi) The French Policy of assimilation blindfolded the educated Africans who were given
political rights
vii) Africans in each colony were only concerned with issues that were of particular interest
to them
viii) Lack of suitable venues to hold conferences on African soil until when Ghana attained
independence
Pan - Africanism after the year 1945
Pan - Africanism activities increased in Africa after the year 1945 because of the following
reasons:
• There was change in international opinion about colonialism after the Second World War
• The attainment of independence by India 1947, Pakistan 1948 and Ghana 1957 inspired
African countries
• Support from trade unions and nationalistic movements formed in Africa
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• Encouragement from the UNO which supported ideals of equality of all human beings
• Attainment of independence by Ghana which provided a base for holding conferences on
African soil.
Contributions or roles of Kwame Nkrumah in promoting Pan-Africanism
• He attended the Pan - African Conference in Manchester in 1945
• He organized and hosted Pan-African Conference in Accra in 1958
• He inspired Africans to unite
• He encouraged the formation of nationalist movements
• He condemned European domination in Africa
• He supported civil rights movement in the USA
• He coordinated plans to decolonize African states
Performance of the Pan-Africanism Movement
Achievements
The Pan - Africanism movement achieved several goals such as:
• It promoted African nationalism by encouraging Africans to unite against colonial
injustices
• It encouraged the formation of nationalist movements which liberated Africans from
colonial rule
• The movement put pressure on the international community to act against the apartheid
regime in South Africa
• It provided a forum for black people to voice their grievances and discuss their internal
and external problems
• It created a sense of unity among the people of African origin by enlighting them on their
common origin
• It restored African dignity and confidence by demanding respect for African values
• It laid the foundation for interest in research on African culture, history, music, religion,
medicine and art
• It condemned and mobilized people to protest against European domination of Africans
for instance Benito Mussolini's invasion of Ethiopia in 1935
• It led to the formation of the Organization of African Unity (OAU)
•
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Challenges Faced by Pan - African Movement
• The movement lacked adequate funds to finance its operations
• Absence of a base in Africa due to colonialism undermined its activities in the continent
before 1957
• Some leaders of the Pan- Africanism movement such as Marcus Garvey were arrested
and imprisoned
• There was widespread illiteracy and ignorance among Africans which hindered their
participation in the movement
• Suspicion and mistrust among the members brought by personal differences undermined
the activities of the organization
• Differences among the independent African countries and their leaders especially
between the Francophone and the Anglophone countries
• Lack of co-operation among African leaders who felt that by denouncing their former
colonial masters they would not get aid.
• Spread of negative propaganda against the movement by the European powers through
the international media
• Restrictions of the movement to African continent after independence deprived it of
support of African Americans
The organization of African Unity (OAU)
It was established on the 25th of May, 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia by independent African
countries. Among the founder members were; Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana, Haile Selassie of Ethiopia and Milton Obote of Uganda.
Its headquarters was at Addis Ababa Ethiopia and the founder chairperson was Emperor Haile
Selassie of Ethiopia.
Aims of the defunct Organization of African Unity
The following were the aims or objectives of the OAU:
• To promote unity among African states
• To end all forms of colonialism in Africa
• To promote social, economic and political co-operation in Africa in order to uplift the
peoples living standards
• To uphold the policy of non- interference in the internal affairs of a member state
• To recognize the sovereignty and equality of all African states
• To promote human rights in Africa in line with the United Nation's Charter
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• To uphold the policy of non-alignment in Africa's relation with the rest of the world
• To promote peaceful settlements of disputes among African countries
The Organization Structure of the OAU
The OAU charter provided for the establishment of various organs such as:
The Assembly of Heads of State and Governments
It was the supreme policy making body and it met once every year.
The Council of Ministers
It comprised of all foreign ministers of OAU member states.
It prepared the agenda for the meeting of Heads of State and Government
It also implemented decisions passed by the Heads of States and Government
It also prepared the OAU budget for approval by the Heads of States and Government
The General Secretariat
It was headed by a Secretary General elected by the Assembly of heads of states and
governments for a renewable four year term of office.
The Secretariate provided the necessary administrative service for the day- to - day running of
the organization
The Commission for Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration
It was responsible for peaceful settlement of disputes between members.
Specialized Agencies and Committees
These included the OAU Liberation Committee, The Economic and Social Commission, among
others.
Performance of the Organization of African Unity
For the four decades of its operations, the OAU encountered several challenges and also
succeeded in several areas.
Achievements of the Organization of African Unity
• It contributed to the Liberation of African states from European colonial rule such states
included Zimbabwe, Namibia, Mozambique among others.
• It provided a forum for African states to speak in one voice on international issues
• It promoted friendly ties among members states through the annual meetings of Heads of
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• It stood firmly behind African nationalists in South Africa in their fight against apartheid
• It promoted economic development in Africa through the African Development Bank
(ADB) which provided funds for development activities
• It promoted peace by mediating in disputes such as the dispute between Algeria and
Morocco over the Saharawi region, Kenya and Somali among others
• It promoted cultural interaction in Africa through the All African Games among member
states
• It enhanced the developments in transport and communication by encouraging Railways
and road transport in Africa
• It provided member states with a forum to discuss issues of common interest
• It condemned the violation of human rights in Africa
• The organization provided material support to refugees in Africa
• It promoted economic cooperation among African states by encouraging the formation of
regional economic blocs such as COMESA, SADC,EAC and ECOWAS
Failures of the Organization of African Unity (OAU)
• It failed to speak in one voice during the Congo crisis as members were divided on
whether to support Patrice Lumumba or Moitse Tsombe
• It failed to eradicate dictatorship in Africa due to its policy of non-interference in the
internal affairs of member states
• The organization over concentrated on politics at the expense of social and economic
problems
• It failed to achieve total unity and peace in Africa which resulted into various conflicts in
different parts of the continent
• The organization failed to stop the Rwandan genocide when hundreds of thousands of
Tutsis and Hutu moderates were butchered in 1994
• It also failed to intervene in the civil war in DRC when Rwanda and Uganda invaded and
occupied parts of the country
Challenges faced by the defunct Organization of African Unity (OAU)
• Inadequate funds to implement some of its programmes as members failed to remit their
contributions in time
• Ideological differences among African states undermined the spirit of continental unity
• Divided loyalty as OAU members were also members of other regional and international
organizations
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• Border disputes between member states such as Somali and Ethiopia, Morocco and
Algeria also undermined the unity of the African states
• Personal differences between some African leaders undermined unity between African
countries
• Political instability characterized by military coups led to dictatorship hence causing
instability
• Absence of a military force to enforce decisions led to dependence on the goodwill of
members to implement its decisions
• External interference by foreign powers such as the USA and former USSR in some
countries undermined the organization
• Attachment to former colonial masters by some member states for instance former French
colonies look up for France for assistance
The African Union
It was officially launched in July 2002 at the city of Durban, South Africa to replace the
Organization of African Unity. Thabo Mbeki was elected the first chairman.
Aims of the African Union
The African Union has the following objectives:
• To achieve greater unity and solidarity among African countries and people
• To defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity and independence of member states
• To accelerate the political, social and economic integration of the continent
• To defend African common positions on issues of interest to the continent
• To encourage international co-operation taking due account of the Charter of the UN and
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
• To promote peace, security and stability of the continent
• To advance development of the continent in all fields particularly in science and
technology
• To work with relevant international partners in the eradication of preventable diseases
and promotion of good health in the continent
• To promote democratic principles and institutions for popular participation and good
governance
• To promote and protect human and people’s rights in accordance with African Charter on
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The Organization Structure of the African Union
The African Union has the following organs:
The Assembly
It comprises of the Heads of States and Government of all member states and it's the most
important decision making organ of the body. It meets once a year and elects a chairperson. The
Assembly Performs the following functions:
• It decides on common policies for the Union
• It considers application for membership
• It adopts or approves the budget of the Union
• Directs the process of conflict resolution
• It appoints Judges for the Court of Justice
The Executive Council
It comprises of the ministers of foreign affairs of member states. It performs the following
functions:
• It prepares materials for the Assembly to discuss and approve
• It coordinates policies in areas of common interest such as foreign trade, social security,
food, agriculture and communication
The Commission
It forms the secretariat of the Union. It comprises of a chairperson, deputy chairperson, eight
commissioners and staff members. It is based in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. It performs the
following functions:
• It performs administrative functions of the AU
• It implements the decision of the Union
• It co-ordinates African Union activities and meetings
• It receives application for membership
• It makes or initiates proposals for consideration by other organs
The Permanent Representative Committee
It comprises of ambassadors to the African Union and is permanently based at the AU
headquarters in Ethiopia.
It prepares the work for the Executive Council.

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The Peace and Security Council
It comprises of 15 members responsible for monitoring and intervening in conflicts.
The council is financed by a peace fund and has an early warning system that alerts it on any
threats to security on the continent. It performs the following functions:
• It promotes peace, security and stability in Africa
• It engages in early warning and preventive diplomacy
• Peace making including the use of mediation, conciliation and enquiry
• Peace building and post conflict reconstruction
• Humanitarian action and disaster management
The Pan - African Parliament
It is made up of representatives elected by the Legislature of the AU member states. It is the
legislative organ of the AU. It is based in Midland, South Africa.
The Economic, Social and Cultural Council
It comprises of professional and civic representatives and it advises the AU on economic, social
and cultural issues.
The Court of Justice
It rules on human rights abuses in Africa.
Financial Institutions
The AU has set up three financial institutions to provide funding for projects and programmes.
These are:
• The African Central Bank
• The African Monetary Fund
• The African Investment Bank
Specialized Technical Committees
The AU has several specialized technical committees which are responsible for sectoral issues
such as:
• The committee on rural and agricultural matters
• The committee on monetary and financial affairs
• The committee on trade, customs and immigration matters

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• The committee on industry, science and technology, energy, natural resources and
environment
• The Committee on health, labour and social affairs
• The committee on transport, communication and tourism
• The committee on education, culture and human resources
Performance of the African Union
Achievements
• It has provided a forum where African states can speak in one voice on international
issues
• It has encouraged accountability in leadership and good governance through the African
Peer Review Mechanism
• It has established mechanism to accelerate economic development in Africa through the
New Partnership for Africa's Development
• It has helped to control conflicts in Africa through peaceful settlement of disputes for
instance in Sudan and South Sudan
• It has been involved in monitoring of elections in member countries to promote
democracy
• It has promoted peace by sending peace keeping forces to war torn countries such as
Burundi and Somalia.
Challenges faced by the African Union since its formation
• Political instability in many member states makes it difficult to execute some of its
programmes
• Border disputes between member states creates disunity in the continent
• Lack of democracy in some member countries has contributed to instability and human
rights violations
• interference in African affairs by external powers undermines implementation of AU
policies
• Due to neo-colonialism, some member countries are more attached to their former
colonial masters at the expense of the Union
• Ideological differences between some African states creates divisions within the union
thus making it difficult to reach agreements
• Absence of a standing army renders it in effective in implementing its decisions which
calls for military intervention
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• National interests are given priority at the expense of the Union's
• There is divided loyalty as member states are also members of other organizations
• Personality differences between some leaders undermines unity within the union
• Inadequate funds makes it difficult for the Union to fulfill its obligations
Differences between the defunct OAU and the African Union
The defunct Organization of African Unity and the African Union have the following
differences:
i) The AU unlike the OAU has mandate to intervene in the internal affairs of a member
state who violates human rights
ii) The structure of the AU is more elaborate than that of the OAU as the AU has more
organs
iii) The OAU concentrated on political issues of the continent while the AU has an ambitious
economic development agenda for Africa
iv) The African Union has an accountability mechanism through the African Peer Review
Mechanism while the OAU lacked it.
v) The OAU was formed by Independent African countries to fight colonialism while the
AU focuses on the challenges facing African countries today
vi) The African Union has established the court of Justice to handle cases involving victims
of human rights abuses within the member states while the OAU lacked this agency
vii) The African Union is viewed as an organization of African people's while the OAU was
an organization of African executives
viii) The AU unlike the OAU has established a closer working relations with countries of the
world through information communication and technology to enhance globalization.
Regional Economic Blocs in Africa
East Africa Community (1967)
It was established on 6th June 1967 when the three East African countries of Kenya, Uganda and
Tanzania signed the treaty establishing it.
Objectives of the East Africa Community (1967)
The objectives of the East African Community were:
i) To promote trade among the three East African countries
ii) To provide common services in areas such as railways, harbours, posts and
telecommunication, judicial and financial services
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iii) To facilitate free movement of people
iv) To provide for free trade of goods produced within East Africa.
v) To provide a wider and more secure market for goods produced withinthe region
vi) To enhance and strengthen closer ties and understanding between member states
vii) To provide a forum where the three member states would discuss issues of
concern to them
viii) To establish similar custom tariffs and duties on non-member states
Organization Structure of the EAC
The main organs of the East African Community included:
The East African Authority
It was the highest organ and consisted of the three heads of states. Its main duty was to decide on
major issues affecting the organization.
The East African Legislative Assembly
The Assembly enacted laws to govern the common services offered by the EAC
The Common Market Tribunal
It settled trade disputes between partner states
The Councils
The established five councils namely; finance, communication, common market, economic
consultative and planning, research and social councils.
The Secretariat
It was based in Arusha, Tanzania and it co-ordinated the work of the councils
The Court of Appeal
It heard appeals from the courts of the three member states
The East African Development Bank
It was based in Kampala, Uganda and it was established to maintain balanced development
within the East African region
Achievements of the EAC up to 1977
• It initiated development projects in the member states through the East African
Development Bank

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• It provided common services such as judicial services, transport services, educational
services, postal services among others
• It provided a wider market for goods produced within the East African region
• It facilitated free movement of people and labour within the region
• It encouraged economic co-operation in the region
• It made attempts to balance economic growth among the three member countries
Collapse of the East African Community
Serious cracks emerged in the organization which eventually led to its collapse. The following
challenges led to the collapse of the East African Community:
• The belief or perception that Kenya was benefiting more than the other members made
Tanzania and Uganda resent Kenya's domination of the organization.
• Inadequate funds to finance industrial development and provision of other services as
some member states failed to remit funds
• Lack of common currency undermined trade within the region
• Ideological differences between the three countries, made them pursue different
economic policies
• Personal differences between leaders made it more difficult for them to hold meetings
that would promote dialogue and unity
• The military coup in Uganda which overthrew Milton Obote undermined the unity that
was desired for the survival of the organization. Nyerere refused to recognize Amin as the
president of Uganda
• The fear that more Kenyans were benefiting from the community in terms of employment
• Hostility towards nationals from member state working for the community
• Lack of trust in managing resources by member countries led to unlawful nationalization
of the organization’s assets
• Tanzania's closure of the common border with Kenya halted community activities
East African Community -2001
It was established in the year 2001 by Presidents Daniel Arap Moi of Kenya, Yoweri Museveni
of Uganda and Benjamin Mkapa of Tanzania. More countries such as Rwanda, Burundi and
South Sudan have since joined the community.
Aims of the East African Community-2001
The following were the aims of the revived East African Community 2001:
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• To harmonize the fiscal and monetary policies
• To encourage free movement of capital
• To co-operate in agriculture and food security
• To liberalize trade by removal of internal tariffs to member states
• To promote development of areas of common economic interest for instance Lake
Victoria and its basin
• To promote development in infrastructure such as roads railways and telecommunication
• To encourage free movement of persons by easing of border crossing
• To co-operate in legal and judicial affairs
• To develop social sector issues such as health, culture and sports
• To strengthen political co-operating so as to attain peace and security in the region
• To develop human resources, science and technology
Organization Structure of the East African Community-2001
The EAC 2001 has the following organs:
The Summit
It comprises of heads of governments of member states. It meets at least once year. Its main
function is to give general direction towards realization of community's goals.
The Council of Ministers
It is made up of ministers of member states who are responsible for regional co-operation.
It implements decisions and directives of the summit.
It also submits annual reports to the summit
The council also prepares the agenda for the summit
The Co-ordinating Committee
It comprises of permanent secretaries responsible for regional co-operation. It co-ordinates the
activities of the sectoral committees
The Sectoral Committees
They are responsible for the preparation of a comprehensive implementation of the programme
of the community in respect to each sector
The East African Court of Justice

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It is based in Arusha Tanzania. Its main function is to ensure the interpretation and application of
the treaty establishing the E.A.C. It also arbitrates disputes among member states on the
interpretation of the treaty
The East African Legislative Assembly
It is based in Arusha, Tanzania. It performs the following functions:
• It makes laws for the East African Community
• It acts as a watch dog by monitoring the operations of the EAC to ensure states comply
with the treaty
• It represents the interests of the member states
• It provides a forum for debates democratic issues
The Secretariat
It is based in Arusha, Tanzania.
It is headed by a Secretary-General appointed by the summit to serve for a 5 year term on
rotational basis. The Secretary General performs the following functions:
• He/she is the head of the Secretariat
• Authorizes expenditure on behalf of the members
• Keeps records of proceedings during summit meetings
• Implements decisions adopted by the summit
• Prepares the agenda for the Summit meeting
Achievement of the East African Community
• It has provided a wider market for different types of goods produced by each member
state
• Movement of citizens within the region has been boosted with the introduction of the
East African Passport
• It has provided a forum where leaders of the member states can discuss issues of common
concern
• There is improvement in transport and communication network to facilitate the
movement of people and goods
• It has provided employment opportunities for people of member countries in the
established common services
• The citizens of member states buy goods at fair prices due to low tariffs levied on goods

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• The establishment of a common market create room for enhanced economic and
industrial development
• it has enabled member countries to speak in one voice in international for a through co-
ordinated foreign policy
Challenges facing the East African Community
The following factors have undermined the performance of the East African Community since its
revival 2001:
• Mistrust and suspicion among member states as some view others as more dominating its
affairs hence benefiting more
• Some countries impose trade barriers for goods from member states which fuels
animosity
• There has been trans-border or cross border smuggling of vehicles and other goods which
creates economic mistrust among member states
• Dispute over the use of natural resources has led to arrest of some fishermen thereby
straining relationship among the affected member states
• Cross-border cattle rustling or raids has fueled insecurity and tension among member
states
• Divided loyalty as member states belong to other regional and international organizations
• Ideological differences among leaders had led to strained relations among them
• Lack of a common currency has undermined commercial transactions among member
states
• Poor transport and communication among member states hinders movement of goods and
people
• Member states produce similar goods making it difficult for them to trade with each other
• Members give more preference to their internal matters at the expense of community
affairs.
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)
It was established in 1975 by sixteen West Africa countries namely; Nigeria, Guinea Bissau,
Togo, Cape Verd, Mali, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Benin, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea, Sierra Leone,
Mauritania, Gambia, Niger and Ivory Coast.
Aims/Objectives of ECOWAS
• To promote economic co-operation among member states in various fields
• To ensure free movement of goods within the region
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• To improve the living standards of the people of member states
• To develop agriculture, commerce and industry
• To promote cultural interaction among member states
• To achieve economic independence of member states
• To promote and improve good relations between members
Organization Structure of ECOWAS
The organization set up the following organs to streamline its operations:
Authority of Heads of State and Government
It comprises of heads of state and government and it's the highest organ of the body.
Council of Ministers
It comprises of ministers from each member state. It performs the following functions:
• It is responsible for general management of the community
• It advises the Authority of Heads of State
• Giving direction to the subordinate organs
The Tribunal
It is made up of judges appointed by the Authority of Heads of State. It interprets the treaty
establishing the community and also settles disputes between member states
Executive Secretariat
It is based in Abuja, Nigeria and is headed by an Executive Secretary. It administers the
organization and also implements the organization's policies.
Specialized Communications
It has four specialized commissions dealing with specific areas such as:
Trade, Customs, Tariffs, Immigration and Monetary Affairs
Industry, Agriculture and Natural Resources
Transport, Communication and Energy
Social and Cultural Affairs
Performance of the Economic Community of West African States

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Achievements of ECOWAS
• It has promoted inter regional trade within the region by facilitating free movement of
goods
• It has enabled the heads of state to meet regularly for consultation on pertinent issues
concerning the region
• It has standardized education in the region through the use of common syllabus and
examination
• It has promoted mutual co-operation within the region
• It has provided employment opportunities within the region
• It has improved developments in the fields of transport, communication, agriculture and
industry in the region
• The organization has promoted cultural exchanges among member states hence
promoting good relations
• It has promoted peace through a mutual defense called ECOMOG which has actively
participated in resolving conflicts in Liberia and Sierra Leone
• Members have benefited economically for instance Nigeria sells petroleum and
petroleum products to the members at a cheaper rate than in the open market
• It has promoted mutual co-operation within the region
• It has set up a development fund to assist member states
• It has improved good governance in the region by intervening against dictatorial regimes.
For instance, in
2017 , it helped remove Yahya James from power in Gambia when he refused to hand over to a
democratically elected president
Challenges facing the Economic Community of West African States
The following factors have undermined the performance of the Economic Community of West
African States:
• Poor transport and communication infrastructure has led to delays in transportation of
goods hence hampering trade within the region
• There is influx of workers from less developed areas to more developed states within the
member states
• The closure of borders between some member states such as Ghana and Togo has
hampered commercial transactions
• Foreign interference especially through the presence of French and Israel soldiers in

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Ivory Coast has created tension between her and Guinea.
• Political instability in the region has interrupted the operations of the community. For
instance, civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone in the late 1990s rendered economic cooperation
impossible.
• Ideological differences between various leaders have led to suspicion and mistrust among
member states.
• Inadequate funds as some member states have not been making their annual payments
regularly to the community
• Member states have different currencies thereby creating the problem of rates of
exchange
• Member states of ECOWAS are also members of other regional and international
organizations hence creating divided loyalty
• Member states also give priority to their internal issues at the expense of the common
issues affecting the community
• There has been friction between Anglo-phone and Francophone countries hence
undermining cooperation.
The Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
It was established in 1994 to replace the former Preferential Trade Area (PTA). The headquarters
of COMESA is located in Lusaka, Zambia.
The member countries of COMESA are: Angola, Burundi, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Sudan,
Comoros, D.R.C, Eritrea, South Sudan, Seychelles, Rwanda, Namibia, Madagascar, Malawi,
Mauritius, Kenya, Ethiopia and Egypt.
Aims/objectives/functions of COMESA
• To promote a more balanced and harmonious development of its production and
marketing structures
• To promote joint development in all fields of economic activity
• To create an enabling environment for foreign, cross-border and domestic investments
• To co-operate in the promotion of peace, security and stability among member states
• To co-operate in strengthening the relations between the common market and the rest of
the world.
• To contribute towards the realization of the objectives of the African Economic
Community

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Organization Structure of COMESA
COMESA is made up of the following organs:
a) The Authority of Heads of States and Government
b) The Council of Ministers
c) The Court of Justice
d) The Committee of Governors of the Central Banks
e) The Inter-Governmental Committee
f) The Technical Committees
g) The Secretariat
h) The Consultative Committee
a) The Authority of Heads of States and Governments
It is the supreme policy making organ and comprises of heads of states and governments of
member countries. It performs the following functions:
• It provides general policy direction for COMESA
• It controls the common market
It approves the budget of the organization
• It appoints judges of the Court of Justice
• It elects the Secretary General
b) The Council of Ministers
It comprises of ministers designated by member states. It performs the following functions:
• It monitors and enhance proper functioning of the common market
• It makes recommendations to the Authority of Heads of States on matters of policy
• It gives direction to other subordinate organs of COMESA
• Makes decisions in accordance with the provisions of the COMESA treaty
• May request for advisory opinion from the Court of Justice
• It prepares the COMESA budget
• It designates economically depressed areas
• Make self-rules and regulations for the secretariat

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c) The Court of Justice
It comprises of a president and six judges appointed by the Authority of heads of state and
Government. Its decisions are final and are binding to all member states. It performs the
following functions:
• It interprets the provisions of the treaty
• It ensures proper application of the treaty
• It arbitrates in disputes among member states
d) The Committee of Governors of Central Banks
It comprises of governors of Central Banks of member states and meets once a year. The
committee performs the following functions:
• It develops programmes in financial and monetary co-operation
• It monitors the implementation of monetary and financial programmes
• It considers reports and recommendations from technical committee on finance and
monetary affairs
• It submits its reports and recommendations to the council
e) The Secretariat
It is headed by a Secretary General appointed by the Authority for a 5 year term. The Secretariat
performs the following functions:
• It assists other organs in the performance of their functions
• It is responsible for administration and finances
• It submits the budget of the COMESA to Inter-Governmental Committee
• It submits reports to the Council and the Authority
• Ensures smooth operations of COMESA
• Refers breach of COMESA Treaty to the court
• Promotes adoption of joint positions by member states in negotiations with other
countries
Achievements of the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
COMESA has made the following achievements since its formation in 1994:

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• It has promoted trade by providing a wider market for goods produced in member
countries
• It has led to improved infrastructure through inter-state transport and communication
links within the region
• It has also provided employment opportunities for many people in the region in its
various organs
• It has increased agricultural and food security in the region due to its large market
• It has encouraged a more rational exploitation of natural resources within the region
• It has promoted good relations and peace among member states
• It has provided room for greater industrial productivity and competitiveness due to its
larger market
• It has introduced a unified computerized customs network across the region
• It has created an enabling environment for foreign, cross border and local investments
• It has encouraged member states to practice good governance, accountability and respect
for human rights.
Challenges facing the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
COMESA has faced a number of challenges which have undermined its performance. Among
the challenges are:
• Some member countries belong to other regional organizations like EAC and SADC
hence not fully committed to COMESA
• Personality differences between leaders, like Museveni and Kagame of Rwanda impedes
unity between member states
• Border disputes among some member states make it difficult for them to co-operate
• Political instability characterized by civil wars in some member states make it difficult
for them to cooperate
• Disagreements over trading rights under COMESA interferes with the free flow of goods
in the region, like between Kenya and Egypt over duty free cement, rice and tea
• Poor transport network has hampered movement of goods and services between the
member states
• The member countries produce similar goods thus limiting the market
• Competition from cheaper imports from more developed countries such as USA has
made it difficult for member states to sell their products

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• Withdrawal of some member states has undermined the planning and financing of
COMESA activities
• Member states sometimes pursue their national interests thereby working against the
objectives of COMESA
• Some member states prefer trading with their former colonial masters thus posing stiff
competition to products from COMESA region
• Natural calamities such as drought and floods leading to massive food shortages and
famine.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1995 Q 6
a) Name three West African countries which are under OAU
b) Explain six roles which the OAU has played in Africa since its formation.

2. 1997 Q 20
(a) Why was the economic community of West African States (ECOWAS)
formed? (3 marks)
(b) Explain the factors that have undermined the activities of the
organization of African Unity (OAU) (12 marks)

3. 1999 Q 14
Name one organization which has been formed by the organization of Africa
Unity (OAU) member countries to promote economic co-operation among
Southern Africa countries.

4. 2000 Q 22
a) Why was the East African Community formed?
b) Explain 6 factors that led to the collapse of the East African Community

5. 2004 Q 24
(a) Describe the functions of the council of ministers of the organization
of African Unity. (3 marks)
(b) Explain six achievement of the organization of African Unity
(OAU) since its formation. (12 marks)

6. 2006 Q 24
a) Give three organs of Economic Community of West African States
(ECOWAS) (3 marks)
b) Give three organs of the Economic community of West African
State (ECOWAS) since its formations? (12 marks)

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7. 2008 Q 17
Apart from political instability in Uganda during the reign of Idd Amin,
State Two other reasons that led to the collapse of the East African
Community in 1977. (2 marks)

8. 2008 Q 23
a) State five aims of the Organization of African Unity. (5 marks)
b) Explain five differences between the Organisation of African Untity
and the African Union. (10 marks)

9. 2009 Q 16
Name two English speaking member countries of the economic
community of West Africa states (ECOWAS)

10. 2010 Q 24
a) Identify three duties performed by the Secretary General of the new
East African Community established in 2001 (3 marks)

b) Explain six benefits of the new East African Community established

in 2001 to its members. (12 marks)

11. 2011 Q 24
a) State three objectives for the formation of Common Market for Eastern
and Southern Africa ( COMESA). (3 marks)

b) Explain six challenges facing the Common Market for Eastern and
Southern Africa (COMESA). (12 marks)
12. 2012 Q14,15 P2
14. Give the main reason why the Pan African movement was formed at the
beginning of the 20th Century. (1 mark)

15. Name one financial institution established by the African Union. (1 mark)

13. 2015 Q13-14 P2

13. Give two functions of the East Africa Legislative Assembly of the
East Africa Community, 2001. (2 marks)

14. State one function of the court of Justice of the common market for
Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA). (1 mark)

14. 2015 Q24 P1

(a) State three common characteristics of the Commonwealth member states. (3 marks)
(b) Describe six achievements of the Commonwealth since its formation. (12 marks)
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 SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN AFRICA
SINCE INDEPENDENCE
Democratic Republic of Congo (PRC)
The DRC was formerly known as Zaire under the leadership of Mobutu Sese Seko. It was
formerly a Belgian colony and it attained independence from Belgium in 1960.
Political Developments and Challenges
It gained independence in 1960 with Joseph Kasavubu as the President and Patrice Lumumba as
the Prime Minister. The country plunged into what was referred to as the Congo Crisis of 1960
brought about by the following factors:
• Lack of qualified personnel to administer the country leading to inefficiency
• The economy of the country was in the hands of the foreigners
• Army mutinies due to the control by foreign officers
• Ethnic differences between Katanga and Kasai provinces leading to secession of the two
from the DRC
The assassination of Patrice Lumumba by supporters of Kasavubu in 1960 caused instability as
Lumumba’s followers pulled out of government and established their own government in the
province of Orientale.
A national coalition government was set up in 1961 and the DRC Became a federation and each
state had its own assembly.
In 1965 Joseph Desire Mobutu staged a bloodless coup and declared himself the leader of the
DRC. He made the following political changes or reforms:
• He made himself the head of state and government hence centralized power in his hands
• He banned all political parties and formed the People’s Revolutionary Movement Party
hence establishing a one party dictatorship.
• He reformed the constitution and stripped parliament of its powers
• He abolished the federal system of government and local assemblies
• He declared himself life president in 1970
• Civil servants were appointed by the central government leading to appointments based
on ethnicity
Riots and demonstrations due to the civilian's dissatisfaction with the regime caused political
tension in the country

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In 1997, Mobutu was overthrown by Laurent Kabila and was forced into exile he later died and
was buried in Morocco. Kabila renamed the country the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Civil wars erupted when Kabila fell out with his allies from Uganda and Rwanda. Zimbabwe,
Namibia and Angola sent troops to back Kabila.
Laurent Kabila was assassinated on the 16th of January 2001 in his palace and he was succeeded
by his son Joseph Kabila.
A peace agreement brokered by South Africa was signed in 2002 and the first democratic
elections held in 2018.
Political challenges experienced in the Democratic Republic of Congo Since independence
• Competition for political dominance by political parties polarized the country thereby
undermining unity
• Ethnicity differences undermined nationalist cause thereby dividing the country
• Secession of some regions such as Katanga and Kasai caused instability in the central
government hence weakening it
• Political and ideological differences between Lumumba and Kasavubu undermined
national development
• Civil wars led to the split of the country into two parts one led by Lumumba's supporters
and the other by Kasavubu
• Political assassinations created differences among leaders hence tension in the country
• There was lack of adequately trained personnel with professional management skills to
run the government
• Personality differences among leaders ignited conflicts amongst their followers
• Foreign interference in the internal affairs of the country especially by the Belgians and
the UN has undermined the independence of Africans
• The banning of opposition political parties created a one party state which stifled
democracy in the country
• The stripping of parliament of its powers through constitutional amendments led to the
establishment of a totalitarian regime
• Rebellion against the Mobutu's regime backed by external forces led to the overthrowing
of the government.
Economic Developments in the Democratic Republic of Congo
The following economic developments have taken place in the DRC since independence:

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• There was expansion of mining where minerals such as copper, uranium and chrome
were mined in large scale
• The government encouraged nationalization of the economy where the state took over
major industries leading to increased revenue flows
• The government encouraged foreign investors to invest in the Democratic Republic of
Congo
• There was expansion of agriculture which led to increased food production
• Efforts were made to expand transport infrastructure through construction of roads,
railways and waterways as well as ports
• The government constructed the Inga Hydro-Electric Dam which provided a cheaper
source of industrial power
Economic challenges in the Democratic Republic of Congo
The following factors have undermined the economic developments in the DRC:
• Constant civil wars has created a hostile environment for any form of investment
• Huge foreign debts as a result of heavy reliance on foreign aid
• Widespread corruption has deprived the country of money required for development
• International trade has been interrupted by political instability
• There has been high inflation due to Mobutu's financial policy of printing paper money
• Illegal trading activities due to lack of appropriate trade policies which denied the
government revenue
• High rate of unemployment has led to widespread poverty among the people
• Poor transport system which has led to slow economic growth
• Overreliance on primary commodities which are prone to fluctuation leads to low foreign
earnings
Social Developments in the Democratic Republic of Congo
• Mobutu introduced the Programme of indigenous cultural revival called Authenticity
which involved change of foreign names to indigenous ones.
• The government has promoted education through expansion of education facilities such
as schools; encouraging more Africans to go to school; revising the curriculum to conform to the
needs of the people and establishing universities and other tertiary institutions.
• Social activities such as sports and music were supported by the government

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• Efforts have been made to improve healthcare through expansion of hospitals and
provision of curative and preventive medicine
Social challenges in the Democratic Republic of Congo
• High levels of illiteracy due to inadequate access to education in the country
• The health system is poorly developed leading to outbreak of various diseases such as
Ebola
• The country hosts a large number of refugees from neighboring countries living in camps
thereby posing security threats
• High levels of poverty has led to poor standards of living
• Prolonged civil wars have led to displacement of many civilians
Tanzania
Tanzania is a union between the former Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
Political Developments
In 1964, Tanganyika and Zanzibar formed a political union with Julius Nyerere becoming the
President and Sheikh Abeid Karume becoming the Vice-president.
The following reasons led to the formation of the Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar:
• The Africans in Zanzibar did not favour domination by the Arabs
• Zanzibar wanted protection from stronger and a larger group
• Zanzibar needed economic support following the abolition of slave trade
In 1977 the Afro Shirazi party joined hands with Tanganyika African National Union (TANU),
to form the Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM)
In 1967, Tanzania adopted the Arusha Declaration which outlined the following principles:
• Self-reliance- people were expected to depend on their own human and material
resources for development
• Socialism or Ujamaa - everybody including the youth would be involved in a responsible
activity. Its implementation led to settlement of people in new villages known as Ujamaa villages
• It forbade discrimination based on wealth - all citizens were to live as equals
• Nationalization of the main means of production - the government acquired ownership of
the principle sources and means of production. Africans were put in control of the factors of
production. They were also put in charge of the means of production.
The assassination of Sheikh Abeid Karume in1972 was a major political challenge. He was
succeeded by Aboud Jumbe as President of Zanzibar and Vice-President of Tanzania.
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From 1973, the government started government started planning the transfer of capital from Dar-
es-salaam to Dodoma in order to centralize provision of government services.
Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda maintained the East African Community between the years 1967 -
1977. The community collapsed in 1977 due to policy differences between Tanzania and her
other two partners.
Tanzania went on to wage a war against Uganda in 1979 which led to the downfall of dictator Idi
Amin.
Tanzania closed her border with Kenya during a number of times such as 1984 due to strained
relations
Tanzania supported liberation movements in Africa materially and financially especially in
Angola, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
In 1985, Julius Nyerere retired from office and was succeeded by Ali Hassan Mwinyi, a
moderate from Zanzibar.
Pressure from donors led to the adoption of multy party democracy hence new political parties
emerged such as CHADEMA, Civic United Front and NCCR-Mageuzi.
Violet riots occurred in the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar after the disputed 2005 general
elections where leaders of the Civic United Front fled to Kenya to escape police crackdown.
Benjamin Mkapaka was succeeded by Jakaya Kikwete in the 2010 general elections and Kikwete
was subsequently succeeded by President John Pombe Magufuli.
Political challenges in Tanzania since Independence
Tanzania has witnessed the following political challenges since independence:
• There was an army mutiny in 1964 over delayed promotion of Africans thereby
threatening the stability of the country
• There were riots by students of the University of Dar-es-salaam who opposed forceful
service in the National Youth Service. This painted a negative picture of government
programmes.
• The assassination of Sheikh Abeid Karume in 1972 caused tension in the country
• Tanzania waged a costly war with Uganda leading to the overthrow of Idi Amin
• Personality differences between Nyerere, Amin and Jomo Kenyatta undermined regional
co-operation leading to the collapse of the East African Community in 1977
• The country has a large influx of refugees from neighboring countries experiencing
conflicts such as Rwanda
• The resignation of the first vice president Aboud Jumbe in 1984 strained relations
between Zanzibar and mainland Tanzania
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• The re-introduction of multy party democracy led to ethnicity and regionalism as political
parties were formed along regional lines.
• The failure of Ujamaa policy eroded public confidence in the government
Economic Developments in Tanzania since Independence
• The Arusha declaration emphasized on self-reliance leading to increased agricultural
production both for domestic and export requirements
• The government instituted economic reforms after the failure of Ujamaa policy which
contributed to the development of private enterprise
• There was expansion of small scale industries in the rural areas such as textile
manufacturing, cement manufacturing and steel mills
• There was expansion of transport and communication facilities especially with the
construction of the Tan-Zam Railway line linking Dar-es-salaam and Kapiri Mposhi in land
locked Zambia.
• The government adopted socialist policies which led to nationalization of most
businesses
• Centralized agricultural marketing bodies were established such as the National Milling
co-operation
• The revival of the East African Community in 2001 has boosted economic developments
in Tanzania.
Economic challenges in Tanzania since independence
• Poor transport and communication network within the country has hindered economic
development
• Nationalization was misinterpreted as people developed negative attitude towards work
leading to reduction in production
• Huge foreign debt has stifled development as revenue collected goes to servicing debts
• Strict government control of the economy discouraged private and foreign investments in
the country
• Corruption and mismanagement in the running of state corporations has led to low
production
• There has been smuggling of goods across the borders with her neighbours leading to loss
of revenue
• High rates of inflation has eroded peoples savings leading to poverty

•
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Social developments in Tanzania

The following are some of the social developments in Tanzania since independence:
• Education has been expanded in Tanzania through construction of more schools, colleges
and universities; making Kiswahili the medium of instruction in schools; popularizing the
philosophy of “education for self-reliance”; and introduction of adult education.
• Improvement of health through expansion and establishment of more health facilities has
improved the quality of life
• Social cohesion or unity has been promoted by the ujamaa policy, good leadership, use of
Kiswahili as a national language and application of the constitution
• Kiswahili has been made a national language and given more emphasis in the education
system thereby promoting interaction among people
• Theatre and sports has been promoted through the establishment of sporting facilities
• The role of women in the society has been appreciated especially in the provision of
education and in employment
• Freedom of worship among citizens has been encouraged
Social Challenges in Tanzania since independence
The following challenges have undermined social developments in Tanzania:
• High rates of unemployment has led to poor living conditions
• High levels of illiteracy despite the free education policy
• Inadequate basic amenities such as health, education, housing and water supply due to
high population growth rate
• High incidence of HIV and AIDS has further put a strain on health facilities and reduced
life expectancy
• High rate of rural-urban migration due to scarcity of opportunities to create income in
rural areas.
Social, Economic and political Challenges in Africa since Independence
Political challenges
• Political assassinations especially of opponents such as the assassination of Patrice
Lumumba in the Democratic Republic of Congo
• Ethnicity in many African countries has led to civil wars thereby creating refugee
problem
• Border disputes due to the artificial boundaries created by the colonial governments has
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created tension among African states
• Political instability characterized by military coups has led to the rise of dictatorship in
Africa
• Personal differences among leaders within the continent has led to disagreements and
disunity
• Ideological differences among leaders especially during the cold war also undermined
unity within the continent
• The rise of guerrilla movements in various parts of Africa has undermined the stability of
many African states
Economic challenges
• Lack of diversified economy has led to dependence on primary agricultural products
whose prices fluctuate at the international market
• Inadequate finance to be invested in economic development has contributed to slow
industrial growth.
• Poor transport network characterized by poor roads has hindered the exploitation of some
resources and slowed down movement of goods and labour
• Environmental degradation associated with air, water and sound pollution has led to
economic decline
• Stiff competition from imported products due to their high quality has hindered industrial
development
• Rapid population growth which has surpassed the available resources hence leading to
poverty
• Corruption and mismanagement of public resources due to lack of transparency has led to
economic decline
• Over dependence on foreign aid has led to huge foreign debts
Social challenges
• High levels of unemployment has led to high levels of dependency hence poor living
standards
• High levels of poverty have resulted into high crime rates
• Outstretched social facilities such as schools, hospitals, electricity and water due to rapid
population growth
• Rural-urban migration has led to lack of jobs leading to anti-social practices such as
crime and prostitution. Shortage of housing in urban centres has led to mushrooming of slams.

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• The HIV and AIDS scourge has contributed to social and psychological problems hence
leading to high levels of dependency with governments spending huge sum of money to fight the
scourge,
• Many frustrated people have resorted to drug and substance abuse hence compounding
the social challenges in Africa
• High levels of illiteracy in the continent due to lack of access to basic education.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1992 Q27
a) Give five reasons why some districts in Kenya are more economically
developed than others
b) Describe the functions of district development committee

2. 1996 Q4
a) What three factors have facilitated the formation of many political
parties in Kenya since 1991? (3marks)

b) Explain six changes which have taken place in Kenya as a result

of the introduction of multi-party democracy since 1991? (12marks)

3. 1996 Q11
Give two reasons why the District Focus for Rural Development was
established in Kenya. (2marks)

4. 1997 Q 12
Identify two causes of division within the opposition political parties in
Kenya since 1992. (2 marks)

5. 1999 Q2a
(a) What are the benefits of the policy of District Focus for Rural
Development in Kenya? (5 marks)

6. 2001 Q14
Identify one achievement of the District Focus for Rural Development
Strategy (1 mark)

7. 2001 Q21a
(a) In what five ways has the government attempted to preserve cultural
heritage in Kenya since independence? (5 marks)

8. 2003 Q11
State two provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya. (2 marks)
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9. 2003 Q14
Give two reasons why the district focus for Rural Development was
adopted as a development strategy in Kenya. (2 marks)

10. 2003 Q19

(a) What factors led to the development of multi- party democracy in Kenya
in the early 1990’s? (3 marks)
(b) Explain how the existence of many parties has promoted democracy
in Kenya. (12 marks)

11. 2004 Q 23b

Discuss the factors that led to the introduction of many political
parties in Kenya in 1992. (12 marks)

12. 2010 Q21a

State three ways in which the government of Kenya facilitated the
acquisition of land for Africans after 1963. (3 marks)

13. 2012 Q21 P1

(a) State five ways in which the Government of Kenya has improved
the health of its citizens since independence. (5marks)
(b) Explain five factors which have undermined the provision of services
by the Government of Kenya. (10marks)

14. 2013 Q9 P1
Give one way in which the construction of the Uganda railway speeded
up the Colonization of Kenya. (1mark)

15. 2014 Q15, P1

Give one reason for the adoption of Harambee strategy in Kenya after
independence.
(2 marks)
16. 2014 Q16 P1
Identify two types of land ownership in Kenya. (2 marks)

17. 2014 Q21 P1

(a) State three challenges that have undermined government efforts to
eradicate Illiteracy in Kenya since independence. (3 marks)

(b) Discuss six factors that have facilitated industrialization in Kenya

Since independence. (12 marks)

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18. 2015 Q15 P2
Identify two principles of the Arusha Declaration of 1967. (2 marks)
19. 2015 Q22 P1
(a) Give three factors that led to the introduction of multi-party democracy
in Kenya in the early 1990s. (3 marks)

(b) Describe six achievements of multi-party democracy in Kenya. (12 marks)

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 NATIONAL PHILOSOPHIES OF KENYA
Meaning
It refers to a set of beliefs or principles on which a political system is built. It is useful in a
country for uniting the people and mobilizing the people for national development.
There are three main national philosophies in Kenya since independence. These are:
• African Socialism
• Harambee
• Nyayoism
African Socialism
The principle of African Socialism was enshrined in a document known as the Sessional Paper
No. 10 of 1965 entitled African Socialism and its Application to Planning in Kenya. It was
authored by the then Minister for Economic Planning Tom Mboya.
Objectives of African Socialism
The government of Kenya adopted the Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 due to the following
reasons:
• To promote democracy in Kenya by allowing the citizens to elect leaders of their own
choice
• To promote equal economic opportunity for all Kenyans
• To eradicate diseases, ignorance and poverty
• To promote social justice by enhancing equality of all before the law
• To promote equitable distribution of wealth to all regions of the country by allocating
equal resources
• To promote freedom of conscience and human dignity
• To encourage various forms of ownership
Main Features of African Socialism
African Socialism had the following characteristics:
• It advocated for political democracy where Africans were encouraged to participate in
government actively
• It advocated on Mutual Social responsibility which emphasized the spirit of brotherhood
in nation building

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• It allows different forms of ownership of property or factors of production where private
and public ownership of the factors of production would develop hand in hand
• Progressive taxation was emphasized in order to narrow the gap between the rich and the
poor
• It emphasized equal job opportunities for all regardless of one's tribe, religion or
background
• Progressive Africanization or kenyanisation of the economy without disrupting the
economy
• It emphasized on the provision of the needed social services such as education and health
which were inadequate
Impact of African Socialism on National Development
The philosophy of African Socialism has had a significant effect on the social and economic
development of Kenya such as:
• It has promoted respect for individual rights where private ownership of property is
respected
• It has encouraged political democracy in Kenya through the holding of regular elections
• It has led to fair distribution of wealth and income through progressive taxation
• It has encouraged the provision of equal opportunities in employment for all Kenyans
regardless of tribe, religion or race
• The government has allowed both private and state ownership of property for economic
progress
• It has encouraged mutual social responsibility among Kenyans especially in times of
crisis
• It has helped improve the provision of essential social services to all Kenyans such as
health and water
• It has led to the development of other related philosophies such as Harambee and
Nyayoism
Harambee Philosophy
It requires people to come together in unity to speed up development using locally available
resources.
Objectives of Harambee
The Harambee philosophy had the following objectives:
• To pool the scarce resources together to promote development
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• To eradicate poverty among the people
• To promote national unity as people, work together
• To promote patriotism
• To supplement government efforts through contribution by the citizens
Main Features of Harambee Philosophy
The characteristic of Harambee philosophy are:
• Unity - meaning co-operation among people before they settle down for a common
project.
• Volition - it makes people contribute labour and materials to any project without being
forced
• Determination - meaning seeing the reality of the project being completed and serving the
purpose required
• Free participation - It allows the Harambee spirit to acquire its democratic nature where
project leaders are democratically elected.
• Sense of purpose - The validity of the projects reassessed before they are initiated
Principles of Harambee
The philosophy of Harambee is based on the following principles:
• Mobilization of people at the local level to participate in their own development
• The collective good overrides the individual gain hence harambee projects are for the
benefit of the community
• The needs of the majority determines the choice of the projects
• It is grounded on maximum utilization of local resources such as labour and materials
• All the people must participate in Harambee activities according to their abilities
• It is based on voluntary contribution and participation
Role of Harambee Philosophy in National Development
The Harambee philosophy has made significant contributions in national development. Some of
its contributions are:
• It has contributed in the development of education as funds have been collected to build
schools; paying school fee for the needy students, ‘improving physical facilities; buying teaching
or learning materials, ‘paying additional staff in schools ; supporting co-curricular activities;
buying school furniture and supplementing government school feeding programmes to improve
completion.
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• It has led to the development of health services in Kenya as funds have been contributed
to build health centers; enable sick people to seek for specialized treatment within or outside the
country; buy or purchase drugs for the needy as well as encouraging medical personnel to offer
free medical services to people
• It has promoted interaction of people during harambees thereby promoting national unity
in the country
• It has promoted the spirit of hard work and self-reliance in tackling challenges of national
development
• It has enabled Kenyans assist the needy for instance in support of the people living with
disabilities both financially and materially
• It has contributed to the redistribution of wealth among Kenyans as those who do not
have resources benefit from projects undertaken by the wealthy through Harambee.
• It has contributed to the setting up of public projects such as soil conservation,
Afforestation, control of flooding among others
• It has promoted sporting activities by financing training and competition both locally and
abroad.
• It has also supplemented government efforts in the provision of services to the people
Challenges facing Harambee Philosophy
• There were cases of people being forced to contribute thereby negating the spirit of
harambee
• It has been one way of staging public shows between the haves and the have nots
• Money raised through harambees in some instances have not been used for the intended
purposes
• Public servants and politicians have had to engage in corruption to get money to donate
in Harambees.
NB: The government has enacted the Public Servants and Ethics Act barring public servants
from playing an active role in harambees.
Nyayo Philosophy
Nyayo is a Swahili word which means footsteps. The philosophy was developed by Daniel Arap
Moi, in 1978 as an affirmation that he was going to follow the footsteps of Jomo Kenyatta. It was
an assurance to the people of Kenya by Moi that he would follow the political, economic and
social policies similar to those of Jomo Kenyatta.
Sources of Nyayo Philosophy
The following were the sources of Nyayo Philosophy:
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• African Socialism - being mindful of other people's welfare which is based on mutual
social responsibility.
• The Biblical teachings of the Ten Commandments - the love for God, fellow man and
oneself was to be extended to being mindful of each other's welfare.
• Moi's long political career inspired him to develop the policy. It made him realize that
nation building required love between citizens.
Pillars of Nyayoism
Nyayoism was based on three as follows:
• Peace - it recognized that meaningful development in the country could only occur where
there was peace
• Love - it brings about trust and promotes respect for one another and enables the citizens
to be mindful of each other's welfare.
• Unity - it enables the various communities to work together harmoniously in nation-
building.
Role of Nyayoism in Development
The philosophy of Nyayo made significant social, political and economic contribution in the
development of the country;
• It led to expansion of education at all levels as facilities have been improved by donations
from both public and private sectors. Girl child education has greatly been encouraged through
affirmative action in admission to universities.
• It has contributed in the improvement of medical facilities through the construction of
Nyayo wards in major hospitals.
• It has promoted national integration as different ethnic or racial groups live together in
harmony.
• It has promoted peace through the country which is essential for national development.
• The philosophy has always been the guiding principle in Kenya's foreign affairs as
Kenya's relations with her neighbours has been guided by the pillar of peace.
• It has promoted kenyanisation of the economy by encouraging the development of the
Jua Kali sector which is the basis of industrialization in Kenya
• It promoted development in the rural areas through the establishment of the District
Focus for Rural Development which encouraged decentralization of government operations to
the district level.
• It has contributed to the expansion of sports and cultural activities through the
construction of sports facilities such as the Moi Sports Centre, Kasarani.
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• It has promoted the development of agriculture through the establishment of the Nyayo
Tea Zones.
• The philosophy has promoted environmental conservation and management through
afforestation, reafforestation, wildlife conservation, soil conservation and management.
Challenges of Nyayoism
The following factors undermined the performance of Nyayo projects:
• There was widespread corruption which affected the performance of the Nyayo projects.
• There was increased tribalism as members of some communities were favoured in
employment and allocation of resources
• Nepotism spread as some public officers favoured their relatives in employment
• Inefficiency increased as public servants developed a negative attitude towards work
• Mismanagement affected many public projects, resulting in the collapse of some.
Impact of National Philosophies
The National philosophies have had great political, social and economic effects:
Political effects
• They have promoted nationalism and patriotism by rallying citizens to work together and
develop their country
• They have promoted peace and stability in the country by encouraging equity, justice and
equal distribution of resources
• African Socialism has encouraged democratization as it champions political equality
Economic Effects
• They have accelerated national development as they mobilized Kenyans to actively
participate in development to supplement limited government resources
• They have promoted agriculture especially through the creation of Nyayo Tea Zones
• They have created employment opportunities in the Jua Kali and agricultural sector
• They have improved transport and communication through construction of rural access
roads and the Nyayo bus project
• The pillars of peace, love and unity has created a conducive environment for the growth
of tourism hence earning the country the much-needed foreign exchange.
Social effects
• They have promoted unity and understanding among Kenyans
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• Through the philosophies, education has been promoted by building of schools, colleges
and universities
• The philosophies have improved medical services by constructing dispensaries, health
centres and hospitals
• They have promoted African culture through borrowing of positive African traditions
• They have encouraged mutual social responsibility among Kenyans as Kenyans have
been mindful of other people's welfare
• They have promoted spiritual well-being of the people through building of churches.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1998 Q13
Identify two national philosophies which have been used in Kenya since the
attainment of independence. (2 marks)

2. 2002 Q17
Identify two national philosophies used as development strategies in Kenya
(2 marks)
3. 2003 Q15

Identify one national philosophy adopted at independence to promote social

justice in Kenya (1mark)

4. 2008 Q21
a) State five reasons why the government of Kenya adopted the Session
Paper no. 10 of 1965 (5marks)

b) Explain the social effects of the National Philosophies on the

development in Kenya (10marks)

5. 2010 Q17
Identify two characteristics of African Socialism that promote national
development in Kenya. (2 marks)
6. 2010 Q22b
Explain five ways which the harambee philosophy has promoted
development of education in Kenya since independence. (10marks)

7. 2013 Q14 P1
State two ways in which the Harambee spirit promotes national unity
in Kenya. (2marks)

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 SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL
DEVELOPMENTS AND CHALLENGES IN KENYA
SINCE INDEPENDNCE
Introduction
Kenya has made great strides in social, political and economic developments since
independence. However, the country has also encountered many challenges.
Political Developments from 1963-1991
> In 1964, Kenya became a Republic with an Executive President who was both the head of
state and Government
> The regional system of government was abolished leading to the establishment of a
unitary government
> In the same year KADU dissolved itself and merged with KANU hence Kenya became a
defacto one party state
> The Limuru Conference of_1966 amended the KANU constitution leading to the creation
of eight provincial party vice-presidents instead of a single national vice-president.
> Jaramogi Oginga Odinga resigned from the vice-presidency and KANU to form the
Kenya People's Union (KPU) making the country revert to a multy party state
> There were political assassinations which threatened the security and stability of the
country. These included the assassination of Pio Gama Pinto, the only Asian to be detained
during the state of emergency; the assassination of Tom Joseph Mboya on July 5, 1969 and that
of Josiah Mwangi Kariuki who was a member of parliament for Nyandarua North
> The Kenya People's Union was banned in 1969 following the riots during the official
opening of the Russian sponsored New Nyanza General Hospital in Kisumu presided over by
President Jomo Kenyatta.
> A number of government critics were arrested and detained such as Martin Shikuku,
former MP for Butere, Jean Marie Seroney, the then Deputy speaker and George Moseti Anyona,
former MP for Kitutu Central
> In 1976, a group calling itself Change the Constitution Group tried to get the constitution
changed to prevent Daniel Arap Moi from succeeding Jomo Kenyatta. This caused tension in the
country in the last years of Kenyatta's rule
> In 1978, Mzee Jomo Kenyatta died and was succeeded, according to the constitution, by
the Vice President Daniel Arap Moi.
> Moi released all political prisoners or detainees. This helped to endear him to Kenyans
who viewed him as a liberal leader.

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> In 1980, Moi banned all tribal organizations in order to promote national unity. Among
the organizations that were banned included The Gikuyu Embu Meru Association (GEMA), The
Luo Union ( East Africa )
> In June 1982, Section 2A of the old constitution was passed by parliament making Kenya
a dejure (by
law) one party state. Hence no one was allowed to form any other political party apart from the
ruling KANU.
> In 1982, an attempted coup by Junior Kenya Airforce Officers led Senior Private
Hezekiah Ochuka was crushed.
> In 1986, a clandestine movement called Mwakenya is reported to be in existence. Many
people were arrested and tortured for belonging to the organization
> In 1988 General Elections, the ruling party KANU introduced the unpopular queue
voting method (mlolongo) in primaries instead of the secret ballot. Many politicians left KANU
due to the massive rigging.
> In 1990, Kenya's foreign affairs Minister, Dr Robert Ouko was found murdered under
mysterious circumstances. His death shocked Kenyans and triggered demonstrations in the
country.
> In 1991 Section 2A of the old constitution was amended to allow for multy party
democracy.
Multy party Democracy in Kenya since 1991
Meaning
A multy party system of government is a government where several political parties compete for
political power.
Factors that led to the re-introduction of multi-partvism in Kenya
The following factors led to the re-introduction of multi-partyism in Kenya:
• The alleged rigging of the 1988 general elections made many people lost confidence in
KANU and teamed up to give support to multi-party advocates.
• Recommendations of the Saitoti Review Committee of 1990 which collected views of the
public and presented to Party deligates
• Pressure from the clergy led by the Rev Timothy Nyoya of the Presbyterian Church of
East Africa and the late Dr Henry Okullu of the ACK who teamed up with other domestic
activists such as Lawyers, Journalists and intellectuals to condemn the rampant corruption in
government

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• KANU's failure to accommodate people with divergent views led to suspensions from the
party. Those who were suspended or expelled agitated for multi-party democracy
• Political changes in the Soviet Union which culminated into the adoption of multi-party
system of government coupled with Western aid conditionalities inspired the advocates of multy
partysm
• Success of multy party in other parts of Africa such as Zambia where Fredrick Chiluba of
the Movement for Multy Party Democracy defeated Kenneth Kaunda
• Repeal of Section 2A of the constitution to legalized formation of other national political
parties.
Achievements of Multy Party Democracy in Kenya
The re-introduction of multy-party democracy has brought about several benefits to the people of
Kenya:
• It has promoted checks and balances as the opposition parties point out government
excesses
• It has opened up the democratic space as people can express their views without fear of
intimidation
• It has facilitated mobilization of people to take part in the democratic process such as
elections and referenda
• It has facilitated the provision of civic education to the people thereby empowering them
to make informed decisions
• It has promoted unity as members of different ethnic groups join political parties of their
choice
• The creation of many political parties has provided training ground for political leaders
• It has enabled provision of alternative approach to the management of government affairs
• It has enabled the opposition to initiate and debate issues the government may be silent
on
• It has given people voice in the selection and appointment of public officers
Challenges of Multv Party Democracy in Kenya
Multi-party democracy has faced a number of challenges in Kenya such as:
• Many of the parties in Kenya are ethnic based and lacks nationwide support hence
hindering the development of democratic ideals
• Many political parties in Kenya lacks adequate funds to conduct civic education and
propagate their policies
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• Personality differences among leaders have led to infighting and wrangling hence
weakening the parties
• Interference by government machinery in the operations of political parties especially in
the opposition
• The culture of defection as some selfish and greedy politicians are lured through bribes to
defect to other parties thereby weakening them
• Lack of a clear-cut policies or ideologies which the parties believe in has undermined the
effectiveness of multi-party democracy
• Existence of uniformed, illiterate and poor electorate has resulted in many voters easily
compromised hence defeating the essence of free and fair elections.
The role of Political Parties in Government and Nation Building
Political parties play a very significant role in the formation of government and in nation
building in a democracy.
Role of the Ruling (majority) party in Government and Nation Building
The ruling party plays the following roles in government and nation building:
• It forms the government with the leader becoming the president of the country
• It formulates national policies within which the government operates
• It formulates foreign policy and protects Kenyan nationals outside the country
• It monitors the peoples' general feelings towards the government and informs the
government accordingly
• It lays down the policy to guide its Members of Parliament
• Party officials work hand-in-hand with the civil servants at all levels in implementing
government policy
• Its charged with the responsibility of promoting the country's of promoting the country's
socioeconomic development
• It promotes political awareness by providing civic education among its member
The role of the Opposition Parties in Nation Building
The opposition or minority party complements government efforts in national development by
undertaking the following roles:
• The opposition parties check the excesses of the government or pinpoint the mistakes of
the government
• They offer constructive alternative solutions to the country's problems in parliament
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• They participate actively in political decision- making especially in Parliamentary
Committees such as the Parliamentary Accounts Committee.
• The opposition parties sell their alternative ideas to the general citizenry of the country
• They also act as training ground for political leadership
• They work for the repeal of unjust and oppressive laws in the country
• They work towards the reform and independence of the judiciary
• They ensure transparency and accountability and fight against corruption
Economic Developments and Challenges in Kenya since Independence
At independence the country faced several economic problems such as:
• Lack of adequate capital to be invested in the economy
• There was lack of adequate personnel or manpower to man various sectors
• The was poor transport and communication network in the country
• Unfavourable balance of trade
• High levels of unemployment among Africans
• Settling the large number of landless people
• Africanization of jobs and the economy as many Africans had been denied an opportunity
of participating in economic affairs
• Low salaries for Africans
The leaders of the new nation undertook measures to solve these problems.
Land Policies since Independence
Land policies are the general guiding principles over land ownership and land use. The
government has developed the following policies to address the issue of land:
• The government established the Ministry of Lands and settlement to formulate and
implement land policies in the country.
• The government established Settlement Schemes to resettle landless Africans especially
in the former white settler farms
• Provision of loans to new African setters to purchase land and farm inputs
• The government set up the land consolidation, adjudication and registration programmes
to convert traditional African land tenure system to one based on registered freehold tenure

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• The government encouraged the formation of co-operatives and land buying companies
to purchase farms for members
• The government established the Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC) to
manage large scale farms for production of key inputs such as hybrid seeds and high-quality
breeding stock
• Establishment of Agricultural Research Stations such as the Kenya Agricultural Research
Institute and Livestock (KARLO)
• Irrigation schemes have also been established in various parts of the country to boost the
production of crops such as rice, cotton, fruits and vegetables
• Establishment of development authorities such as the Lake Basin Development
Authorities, the Kerio Valley Development Authority and the Tana-Athi River Development
Authorities which are responsible for the co-ordination and proper use of resources in each water
catchment area.
• Efforts have been made to conserve the environment by planting trees, conserving soils
and water catchment areas
Quiz: State three ways in which the government of Kenya facilitated the acquisition of land for
Africans after 1963.
• The government-initiated land consolidation and adjudication to enable farmers to
maximize production
• Resettling Africans in the irrigation schemes
• Encouraging the people to form co-operative societies and land buying companies to
purchase farms for members
• Issuing of land title deeds to make ownership legal
• Providing loans to those who were willing to buy land
• Opening up the former white high lands to willing buyers
Types of land holdings in Kenya
Land holding refers to the various forms of land ownership. There are three categories of land
holding in Kenya:
a) Public land
b) Private land
c) Community land

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a) Public Land
Public land belongs to the public and is held in custody by either the National Government or the
County Government. Public land includes the following:
• Land used or occupied by a state organ
• Land transferred to the state by sale, surrender or reversion
• Land where minerals and mineral oils are found
• Land over which no individual or community ownership can be established
• All government forests, game reserves, water catchment areas, national parks and animal
sanctuaries
• All roads and
• All rivers, lakes and water bodies defined by an Act of Parliament
b) Private Land
It includes;
• Registered land held by any person under any freehold tenure
• Land held by any person under leasehold tenure
• Any other land declared private land under an Act of Parliament
c) Community land
It refers to land held by communities, identified on the basis of ethnicity, culture or similar
community of interest. It consists of:
• Land lawfully held in trust land by the County Government
• Land that is lawfully held, managed or used by specific communities as community
forests, grazing areas or shrines
• Ancestral lands and lands traditionally occupied by hunter-gatherer communities
The National Land Commission
It is a constitutional commission that manages public land in Kenya. It performs the following
functions:
• It manages public land on behalf of the National and County Government
• It recommends national land policy to the National Government
• It conducts research related to land and the use of natural resources
• It investigates complaints of present or past land injustices

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Challenges Facing Land Policies in Kenya
The following challenges have affected land use in Kenya:
• Inadequate capital to be invested in agriculture has led to low yields. It has also impeded
the speed of land demarcation and adjudication
• The unstable prices of agricultural produce in the local and world markets has
discouraged farmers
• Poor transport and communication network has led to great losses of farm produce thus
reducing earnings of farmers
• The spread of arid conditions and unreliable weather patterns have affected land use
• Farmers produce is often destroyed by pests due to poor storage after harvests leading to
food shortages
• Politically instigated ethnic clashes have discouraged farmers from carrying out immense
farming activities due to insecurity
• Shortage of agricultural extension officers has made it difficult for farmers to get advice
on how to improve yields
• Overproduction of similar agricultural products leads to wastage due to lack of buyers
• The population of Kenya has been growing faster than gains made in the agricultural
sector
• Corrupt government officials have grabbed public land and sold research land thereby
affecting the operations of research institutions
• Competition from COMESA and other industrialized nations has frustrated Kenyan
farmers
Developments in Industry
The Government of Kenya has taken the following steps to promote industrialization in Kenya:
• It has established the Ministry of Industrialization to develop policies geared towards
industrialization
• It has provided technical advice to those who wish to venture in the manufacturing sector
through the Kenya Industrial Estate
• It has provided financial support in form of loans to local industrialists
• The government has encouraged foreign investors to invest in the industrial sector by
offering them various incentives
• It has set up processing industries in Textile manufacturing, light engineering, chemical
processing motor vehicle assembly, paper industry and agrobased industries.

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Factors that have facilitated Industrial Development in Kenya since Independence
The following factors have facilitated industrial growth in Kenya since independence:
• The availability of modern sources of energy such as electricity has enabled the
establishment of more industries which process different products
• Availability of both skilled and unskilled labour from the large population which
provides the work force required in industries
• Good transport and communication system has created a viable environment for
industrial development as products can be transported with ease
• Availability of raw materials from the rich agricultural sector
• The existence of minerals resources has given rise to industries which process them into
finished products
• The existence of manmade and natural forests has promoted the development of furniture
industries in many parts of the country
• Availability of water resources provided water for industrial use
• Government initiatives through the establishment of the ministry of industrialization and
provision of technical and financial support
Challenges Facing Industrial Development in Kenya
The following factors have undermined government efforts to promote industrialization in
Kenya:
• Poor transport infrastructure has hindered the distribution of raw materials and finished
products
• Inadequate trained personnel have led to the use of expatriates in major industries in the
country
• Inadequate capital to be invested in setting up industrial plants has affected
industrialization
• Competition from cheap imports from more developed countries has led to collapse of
local industries
• Corruption, nepotism and mismanagement has led to the collapse of a number of
government owned industries
• Low purchasing power due to high levels of poverty has reduced internal market.
Social Developments and Challenges in Kenya since Independence
Kenya has made striking advances in the fields of education, health, housing and recreation.

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Education
The government made deliberate effort to tailor education to suit the development needs of the
new nation. The following are the major developments in education in Kenya since
independence:
• The government set up several education commissions to advise it on necessary changes.
Such commissions included; the Ominde Commission (1964-65), Gachathi (1976), Mackay
(1982), Kamunge (1988), Koech (2002) and Odhiambo (2010). The Odhiambo team was to align
the education system to the new Constitution of Kenya, 2010. It recommended the introduction
of the 2-6-3-3 system to replace the 8-4-4 system.
• There has been enormous expansion of education at all levels from pre-primary to
university as well as national polytechnics and middle level colleges.
• A number of departments and institutions were established under the ministry of
education aimed at improving the system. Such departments include the Kenya Institute of
Curriculum Development (KICD), the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC), the
Quality Assurance and Standards Department.
• A number of Kenyan students have also been sent to foreign universities especially in
India, Pakistan, Canada and Britain.
• The government introduced the 8-4-4 system of education which emphasized on practical
and vocational oriented subjects.
• The government re-introduced the free primary education in the year 2003 which led an
increase in the enrolment in primary schools.
• The government also introduced tuition free day secondary education by paying tuition
fee for all learners.
• In 2018, the government introduced the 2-6-3-3 system of education to replace the 8-4-4
system. It emphasizes on a competence-based curriculum as opposed to a knowledge-based
curriculum.
Challenges Facing Education in Kenya
The following factors have undermined the government efforts in the provision of education:
• High poverty levels in the society has made education unaffordable to many people
• Traditional or cultural beliefs in some communities such as female genital mutilation and
early marriages discourage people from schooling
• Insecurity in some parts of the country such as Mandera, Garissa and Kapedo undermines
government efforts to provide education
• Lack of adequate educational facilities and shortage of teachers due to increased
enrolment has made education inaccessible in some areas

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• Misconception that one can succeed without education due to too many unemployed
people with higher education also discourages the youth from pursuing higher education.
• Frequent changes and revision of the curriculum renders the education system
discontinuous and expensive
• Negative attitude towards adult education programmes has resulted into low enrolment
• Nomadic way of life in some communities has hampered provision of education
• Frequent industrial unrest over pay by tutors disrupts the education system
Health
A healthy population is a prerequisite to faster economic growth. The following groups have
provided health services in Kenya since independence:
• The Government of Kenya (both National and County Government)
• Non-governmental organizations
• Religious groups or institutions
• Private companies or institutions
• Charitable organizations
• International organizations
• Individual Medical Practitioners
The National government has taken a number of measures to improve health services in the
country. Among the measures include;
• It has established the ministry of Health to oversee all health related issues in the country
• It has established several health centres, dispensaries and hospitals throughout the
country to provide health services
• The government has encouraged the establishment of private hospitals and clinics by
individual medical practitioners, religious and NGOs to provide health services
• It has established the National Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) to increase access to
health services to workers and self-employed persons
• The government has established medical training institutions to train health workers
• It has also established medical research institutes such as the Kenya Medical Research
Institute to undertake research on all types of diseases
• It has employed health workers to provide medical services to the citizens

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• The government has recognized the use of herbal medicine in the treatment of various
ailments
• It has subsidized the cost of health services through cost sharing and even introduced free
maternity services in public health institutions
• It educates the people on health related matters
Challenges facing health services in Kenya
The following factors have undermined the provision of health services by the government of
Kenya:
• Inadequate funding by the government which has resulted into the provision poor
services
• High population growth rate has limited government ability to finance health services
• The spread of HIV/AIDS , COVID-19 and the increased number of terminal diseases has
led to the diversion of resources from core health services
• Corruption in the health sector has compromised the delivery of health services
• High poverty levels among the people coupled with ineffective National Hospital
Insurance Programme has hampered access to medical services due to the cost involved
• High rate of accidents and injuries especially on roads have strained health facilities
• The continued pollution of the environment has led to increased ailments thereby
undermining government efforts in the provision of health services
• Lack of enough medical personnel due to brain drain has compromised the quality of
health services provided
• Retrogressive cultural practices have frustrated government efforts to provide health care
• Poor payment of health workers have led to prolonged industrial unrest thereby affecting
their morale
Development of Culture and Sports
Culture is a people's way of life. It is expressed through drama, art, music, painting, sculptures
and dance. The government of Kenya has promoted the culture of the people of Kenya in the
following ways:
• It has established the ministry of culture to promote Kenyan cultural diversity
• It has included some aspects of cultural studies in the curriculum such as music, drama,
art and craft which are taught in schools
• It has encouraged people to take part in cultural festivals and traditional dances and
organizing Music and Drama festivals by schools
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• The government has established cultural Heritage Centres such as the Bomas of Kenya
and National Museum of Kenya
• The government has licensed vernacular radio stations which enhances the culture of the
people
• It has encouraged the production and marketing of traditional hand work in painting and
sculpture
• Establishment of the Permanent Presidential Commission on Music (PPCM) to promote
Kenya's rich folk music and dance
Sports
Kenya participates in all major sports like athletics, football, rugby, cricket, hockey, volleyball
and motor sports.
The major developments in sports since independence includes:
• Creation of the ministry of sports to co-ordinate all sporting activities in the country
• Expansion of sporting facilities for instance construction of new sports stadia such as the
Nyayo National Stadium and the Moi International Sports Centre, Kasarani
• The government has encouraged communities to take part in traditional sports such as
bull fighting
• The country has participated in international sports competitions such the Olympics,
Commonwealth and the World Athletics Championships where it has won several medals
• The country has also hosted a number of international sports events such as the All Africa
Games in 1987 and the World Junior Athletics in 2017.
Challenges Facing Culture and Sports
The following factors have undermined government efforts in the promotion of culture and
sports:
• Inadequate facilities for games and sports especially in the rural areas
• Corruption and embezzlement of funds for the development of culture and sports
activities has demoralized sportsmen and women
• Inadequate funds to enhance cultural programmes thereby exposing it to politicization
• Piracy of local artistes' works has denied them revenue
• Poor renumeration especially to those involved in music, drama, theatre and sports.
• Exploitation on royalty payments especially in the music industry, art and drama

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REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1992 Q27
a) Give five reasons why some districts in Kenya are more economically
developed than others
b) Describe the functions of district development committee

2. 1996 Q4
a) What three factors have facilitated the formation of many political
parties in Kenya since 1991? (3marks)

b) Explain six changes which have taken place in Kenya as a result

of the introduction of multi-party democracy since 1991? (12marks)

3. 1996 Q11
Give two reasons why the District Focus for Rural Development was
established in Kenya. (2marks)

4. 1997 Q 12
Identify two causes of division within the opposition political parties in
Kenya since 1992. (2 marks)

5. 1999 Q2a
(a) What are the benefits of the policy of District Focus for Rural
Development in Kenya? (5 marks)

6. 2001 Q14
Identify one achievement of the District Focus for Rural Development
Strategy (1 mark)

7. 2001 Q21a
(a) In what five ways has the government attempted to preserve cultural
heritage in Kenya since independence? (5 marks)

8. 2003 Q11
State two provisions of the independence constitution of Kenya. (2 marks)

9. 2003 Q14
Give two reasons why the district focus for Rural Development was
adopted as a development strategy in Kenya. (2 marks)

10. 2003 Q19

(a) What factors led to the development of multi- party democracy in Kenya
in the early 1990’s? (3 marks)
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(b) Explain how the existence of many parties has promoted democracy
in Kenya. (12 marks)

11. 2004 Q 23b

Discuss the factors that led to the introduction of many political
parties in Kenya in 1992. (12 marks)

12. 2010 Q21a

State three ways in which the government of Kenya facilitated the
acquisition of land for Africans after 1963. (3 marks)

13. 2012 Q21 P1

(a) State five ways in which the Government of Kenya has improved
the health of its citizens since independence. (5marks)
(b) Explain five factors which have undermined the provision of services
by the Government of Kenya. (10marks)

14. 2013 Q9 P1
Give one way in which the construction of the Uganda railway speeded
up the Colonization of Kenya. (1mark)

15. 2014 Q15, P1

Give one reason for the adoption of Harambee strategy in Kenya after
independence.
(2 marks)
16. 2014 Q16 P1
Identify two types of land ownership in Kenya. (2 marks)

17. 2014 Q21 P1

(a) State three challenges that have undermined government efforts to
eradicate Illiteracy in Kenya since independence. (3 marks)

(b) Discuss six factors that have facilitated industrialization in Kenya

Since independence. (12 marks)

18. 2015 Q15 P2

Identify two principles of the Arusha Declaration of 1967. (2 marks)
19. 2015 Q22 P1
(a) Give three factors that led to the introduction of multi-party democracy
in Kenya in the early 1990s. (3 marks)

(b) Describe six achievements of multi-party democracy in Kenya. (12 marks)

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 DEVOLVED GOVERNMENT
Meaning of Devolution
Devolution refers to the deligation of certain powers and responsibilities to lower levels of
government according to the constitution.
Objectives of Devolution of Government
The following are the objectives of devolution in Kenya:
• To promote democratic exercise of power
• To promote national unity in the country
• To empower the people to participate in decision making
• To protect the interest of the minority or marginalized groups
• To promote equitable development in the country
• To take services closer to the people
• To decentralize state organs and functions from the capital
• To enhance checks and balances or accountability in the exercise of power
Principles of Devolved Government
The following are the principles of the devolved governments:
The County government shall:
• Be based on democratic principles and separation of powers
• Have reliable sources of revenue to enable it govern and deliver services effectively
• Ensure gender balance in their representative bodies, thus not more than two thirds of the
members shall be of the same gender.
Structure and Functions of County Governments
The county government consists of:
a) The County Assembly
b) The County Executive Committee
The County Assembly
It is the legislative arm of the County. It is elected to serve a term of five years.
Composition of the County Assembly
It comprises of:
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• Elected Members from wards
• Nominated Members
• The Speaker, who is ex-officio member
Functions of the County Assembly
The County Assembly performs the following functions:
• It makes and amends laws of the county
• It provides oversight over the County Executive Committee and any other county
executive organs
• It receives and approves plans and policies for management and exploitation of the
county's resources
• It approves policies for the development and management of the county's infrastructure
and institutions
• It may summon any person to appear before it for the purpose of giving evidence or
information
Process of Law Making in the County
The County Assemblies are required to abide by the following principles while making laws:
• The laws they make should not be in conflict with laws made by the National Assembly
since national interest prevail over county interests.
• The County Assembly should conduct its business in an open manner, and hold its
sittings and those of its committees in public
• The County assembly should facilitate public participation and involvement in the
legislative and other businesses of the Assembly.
• The County Assembly should not exclude the public or media from any sitting unless in
special circumstances
NB: The legislative process in the County Assembly involves the following:
• Preparation of an Annual Legislative Programme
• Issuing of Drafting Instructions
• Preparation of Bills and their Circulation
• Involvement of the People in the Stakeholder Consultations
• Approval by the Executive
• Introduction to the County Assembly
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• Approval of Bills by relevant Committee
• Amendments before the Assembly
• Debate and Passage
• Gazettement and Implementation
The County Executive Committee
It is the body that formulates and implements policies and programmes of the County
Government. It is headed by the Governor.
Composition of the County Executive Committee
It comprises of:
• The County Governor
• The Deputy County Governor
• Members appointed by the Governor with the approval of the County Assembly who are
not Members of the Assembly.
Powers and Functions of the County Governor
• He/she is the chief executive of the County Government
• Appoints members of the County Executive Committee following the approval of the
county Assembly
• Acts as a link between the County and the National governments
• He/she assents to bills passed by the County Assembly
• He/ she nominates candidates for election of Deputy County Governor
• Implements the policies of the National and County governments in the county
• Submits to the County Assembly an annual report on the implementation status of the
county policies plans
• Submits to the County Assembly plans and policies for approval
• He/she is a member of the County Executive Committee
• He/she represents the county in national events
Functions of the Deputy County Governor
The Deputy County Governor performs the following functions:
• He/she is the deputy chief executive of the county government

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• Acts as the County Governor when the Governor is absent
• He /she is a member of the county executive committee
• May take over the role of Governor in the event of the Governor being impeached,
incapacitated or dying in office
Functions of the County Executive Committee
The County Executive Committee performs the following functions:
• The committee implements county legislation
• The committee implement national laws in the county
• It prepares bills for consideration by the County Assembly
• It manages and co-ordinates the functions of the county administration and its
departments
• It provides full and regular reports to the County Assembly on matters relating to the
county
Functions of the County Government in Kenya
The County government performs the following functions:
• It develops agriculture in the areas of crop production and animal husbandry by
facilitating plant and animal disease control, provision of livestock sale yards and construction
and maintenance of county abattoirs.
• Development of fisheries through regulation of fishing and fishing activities and
promotion of fish farming
• Provision of health services through construction of county health facilities, vaccination
and immunization programmes
• Provides refuse and solid waste disposal services, cemeteries, crematoria and licensing of
premises which sells food
• It regulates and controls air, water and noise pollution and other public nuisances and
outdoor advertising
• It provides recreational facilities such as sports stadia, county parks and beaches, social
halls, libraries and Museums.
• It regulates cultural activities through licensing of betting casinos, cinemas, video shows
and theatre groups
• Regulation and development of trading activities through provision of trade licenses,
markets and trade fairs

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• Provision and management of primary education, vocational education, polytechnics and
child care centers
• Management and development of county transport through construction of county roads,
street lighting, traffic and parking, ferries and harbours.
Relationship between the County and National governments
The National and County governments complement each other in the following ways:
• There is mutual respect in the performance of their functions and exercise of their powers
• They assist, consult and support as appropriate
• They implement legislation of the other level of government
• They set up mechanism for settling disputes
• They liase for purposes of exchanging information and coordinating policies to enhance
capacity They co-operate in the performance of their functions by setting up joint committees
• The National government has powers to intervene in a County if the county is unable to
perform its functions
• The National Government, through the president may suspend the County Government
• In case of a conflict, national legislation prevails over county legislation
Challenges facing the County Governments
The following factors have undermined the performance of County Governments in Kenya:
• High population growth rate has stretched the available resources
• Poor transport and communication network in some counties hinders movement of goods
and services
• Inadequate funds makes it difficult for them to meet all their financial obligations
• Delays in the remittance of funds by the National Government hampers the smooth
running of the operations of the County governments
• Interference in their operations by the National government slows down service delivery
• Rivalry and wrangling among the leaders in the county undermines the government
operations
• Inadequate skilled personnel in some key departments hampers provision of services
• Widespread corruption and embezzlement of funds slows down development in the
counties

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• Natural calamities in some counties leads to diversion of some resources to address the
emergencies such as flooding and drought
• Duplication of roles between the county government and the National government leads
to conflicts and wastage of resources
• Tribalism and favouratism in employment creates conflicts and misunderstanding among
the communities living in the county
• Increase in the number of street families poses a threat to the security in the counties
• Over-employment in counties has resulted into bloated wage bills at the expense of
development
Possible Solutions to challenges facing the County Government
• Diversification of sources of revenue for the county governments
• Undertaking capacity building to improve the skills of personnel in the County through in
service training
• Establishing disaster management committees and early warning system to mitigate
against natural calamities
• Providing conducive environment for investment to attract investors by giving the
incentives
• Strengthening the fight against corruption and stressing on prudent use of resources
• Harmonizing the relationship between County and National governments to minimize
conflicts
PUBLIC REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE IN KENYA
Meaning of Public Revenue
It refers to money which the government raises from various sources.
Meaning of Public Expenditure
It refers to the money which the government spends on its operations and development.
Principles of Public Revenue and Expenditure
Public Revenue and Expenditure is guided by the following guidelines:
• Transparency and accountability, including public participation
• Fair sharing of the burden of taxation
• Equitable of revenue raised nationally among the National and County governments

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• Sharing the burdens and benefits of the use of resources and public borrowing equitably
between present and future generations
• Prudent and responsible use of public revenue
• Special provisions to cater for marginalized groups and areas thereby promoting
equitable development of the country
• Responsible financial management accompanied by clear fiscal reporting.
The National Budget
Meaning
It refers to the estimate of government revenue and expenditure within a financial year.
Components of the National Budget
The National budget includes the following:
• The amount of revenue the government requires and hopes to raise
• The various sources from which the government hopes to raise revenue
• The projects on which the government intends to spend the revenue in that particular
financial year
Stages of the budget Making Process
The budget making process goes through the following stages:
• Each government ministry or department prepares its estimates
• The ministries estimates are forwarded to the Treasury or Ministry of finance
• The Ministry of Finance compiles the estimates into the proposed budget
• The proposed budget is discussed by the Cabinet
• The Cabinet Secretary for Finance submits the proposed budget to the National Assembly
what is referred to as the Budget Policy Statement(BPS) two months before the end of financial
year
• The National Assembly considers the estimates through the House Budget Committee
• The Committee seeks the views of the Public under what is referred to as Public
Participation
• The Committee makes its recommendations to the National Assembly
• The government announces the budget day
• The proposed budget is then read in Parliament by the Cabinet Secretary for Finance

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• Parliament discusses, debates and approves the budget
NB: After the National Assembly approves the estimates, they will be included in an
appropriation bill. An appropriation bill is a legislative act proposing to authorize the expenditure
of public funds for specific purpose. The bill authorizes the withdrawal of money needed for the
expenditure from the Consolidated Fund and other funds.
Importance of the National Budget/ Reasons why the National Government prepares the National
Budget
The following are the importance of the National Budget:
• It enables the government to identify sources of revenue for its activities and programmes
• It enables the government to identify ways of spending revenue without any wastage
• It enables the government prioritize the development projects to finance in the coming
year
• It enables the government to explain to public the tax structure
• It provides valuable information to people interested in investing in the country such as
the Non-Governmental Organizations and Multi-National Companies
• It enables the government to educate the people on the economic situation in the country
• It enhances transparency and accountability on the side of the government in the eyes of
the public
• The government is able to assess its performance in the previous year and improve where
necessary
• It ensures that there is a balance in the country's revenue and expenditure hence avoiding
budget deficits
County Budget
Each county is required by law to prepare and adopt its own annual budget and appropriation
bill. The Controller of budget oversees the implementation of county budgets.
Sources of Public Revenue
a) The National Government
Revenue sources for the national government are broadly categorized into two:
• Internal or domestic sources
• External sources
Domestic /internal revenue sources
The following are the internal sources of revenue for the National government:
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• Imposition of direct taxes such as Income Tax also known as Pay As You Earn
• Imposition of indirect taxes such as Value Added Tax (VAT), excise duty and custom
duty
• Charges for the services offered by the National Government such as health, electricity
and water
• Fines charged in courts of law
• Sale of licenses such as trade and driving licenses
• Profits from parastatals and government share in companies
• Rent from government buildings
• Domestic borrowing through the sale of government bonds and treasury Bills
External Revenue Sources
• External borrowing or loans from financial institutions such as the World Bank, IMF,
ADB and donor countries
• Grants from friendly countries
• Donations from friendly countries
NB: The revenue collected by the national government is deposited into various funds or
accounts as dictated by the use for the funds. These funds are established by the constitution and
they include:
• The Consolidated Fund
• The Equalization Fund
• The Contingencies Fund
• Revenue Fund
The Consolidated Fund
This is a fund into which all the money raised or received by the national government is paid
with the exception of money set aside for specific purpose by an Act of Parliament or by State
organs to take care of their expenses. Withdrawals of money from the Consolidated Fund must
be approved by the National Assembly and the Controller of Budget.
The Equalization Fund
It contains 0.5% of all revenue collected nationally each year. It is used by the national
government to provide basic services such as water, roads, health facilities and electricity to
marginalized areas.

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The Contingencies Fund
It is established by an Act of Parliament to take care of emergencies for which there is no other
provision.
Revenue Funds
This is the fund into which all the revenue raised or received by the county government is paid,
except money excluded by an act of parliament.
Sources of Revenue for the county governments
The following are some of the sources of revenue for the County Governments in Kenya:
• Allocation from the National Government kitty
• Conditional and unconditional grants from the National government
• Profits from county investments
• Charges from services offered by the county such as parking fees
• Levying of taxes such as entertainment tax
• Property rates on county property
• Sale of licenses to businesses operating in the county
• Rent of the county government houses or buildings
• Internal or external borrowing from the national government or international
organizations to finance development projects
• Grants and donations from foreign governments, NGO's, corporate institutions,
humanitarian agencies and individuals
Expenditure of Public Revenue
There are two main types of Public expenditure. These are:
a) Capital Expenditure
b) Recurrent Expenditure
Capital Expenditure
This is money spent on new development projects during a particular financial year. It is incurred
only once in each project. Examples are construction of roads, dams, railways and educational
institutions.
Recurrent Expenditure
This refers to money spent on a regular basis throughout a given financial year such as payment
of salaries.
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National Government
The National Government spends money on the following:
Capital Expenditure
• Construction of national infrastructure, for example roads, railways and airports
• Financing national development projects like electricity generation and irrigation
schemes
• Construction of national referral health facilities
• Construction of higher education institutions like universities, polytechnics and national
schools
Recurrent Expenditure
• Payment of salaries and wages to government employees such as civil servants, teachers,
military personnel among others
• General repairs and maintenance of national infrastructure such as roads, bridges, airports
among others
• Servicing or repayment of both domestic and external debts
• Contribution to regional and international organizations such as COMESA, AU, UNO
and the Commonwealth
• Maintenance of Kenyan embassies abroad
• Establishment and maintenance of security organs
• Payment for social services like free maternal health care, free primary and secondary
education and cash transfers to the elderly.
• The government also gives grants to counties, parastatals and commercial banks.
Supplementary Expenditure
It arises when certain state departments (ministries) require more money than what was allocated
to them in the budget, necessitating additional funding to close the gap in the budget.
Such requests must be forwarded to parliament by the Cabinet Secretary for Finance for
approval.
County Government Expenditure
The County Government spends money on the following:
Development Expenditure
• Construction of infrastructure such as county roads and bridges
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• Construction of public amenities such as stadia, market stalls, boda boda sheds and health
centres
• Purchase of motor vehicles and equipment
• Construction of county facilities such as county abattoirs, livestock yards and markets.
• Provision of early childhood education development (ECDE) services like building
classrooms
Recurrent Expenditure
• Payment of wages and salaries to county government workers who provide services
within the county
• Repair and maintenance of county infrastructure such as roads, public amenities and
motor vehicles
• Purchase of medical facilities like drugs, medical supplies, stationery, fuels and lubricants
• Servicing or payment of loans borrowed to finance operations in counties
• Collection of refuse and solid waste disposal
• Provision of salaries or sponsoring needy students for further studies
• Financing sporting and cultural activities which take place in the counties
• Payment of subscription fee to inter-county associations in order to sustain their
operations
Management of Public Finance
The government has taken the following steps to ensure efficient utilization of revenue both at
the national and county levels
Measures taken by the National Government to ensure Public funds are well spent
• Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control and transparency. It monitors
utilization of public funds.
• The Controller of the budget supervises the implementation of the budget of the National
Government by authorizing withdrawals from public funds such as the Consolidated Fund
• The Auditor General audits the accounts of all government and State organs and submits
a report to parliament. This ensures public money is spent only on projects contained in the
budget
• The government has established a system of open tendering for procurement and disposal
of goods and services to reduce loss of public funds through unprocedural procurement methods

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• The government has established the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission to
investigate and recommends for prosecution of public officers who embezzle and mismanage
public funds.
• The Principle Secretaries are accountable to the National Assembly for financial
management within their ministries
• The Cabinet Secretary for Finance has the power to temporarily stop transfer of funds to
a state organ in the event of mismanagement
• The cabinet secretary in charge of finance reports to the relevant committee of parliament
on the amount of debt, use, servicing and progress of repayment.
Measures taken to ensure County Government Funds are well spent
• The Controller of the Budget supervises the implementation of the County Budget and
approves withdrawals from the County Revenue Fund.
• The Governor is accountable to the County Assembly for financial management within
the county
• The Auditor General audits the accounts of the county governments and submit audit
report to the county assembly and the Senate
• Money borrowed by a County Government must be guaranteed by the National
Government and approved by the County Assembly
• Parliament passes legislation to ensure expenditure control and transparency in the
County Government and also establishes mechanism for its implementation
• The Cabinet Secretary for finance may temporarily stop money due to a County
Government to prevent mismanagement.
• There is established a system of open tendering for procurement and disposal of goods
and services in the counties.
• The Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission investigates and recommends for
prosecution of public officers who misappropriate funds within the counties.
NB: The following financial officers play crucial roles in the management of public finance both
at the county and national level:
The Controller of Budget
The Controller of Budget is nominated and appointed by the President with the approval of the
National Assembly for a non- renewable term of 8 years. Such a person must have extensive
knowledge and experience in auditing public finance and management.
The Controller of Budget performs the following functions:

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• He/she oversees the implementation of the budgets of the national and county
government
• He/she authorizes withdrawals from the public funds such as Equalization, Consolidated
and Revenue funds
• He/she ensures that the withdrawals are lawful
• Submits to parliament reports on implementation of the budget
• He/she checks or monitors use of public funds
• He/she advises the government on budgeting
• He/she arbitrates or mediates between the county and national government on budget
disputes or division of revenue
The Auditor-General
He/she is nominated and appointed by the President with the approval of the National Assembly
for a nonrenewable term of 8 years. Such a person must have experience in auditing or public
finance management.
The Auditor -General is expected to audit and report on the following within six months after the
end of each financial year:
• The national and county government accounts
• The accounts of all funds and authorities of national and county governments
• The accounts of all courts
• The accounts of every commission and independent office established by the constitution
• The accounts of the National Assembly, Senate and County Assemblies
• The accounts of political parties funded from public funds
• The public debt
• The accounts of any entity funded from public funds
The audit report is used to confirm whether or not public money has been used lawfully and in an
effective manner.
The audit report is then submitted to Parliament or relevant county assembly for consideration.
Commission on Revenue Allocation (CRA)
It is established by the Constitution of Kenya 2010. It is composed of nine members who have
extensive professional knowledge and experience in financial and economic matters.
It comprises of:
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• A chairperson appointed by the President and approved by the National Assembly.
• Two persons nominated by the political parties represented in the National Assembly
• Five persons nominated by political parties represented in the Senate
• The Principle Secretary in the Ministry of Finance
Functions of the Commission on Revenue Allocation
• It makes recommendations on the equitable sharing of revenue raised by National
Government between the national and county government.
• It recommends sharing revenue among the county governments
• It makes recommendations on other matters concerning financing and financial
management by county governments
• It defines and enhances the revenue sources of the County and the National governments
• It determines and regularly reviews the criteria by which to identify the marginalized
areas
• It submits its recommendations to the Senate, the National Assembly, the National
Executive, County Assembly and county executives.
REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1999 Q23
(a) What services are provided by county councils in Kenya? (5 marks)
(b) How do county councils raise funds for their operations? (10 marks)

2. 2015 Q 24 P1

(a) State three ways in which the National Government relates with
the county Governments. (3 marks)

(b) Explain six challenges faced by the county governments in Kenya. (12 marks)

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THE ELECTORAL PROCESS AND THE FUNCTIONS
OF GOVRNMENT IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD

The United States of America

The USA is a federal government comprising of 50 states. She attained her political
independence from Britain on the 7th of July 1776.
A federal government is the system where several states retain autonomy but accepts an external
central authority.
The USA system of government is a representative democracy meaning that the officials are
elected by the citizens to manage the affairs of the government.
The Electoral Process in the United States of America
There are two types of elections in the USA namely; General Elections and By-Elections
General Elections
There are four categories or levels of elections in the USA namely; Presidential Elections;
Election for the Governors; Elections for the Senate and Elections for the House of
Representatives.
Presidential Elections
Presidential elections are held after every four years. Americans both home and abroad vote on
or before the election date.
Political parties carry out pre-election nominations (political Parties Primary election) for their
presidential candidates
The main political parties in the USA are The Democratic Party and The Republican Party
Party conventions are held before July to confirm the winner of the primary elections as the party
candidate.
The presidential candidate picks a running mate who becomes the vice president if they win
elections.
There are also independent candidates who are not affiliated to any political party and sponsor
their own campaigns
Political parties sell their policies through the mass media as well as participating in public
debates with other party candidates.
Elections are both direct and indirect meaning that the winner is determined by the Electoral
College. This is a body with members chosen from all the states. To win the election, a candidate
must receive a majority of the electoral votes.
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If no candidate receives a majority, the House of the Representatives chooses the president and
the senate chooses the vice-president.
Presidential election disputes are heard and determined by the Supreme Court .
Voter Registration
A voter must meet the following qualifications to register:
• Must be an American citizen
• Must be 18 years of age or above
Qualifications for a presidential candidate in the USA
A presidential candidate must meet the following requirements:
• Must be a USA citizen by birth
• Must be 35 years of age and above
• Must have lived in the USA for at least fourteen years
• Must be of good moral conduct or good moral character
• Must be sponsored by a political party or run as an independent candidate
Functions of political parties in the United States of America
• Political parties make the electoral politics coherent so that candidates do not operate as
their own agents thus eliminating disorder
• The party symbols helps voters sort through the candidates, as parties usually stand for
different principles and policies
• Political parties are accountable to the electorate if their policies fail
• Parties help to put the desires of the people on the government policy agenda
• Political parties provides outlets for citizens to express their sentiments about nominees
• Political parties also sponsor candidates for public office
Congressional elections
The congress refers to the parliament of the USA. It is made up of two houses, the Senate and the
House of Representatives.
The Senate (the Upper House)
It comprises of 100 senators, two representing each state. Senators are elected to serve for six-
year term.

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Qualifications for a senator
• Must be a USA citizen for at least nine years
• Must be 30 years and above
• Must be a resident of the state that one wishes to represent
House of Representatives (Lower House)
It is made up of four hundred and thirty seven members. Members are elected after every four
years
Qualifications for a Member of the House of Representatives
• Must be a citizen of the USA for not less than seven years
• Must be at least twenty five years old and above
• Must be a resident of the state that one wishes to represent
• Must be nominated by a political party or an independent candidate
Election of State Governors
Every state is headed by a Governor who is the chief executive of the state. Governors are
elected after every four years.
Functions of the Government of the United States of America
The federal government of the USA comprises of the Legislature, the Executive and the
Judiciary.
The Legislature
The legislature consists of two houses; the Senate and the House of Representatives. Both are
also known as the Congress.
Functions of the USA Congress
The congress performs the following functions in the USA:
• It makes laws that governs the nation
• It also amends the constitution, when necessary, but with the approval of the individual
states
• It controls the Federal government's revenue and expenditure by approving taxation
measures and making sure that the government expenditure is properly use and accounted for
• The Senate approves treaties with foreign nations
• It approves the appointments of senior civil servants made by the president

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• The congress closely monitors the conduct of the president, vice president and other
senior public officials, and can impeach them
• It can appoint commission of Inquiry to investigate any problem of national concern
• it reflects the collective aspiration and interest of the American people
The Executive
It comprises of the President, the Vice President, the Cabinet and the Civil Service.
The President
The president is the leader of the federal govt of the USA. The president performs the following
functions:
a) Legislative functions
• The president formulates policies which guide members of the Congress in their activities
• The President may propose new Bills for debate by the Congress
• The President assents/ veto bills passed by the Congress before they become laws
b) Executive functions
• The President is the head of state and government
• The President is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and may declare war with
the approval of the Congress
• The President appoints senior civil servants and cabinet secretaries with the approval of
the Senate
• He also chairs Cabinet meetings
• He may grant clemency to convicted persons
c) Foreign affairs
• He makes treaties with foreign nations with the approval of the Senate
• He receives all visiting heads of state and other foreign dignitaries
• The President receives ambassadors accredited to the United States of America
Checking the Powers of the USA President
The powers of the USA president are controlled in the following ways:
• Presidential nominees to various positions must be approved by the Congress
• The Congress may impeach the president if his conduct is unconstitutional

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• The presidential term of office is limited to two four year terms by the constitution
• The Supreme court may declare an action or decision of the president to be
unconstitutional hence rendering such action invalid
• Congress approves government expenditure for foreign policy, for example war
• The mass media checks the powers of the president by closely monitoring his actions and
speeches
• Public opinion through opinion polls also checks his actions and is used to reflect the
wishes of American people
• Pressure groups such as religious organizations and civil societies also check on the
powers of the President by disapproving decisions which they consider wrong.
The Vice-President
The vice-president performs the following functions:
• He/she is the principal assistant of the president, he or she performs any duty assigned by
the president
• He /she succeeds the president in the event of death, resignation or impeachment
• Serves as a link between the presidency and the Congress by chairing Senate meetings
and votes in the event of a tie
• Advises the president on matters of security
• He or she supervises the work of government departments
• He/she reviews federal regulations affecting business activities
Circumstances that may make a vice-president assume presidency in the USA
• When the sitting president dies
• If the president becomes incapacitated
• When the president resigns
• When the president is removed or impeached.
The Civil Service
The civil service performs the following functions:
• It implements government policies and programmes
• It interprets and explains government policies to the people
• It maintains or keeps government records

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• It collects government revenue
• It advises the government on matters of policy
• It formulates or draws development plans and government budget
• It provides continuity in government service between one general election and the next
after general elections
The Judiciary
The Judicial system is divided into two distinct courts:
a) Federal Courts
b) State Courts
Federal Courts
They have jurisdiction over the whole country. They are made up of the Supreme Court, Circuit
courts, Court of Appeal, District Courts, Court of claims and Court of Custom.
The Supreme Court
It is made up of nine judges appointed by the president with the approval of the Congress. It
performs the following functions:
• It settles disputes between the president and the Congress and also between the federal
and state governments
• It acts as a constitutional court by interpreting the constitution when disputes arise
• It hears cases involving disputes between diplomats and between state governments
• It hears appeals relating to maritime activities and shipping
• It listens to legal disputes beyond state or national boundaries for instance disputes with
other foreign governments
State Courts
Each state has its own state courts. Their jurisdiction is limited to the individual state
constitutions. Judges of state courts are elected by the people of the state for short durations.
NB: The Congress, the Presidency and the Judiciary works separately under the principle or
doctrine of separation of powers, meaning that none of the three arms of Government interfere
with the functioning of the other.
Functions of the Federal Government of the United States of America
The federal government of the USA performs the following functions:

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• It is in charge of foreign policy hence defines United States relations with the rest of the
world
• It settles disputes involving the different states of the union in order to maintain harmony
in the federation
• It regulates trade with foreign nations and federal states in line with its foreign policy
• It provides a common defense of the United States of America from external aggression
• It establishes federal courts which administer justice across the country
• It declares war when need arises in order to protect its interests
• It issues currency and regulates its value
• It pays foreign debts or loans owed to other nations and financial institutions
• It admits new states into the Union like Alaska which was the last state to be admitted
• It enacts laws which regulates the operations of the federal government
• It establishes the federal postal services in the USA
• It collects taxes in the various federal states
State Governments
State governments are headed by a Governor elected by the people within the state. Each state
government has a legislative, executive and judicial authority over its Geographical location.
Functions of state governments
State Governments performs the following functions in the USA:
• They maintain law and order using state police
• They make state laws using the state legislature
• They provide social amenities to citizens such as education, health and public works
• They administer justice by establishing state courts
• They generate revenue required to finance their operations
• They establish administrative structures such as counties, municipalities and townships
which provide services in rural areas
• They provide recreational facilities such as sports grounds
• They regulate trade within the states
Advantages of a Federal System of Government

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• It ensures that the interest of small states and minority groups are better protected
• It enables member states to benefit from the federal pool of resources
• It eases trade by eliminating custom duties and by use of a common currency
• Federalism enables several states to work as one political unit while at the same time
maintaining their separate identities
• The existence of a joint defense force ensures security for small states
• States are more able to tackle their common problems jointly rather than individually
such as terrorism, pollution, diseases, among others
• It enables states to have more economic viability since each state accesses the market in
other states thereby getting a wider market
• It enhances the political influence of the states as they come together and speak in one
voice.
Disadvantages of a Federal system of Government
• There may be temptation for states to secede when they are dissatisfied with the
Federation
• Inequitable utilization and allocation of resources may lead to disparities in states
development
• Diverse background and interest of the various states call for more tolerance from leaders
• A federal government is very complex and expensive to run than a unitary government
• It may result into diversity of legislation for instance the USA has different regional laws
on marriage, divorce among others hence causing conflicts and confusion

Britain
Britain has a parliamentary system of government. It also has an unwritten constitution.
However, there are various documents which are considered as sources of the British
Constitution such as:
• Historical documents such us the Magna Carter (1215AD)
• The Hansard which is the official verbatim reports of Parliament
• Acts of the British Parliament
• Case laws or decisions made by the British law courts from time to time
• Legal publications by reputable authorities such as scholars, lawyers, political thinkers
and statesmen

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• Conventions and Practices
The Electoral Process in Britain
There are two types of elections in Britain;
• General elections
• By- elections
General elections
General elections are held any time within five years. The electoral process affects members of
the house of Commons.
There are three main political parties in Britain namely;
• The Liberal Party, which draws its members from the rich
• The Labour Party, which is a party of the middle class especially workers
• The Conservative Party which is backed by nobles and the clergy
Elections are conducted by secret ballot on the basis of one man one vote
Candidates are sponsored by political parties. The party with the majority seats forms the
government upon the invitation of the King or Queen. The leader of the party with the majority
seats in parliament becomes the Prime minister and forms the government by making
appointment to the Cabinet, Civil Service and Foreign Affairs.
Voter Registration
It is conducted by local authorities and the following categories of people qualify to register as
voters:
• British citizens over the age of 18 years
• Commonwealth citizens who have resided in Britain for a period provided for by law
• Republic of Ireland citizens who have resided in Britain for a period provided by the law
Qualifications for parliamentary candidates
• Should be a British citizen or a Commonwealth subject or a citizen of the Republic of
Ireland
• He/she should be aged 21years and above
• He/she should be nominated by a political party or an independent candidate
NB: The following Category of Persons are disqualified from contesting for a constituency seat
in Britain;

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• The clergy of the Church of England or Scotland or Ireland or Roman Catholic Priests
• Members of the House of Lords
• Members of the Armed forces, judges, police officers or civil servants
• Persons declared bankrupt
• Persons who have committed electoral offence
Functions of Government in Britain
The most important institutions of the British government are:
• The Monarchy
• The Legislature
• The Executive
• The Judiciary
The Monarchy
The Monarchy in Britain is represented by the King or Queen.
Functions of the Monarch
• The Monarch assents to bills passed by parliament before they become laws
• He/she approves appointments to important state offices such as cabinet ministers,
judges, senior members of the armed forces and civil service
• He /she looks at foreign policy for instance approves treaties with other foreign nations
• The Monarch summons, prorogues and dissolve parliament in consultation with the
Prime Minister
• The Monarch has powers to pardon convicted offenders who have been accused of
committing various offences
• The Monarch appoints the Archbishop of the Church of England
• He /she bestows honours to deserving persons who have rendered distinguished service to
the state
• The Monarch is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces in which he or she inspires
unity and strength
• He/she nominates members of the house of Lords
• The Monarch is the symbolic head of the Commonwealth
Ways in which the institution of the Monarchy is important in Britain
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• It contributes to better understanding between Britain and other countries
• It provides continuity to the executive authority
• It is the symbol of Commonwealth unity
• It act as a useful counselor to the head of government
• It inspires the head of government with a sense of responsibility
• It sets the standard for social life
The Legislature
The legislature comprises of two houses namely; the House of Lords and the House of
Commons.
The House of Lords (the House of Peers or Upper House)
It is made up of Dukes, Barons, Princes, Lords and leaders of the Church of England. It meets in
the Palace of Westminster
Ways in which one may become a member of the House of Lords
• Appointment or nomination by the Monarch
• Through inheritance or heredity
• By virtue of holding some senior positions within the Church of England or the Lords of
Appeal
Functions of the House of Lords
The House of Lords performs the following functions:
• It assists the House of Commons in legislation of laws
• It sits as the final Court of Appeal for criminal cases
• Debates non-controversial bills when the House of Commons does not have time for
them
• Holding Bills from the House of Commons for long enough to seek public opinion or
approval
• Scrutinizes activities of the government in various ministries by questioning ministers
• It debates general issues of national importance
The House of Commons (Lower House)
It comprises of 650 elected members and the speaker. It also meets in the Palace of Westminster.
The leader of the House is the Prime Minister by virtue of his/her party having majority.

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Functions of the House of Commons
The House of Commons performs the following functions:
• It is a major legislative arm of government hence it makes and amends laws
• It approves government revenue and expenditure
• It controls the executive hence can pass a vote of no confidence in the executive
• It debates on matters of national interest therefore it calls for attention to abuses in
society and also demands the settlement of public grievances
• It act as a training ground for future leaders
The Doctrine of Parliamentary Supremacy
This means that parliament is the supreme and most powerful authority. Its powers override
those of the Head of State and other organs. This doctrine is highly regarded in Britain. It is
upheld in the following ways:
• Parliament is the only organ allowed to make and amend laws
• All the other organs of government, that is the Executive, the Judiciary and the Monarch,
operate under laws enacted by parliament
• Parliament is empowered to pass a vote of no confidence in the Executive
• Parliament must approve all government revenue and expenditure
• Members of Parliament have parliamentary immunity meaning that they cannot be
prosecuted based on their utterances inside parliament
• It controls security by declaring war and state of emergency
• Parliament is a representative institution composed of peoples representatives
Ways in which the Supremacy of parliament may be limited in Britain
• Parliament cannot make laws which overlook the moral values of the British society
• Decision made by the parliament must take into consideration public opinion
• Local authorities are empowered to make by-laws without consulting parliament
• It must consider the interest of institutions before making laws affecting them
• Legislations made by parliament may be changed by a future parliament
• International law is also taken into account when laws are made

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The Executive
The executive arm of government is made up of the Prime Minister, the Cabinet and the
Civil Service.
The Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is nominated by the electorates through the parties to serve for five years.
After elections, the leader of the party with the highest number of MPs becomes the Prime
Minister, and thus forms the government.
Functions of the Prime Minister
The Prime Minister performs the following functions in Britain:
• The Prime Minister is the head of government or the Chief Executive of the British
government
• He /she appoints and dismisses Cabinet Ministers with the consent of the Monarch
• The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings
• He/she is the leader of the House of Commons
• He/she recommends to the Monarch the appointment of senior civil servants such as the
Chief Justice, High Commissioners
• He/she is the leader of the party that nominates him/her
• The Prime Minister initiates both domestic and foreign policy
• He/she settles disputes between various government ministries or departments
• The Prime Minister represents Britain in international for a
• He /she oversees the implementation of cabinet decisions by various departments
The Cabinet
Members are appointed by the Prime Minister from the legislature with the approval of the
Monarch.
Functions of the Cabinet in Britain
The Cabinet performs the following functions in Britain:
• The Cabinet is the highest decision making body in the country
• It initiates most legislation and controls the legislative process
• It formulates, controls and implement political policy of the government
• It co-ordinates implementation of government programmes in the various departments

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• The cabinet advises the Prime Minister on various matters of the government
NB: The cabinet in Britain operates under the guidance of the following Conventions and
Principles:
• Members of the Cabinet are collectively responsible for all decisions and actions of the
Cabinet
• A government that is defeated on a major issue or on a vote of no confidence is expected
to resign
• The Cabinet in Britain is drawn from the House of Commons and the House of Lords
• Except during a crisis or war the entire Cabinet comes from the same political party
• The advice offered by the Cabinet must be accepted by the Monarch, failure to which a
crisis can occur
• All members of the Cabinet take the oath of the privy councilors and are bound by this
and the Official Secrets Act.
The Civil Service
It comprises of government workers in various departments in a variety of activities. The Civil
Service performs the following functions in Britain:
• It advises the Ministers on formulation of government policy and decision making
• It implements government policies and programmes
• It provides continuity in government service following general election
• It maintains or keeps government records
• It interprets and explains government policies to the people
The Judiciary
Britain has an independent judiciary as a branch of government. The independence of the
Judiciary is guaranteed through the following:
• Judges are not political appointees
• The salaries of judges are not open to discussion by Parliament
• A judge can only be sacked through a resolution from both houses of Parliament
• Judges are appointed based on good behavior until retirement at the age of 75 years.
The Court System in Britain
The British judiciary is made up of a hierarchy of court system comprising of : the Supreme
Court, the Court of Appeal, the High Court, Crown Court, County Courts, Magistrate's Courts
and Tribunals.
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The Supreme Court
It is the highest court of appeal for all civil and criminal cases.
Court of Appeal
It is an appellate court. It has a civil division which hears appeals from the crown court and a
criminal division which listens to appeals from the High Court, tribunals and county courts.
High Court
It has three divisions, the Queen's bench, family division and chancery division
Crown Court
Listens to more serious criminal offences such as murder, rape and threatening life and appeals
from Magistrate's Courts
Magistrate's Court
Conducts trials of less serious offences
Tribunals
These are special courts appointed by relevant ministries to settle disputes between a citizen and
relevant departments.
They hear appeals from decisions on immigration, social security, child support, pension, tax and
land. India
Introduction
India attained political independence from Britain in 1947. The political institutions outlined by
the constitution are inspired, to some extent, by the British parliamentary system.
India has a Federal system of government where power is divided between the Union
government and the state government.
The Electoral process in India
There are two types of elections in India; General Elections and By-elections.
During the General Elections, presidential, parliamentary and regional government elections are
held. Presidential and Parliamentary elections are held after every five years.
By -elections are held when a seat falls vacant.
There is an independent body that organizes and monitors elections in India.
Parliamentary Elections
The Union parliament is bicameral meaning it comprises of two houses namely the Council of
States (Rajya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha)
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The Council of States (Rjya Sabha)
It is the Upper House. It comprises of the elected members and nominated members.
Qualifications for election to the council of states
• Must be an Indian citizen
• Must be above the age of 30 years
• Must be a registered voter
• Must be a resident of the state in which one is contesting
The House of the People
It is the Lower House. Members are elected directly through universal adult suffrage and they
serve a term of five years.
A candidate for the House of the People must fulfill the following Conditions:
• Must be Indian citizen
• Must be above 25 years of age
• Must be a registered voter
Political Parties
Candidates are sponsored by any of the following political parties:
• The Congress party that led the country to independence
• The Bhartiya Janata Party (BJP) the current ruling party
• The Communist Parties of India
• Regional parties such as Akali Dal, the National Conference
Election of Prime Minister
The leader of the party with the majority of seats in the Lower House becomes the Prime
Minister. The Prime Minister- elect, swears and takes oath of office. He/she then appoints a
cabinet from the party or parties that form government.
Election of the President
The president is elected to serve a term of five years. A presidential candidate must fulfil the
following conditions to be elected president:
• He/she must be a citizen of India
• Must be aged 35 years and above

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• Should be qualified for election as a member of the House of the People
• Should not hold any office of profit under the government of India
• One must be nominated by a political party
Functions of Government of India
The Indian government comprises of three organs; the Legislature, the Executive and the
Judiciary.
The Legislature
The Legislature in India is bi-cameral. It comprises of two houses namely; the Council of States
(Rjya Sabha) and the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
Functions of Parliament in India
• It makes and amends the laws of the Union government
• It approves the Union government's revenue and expenditure
• It may prefer charges of impeachment against the president incase he/she violates the
constitution
• It has powers to declare highways or waterways to be national highways or
national waterways.
• It has powers to declare war and make peace with neighboring countries.
The Executive
The Executive comprises of the president, the Vice -president, the prime minister, the cabinet
and the civil service.
The President
The executive power is vested in the president who is elected for a five year term. The office of
the president though important is largely ceremonial.
Functions of the president of India
• The president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces
• The president appoints the prime-minister in consultation with parliament or calls the
leader of the winning party to form the government
• He appoints state governors, Supreme court judges, ambassadors and other senior
government officials
• He/she nominates the twelve members to the Council of States or the Upper House
• The president establishes special councils to arbitrate on inter-state disputes
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• He is a member of the legislature
• He/ she is the leader of the party that nominates him/her for elections
• He/she declares a state of emergency when national security is threatened
• The president Assents or Vetoes bills that have been passed by parliament
• He/she pardons convicted criminals
• He/she summons, prorogues and dissolves the Lower House of Parliament
The Prime Minister
The Prime Minister is the leader of the political party with majority seats in the Lok Sabha.
Functions of the Prime Minister in India
• The Prime Minister is the head of government
• The Prime Minister chairs Cabinet meetings
• Advises the President in the exercise of his/her functions
• He/she represents India in international for a
• He/she overseas the day to day functioning of the Union government by coordinating the
activities of various government departments
• He/she communicates to the president all decisions of the Council of Ministers
• He/she recommends persons for the award of civil honours
The Cabinet
The Cabinet or the Council of Ministers is headed by the Prime Minister, and comprises of him
and other Cabinet Ministers.
Functions of the Cabinet in India
• It formulates policy for the federal government in the provision of services
• It defends government policies and decisions both within and outside parliament
• It explains and overseas the implementation of government policies so as to ensure
service delivery to the people
• It approves all proposals for the legislative enactment of government policies that is
approving government bills before being taken to parliament
• It recommends all the major appointments made by the President in various sectors of the
government

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• It settles inter-departmental disputes in order to ensure harmonious working relations
between them
• It co-ordinates activities, programmes or functions of the departments in their respective
ministries
• It advises the President and the Prime Minister on various matters of government
The Civil Service
The Civil Service is under the Prime Minister who assigns a minister to head it. It performs the
following functions:
• It implements government policies and programmes
• It interprets and explains government policies to the people
• It maintains or keeps government records
• It advises the government on matters of policy
• It provides continuity in government service following a general election
• It provides essential services to the people in line ministries such as health and education
• It maintains law and order throughout the country
The Judiciary
India has an independent Judiciary headed by the Chief Justice appointed the President.
Structure of the Court System in India
The Supreme Court
It is the highest court in India. It comprises of the Chief Justice and 30 judges appointed by the
President.
It settles disputes between the Union government and State governments.
It also hears appeals from other lower courts
The High Court
Each state has its own High court.
The High court has original jurisdiction in the state
It hears appeals from lower courts
It also hears cases of serious crime such as murder

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District Court
It is the lowest of the ordinary courts and operates at the district level
Special Courts
They handle matters concerning welfare, taxation, commerce and industry.
Functions of the Judiciary
The Judiciary performs the following functions:
• It arbitrates in disputes between the federal government and the states
• It administers justice by listening to parties in dispute
• It interprets the constitution of India
• It protects the fundamental rights of the citizens which are guaranteed by the constitution
• It advises the Executive and the Legislature on constitutional issues if sought for
NB: India has a federal system of government hence power is shared out between the Union
government and the state government.
The union Government performs the following functions:
• It supervises the working of state governments
• It has powers to declare war, raise and maintain the armed forces
• It conducts diplomacy by signing treaties with foreign countries
• It regulates trade with other foreign countries
• It is in charge of national security
State Governments
State governments are headed by Governors appointed by the President. Each state also has its
own Legislative Assembly.
Functions of State Governments
• They enact laws for the state which should not contradict Union laws
• It maintains law and order within the state
• It provides and supervises education within the state
• It regulates trade or commerce in the state
• It constructs and maintains transport and communication network within the state.

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 REVISION QUESTIONS
1. 1990 Q 27
a) What arguments are advanced in favour of one party system of
government in the USSR?
b) Described the structure of the government in USSR?

2. 1991 Q 24
a) Give three reasons why Lenin introduced the New Economic policy in
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republic USSR.
b) Discuss six factors which have contributed to the emergence of the
USSR as an industrial power.

3. 1991 Q 27
a) List three ways through which a person may become a member of
parliament in Britain.
b) Explain how the doctrine of parliamentary supremacy is applied in
Britain
c) State four factors which may limit the supremacy of parliament in Britain.

4. 1992 Q 27
a) State five conditions that had to be fulfilled in order to become a
member of the communist party of the Union of Soviet Socialists Republic (USSR).
b) Explain how the USSR government was organized before the break
up of the union.

5. 1994 Q 6
a) State advantages of a federal system of government
b) Explain how the government of the US A is organized.
6. 1995 Q 7
a) State 3 ways in which a British citizen may become a member of parliament.
b) List six functions of the queen of Britain
7. 1996 Q 13
Name two houses of the British Parliament (2 marks)

8. 1997 Q 19
(a) What are the sources of the British Constitution? (3 marks)
(b) Describe how the government of the USSR was organized (12 marks)

9. 1999 Q 15
Identify the main difference between membership into the house of Lords
and the House of Commons in Britain (2 marks)

10. 1999 Q 24
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 (a) What role does the queen of England play in relation to the British
Government

(b) Describe the functions of the British parliament

11. 2000 Q 15
State one privilege which members of the British Parliament enjoy. (1 mark)

12. 2000 Q 23
(a) Describe the structure of the communist party in the union of Soviet
Socialist Republics (USSR) (3 marks)
(b) Discuss six criticisms that have been made against the communist party.
(12 marks)
13. 2001 Q 16
State two features of the government of France in the twentieth century.

14. 2002 Q 17
State the main reason why the USSR adopted a one-party system of government.
(1
mark)
15. 2002 Q 24
(a) Describe the functions of the president of the United States of
America (U.S.A)
(b) Explain how the system of government of the U.S.A works

16. 2003 Q 13
Give one function of the monarchy in Britain. (1 mark)

17. 2003 Q 23
(a) What are the features of stage government in the United States of
America? (3 marks)
(b) Explain six functions of the Federal government of the United
States of America. (12 marks)

18. 2004 Q 15
Identify one way in which a person may become a member of the
House of Lords in Britain. (1 mark)

19. 2005 Q 16, 17

16. Name the type of constitution used in Britain (1 mark)
17. Give one disadvantages of a federal system of government (1 mark)

20. 2006 Q 17
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 Who is the head of Government in India? (1 mark)

21. 2006 Q 23
a) Give three categories of the Prime Ministries in Britain? (3marks)
b) What are the duties of the prime Ministries in Britain? (12 marks)
22. 2008 Q 24
a) Give three conditions that one should fulfil in order to be elected
President of India. (3 marks)
b) Write down six functions of the president of India. (12 marks)
23. 2009 Q 17
Identify one house of congress in the United States of America. (1mark)

24. 2009 Q 24
(a) State three ways in which a person can become a member of Britain
Parliament
(b) Describe six duties of the monarch in Britain.
25. 2010 Q 17
Identify one parliamentary duty of the Monarch in Britain (1
mark)

26. 2011 Q 16
Name one major political party in the United States of America. (1 mark)

27. 2011 Q 17
Name one type of election held for the House of Commons in Britain. (1 mark)

28. 2012 Q24 P2

(a) Identify three categories of members of the Executive in the United
States ofAmerica. (3 marks)
(b) Describe six functions of the Federal Government of the United
States of America.
(12 marks)
29. 2014 Q24 P2
(a) State five responsibilities of the state governments it the United States
of America.
(5 marks)
(b) Explain five functions of the cabinet in India. (10 marks)

30. 2015 Q15-16 P2

13. Give two categories of persons who are disqualified from contesting
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for a constituency seat in Britain. (2 marks)

14. Name one house of parliament in India. (1 mark)

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