MODULE 3

Filtration of water

•Theory of filtration
•Types of filters
•Design of a rapid sand filter
Filtration
• The resultant water after sedimentation will not be pure,
and may contain some very fine suspended particles and
bacteria in it.
• To remove or to reduce the remaining impurities still
further, the water is filtered through the beds of fine
granular material, such as sand, etc.
• The process of passing the water through the beds of
such granular materials is known as Filtration.
How Filters Work: Filtration Mechanisms
There are four basic filtration mechanisms:
SEDIMENTATION : The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of
gravity and the associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes
it to cross the streamlines and reach the collector.
INTERCEPTION : Interception of particles is common for large
particles. If a large enough particle follows the streamline, that lies
very close to the media surface it will hit the media grain and be
captured.
BROWNIAN DIFFUSION : Diffusion towards media granules occurs
for very small particles, such as viruses. Particles move randomly
about within the fluid, due to thermal gradients. This mechanism is
only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.
INERTIA : Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast
enough to travel off their streamlines and bump into media grains.
Filter Materials
• Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size
of the sand is measured and expressed by the term called effective
size. The effective size, i.e. D10 may be defined as the size of the sieve in mm
through which ten percent of the sample of sand by weight will pass. The
uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is measured
and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The uniformity
coefficient, i.e. (D60/D10) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm
through which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective
size of the sand.
• Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the
filtered water to move freely to the under drains, and allows the wash water
to move uniformly upwards.
• Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthrafilt is used as
filter media. Anthrafilt is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-
stone that burns without smoke or flames. It is cheaper and has been able
to give a high rate of filtration.
Types of Filter
• Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by
gravel. They capture particles near the surface of the bed and
are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of sand that
contains the particles.
• Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported
by gravel and capture particles throughout the bed. They are
cleaned by backwashing water through the bed to 'lift out' the
particles.
• Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of
different granular materials, with different densities. Usually,
anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers
combined may provide more versatile collection than a single
sand layer. Because of the differences in densities, the layers
stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.
Principles of Slow Sand Filtration
• In a slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by
a combination of processes: sedimentation, straining,
adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
• During the first few days, water is purified mainly by
mechanical and physical-chemical processes. The resulting
accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin
layer on the sand surface, which remains permeable and
retains particles even smaller than the spaces between the
sand grains.
• As this layer (referred to as “Schmutzdecke”) develops, it
becomes living quarters of vast numbers of micro-
organisms which break down organic material retained
from the water, converting it into water, carbon dioxide and
other oxides.
• Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are
removed from the raw water as it passes through the
filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below.
The purification mechanisms extend from the filter skin
to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter bed,
gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the
water becomes purified and contains less organic
material.
• When the micro-organisms become well established,
the filter will work efficiently and produce high quality
effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying
organisms and biodegradable organic matter.
They are suitable for treating waters with low colors,
low turbidities and low bacterial contents
Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters
• Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and
30 to 75 cm in depth while in RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm
in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
• Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to
0.4 mm and uniformity coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or
3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55
and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
• Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200
L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in RSF it is large, such as 3000
to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
• Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in
demand whereas RSF are quite flexible for meeting
reasonable variations in demand.
• Post treatment required: Almost pure water is
obtained from SSF. However, water may be disinfected
slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a
must after RSF.
• Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the
top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to clean SSF. To clean
RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without
compressed air.
• Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial
loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit when cleaning is
required. For RSF 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to
3.5m is the final limit when cleaning is required.
Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter
• For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the
next filter run. If the water applied to a filter is of very good
quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some filters can operate
longer than one week before needing to be backwashed.
However, this is not recommended as long filter runs can cause
the filter media to pack down so that it is difficult to expand the
bed during the backwash.
• Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This
treated water is generally taken from elevated storage tanks or
pumped in from the clear well.
• The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and
agitate the filter media and suspend the floc in the water for
removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too high, media
will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the
filter.
When is Backwashing Needed
• The filter should be backwashed when the following
conditions have been met:
• The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces
water at the desired rate; and/or
• Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the
filter effluent increases; and/or
• A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.
Operational Troubles in Rapid Gravity Filters
Air Binding :
• When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water
percolating through the filter is generally very small. However, the loss of
head goes on increasing as more and more impurities get trapped into it.
• A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter
media exceeds the static head of water above the and bed. Most of this
resistance is offered by the top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand
acts like a vacuum, and water is sucked through the filter media rather than
getting filtered through it.
• The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and
other gases present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place which
stick to the sand grains. This phenomenon is known as Air Binding as the air
binds the filter and stops its functioning.
• To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss
exceeds the optimum allowable value.
• Formation of Mud Balls :
The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the
sand surface to form a dense mat. During inadequate
washing this mud may sink down into the sand bed and
stick to the sand grains and other arrested impurities,
thereby forming mud balls.
• Cracking of Filters :
The fine sand contained in the top layers of the filter bed
shrinks and causes the development of shrinkage cracks
in the sand bed. With the use of filter, the loss of head
and, therefore, pressure on thesand bed goes on
increasing, which further goes on widening these cracks.
Remedial Measures to Prevent Cracking of Filters
and Formation of Mud Balls
• Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing
off the particles.
• Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda.
• Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter
sand.
Standard design practice of Rapid Sand filter:
• Maximum length of lateral = not less than 60 times its
diameter.
• Spacing of holes = 6 mm holes at 7.5 cm c/c or 13 at 15
c/c.
• C.S area of lateral = not less than 2 times area of
perforations.
• C.S area of manifold = 2 times total area of laterals.
• Maximum loss of head = 2 to 5 m.
• Spacing of laterals = 15 to 30 cm c/c.
• Pressure of wash water at perforations = not greater
than 1.05 kg/cm2.
• Velocity of flow in lateral = 2 m/s.
• Velocity of flow in manifold = 2.25 m/s.
• Velocity of flow in manifold for wash water= 1.8 to 2.5
m/s.
• Velocity of rising washwater= 0.5 to 1.0 m/min.
• Amount of washwater = 0.2 to 0.4% of total filtered
water.
• Time of backwashing = 10 to 15 min.
• Head of water over the filter = 1.5 to 2.5 m.
• Free board = 60 cm.
• Bottom slope = 1 to 60 towards manifold.
• Q = (1.71 x b x h3/2)
where Q is in m3/s, b is in m, h is in m.
• L:B = 1.25 to 1.33:1 .
Disinfection
• The filtered water may normally contain some harmful
disease producing bacteria in it.
• These bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe
for drinking.
• DISINFECTION is the removal, deactivation or killing of
pathogenic organisms.
• A water treatment processes designed to destroy
disease-causing microorganisms. The efficacy of
disinfection is often assessed by measuring the coliform
group of indicator organisms.

• Purpose of DISINFECTION: To ensure that water is safe to

drink regardless on the method used.
COMMON MICROORGANISMS PRESENT IN WATER

BACTERIA – Escherichia coli, leptospira species,

salmonella, shigella and vibrio cholerae
PROTOZOA – Balantidium coli, Cryptosporidium,
Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia
VIRUSES – Entero viruses, Hepa A and Rota virus

HELMINTHS – Ascaris lumbricoides, T. solium,

Trichuris
• DISINFECTANTS USED IN WATER DISINFECTANTS USED FOR
CHEMICAL disinfection

Chlorine (Cl2)
Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)
Hypo chlorite (OCl )
Ozone (O3)
iodine (I)
Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)

• DISINFECTANTS USED FOR PHYSICAL disinfection

Ultraviolet Light (UV)
Sound (ultrasound)
Heat (boiling)
 CHLORINATION
What is CHLORINATION?
 Chlorination is the process of adding chlorine to drinking
water to disinfect it and kill germs.
 Chlorination is a cheap, effective, relatively harmless
(and therefore most popular) disinfection method.
 Chlorinated water can taste and smell different
compared to raw water.
 Chlorine and its compounds are the common chemical
disinfectants. They are quick in action. In the presence of
moisture chlorine is highly corrosive.
 Chlorine Gas
 Highly oxidizing, toxic, corrosive and hazardous
yellow-green gas
 Can be lethal to human beings at 0.1% (volume)
concentration
 Heavier than air and spreads slowly at ground level
 Effective against all types of microbes as both
primary and secondary disinfectant
 Chlorine handling requires specialized equipment,
care and skill
 A separate storage room should be provided.
Chlorinator installed in the rooms with direct
emergency access to outside air
 Self contained breathing apparatus and chlorine
cylinder repair kit must be readily accessible
(Masks, air tanks, chlorine detection devices etc.)www.tradeindia
.com
 Sodium Hypochlorite Solution
 Clear, slightly yellowish
solution with a characteristic
odor
 If stores for a long time,
it becomes inactive
 Same DBPs as chlorine gas
plus bromate and chlorate
formation

Sodium hypochlorite from American

Development Corporation
 Calcium Hypochlorite
 White granular solid (or tablets
compressed from the granules)
with an odor of chlorine
 Toxic, irritating to the skin
 Non-combustible, but will
accelerate the burning of
combustible materials.
 May explode from heat or
contamination
 powerful oxidizing agent,
particularly in the presence of
water or as it decomposes when
heated to release oxygen and Waterhelp
chlorine gases .org
 Chlorine Dioxide
 Denatures protein in bacteria
and viruses even more effectively
than chlorine
 Cannot be stored
 Must be produced on site
 Very soluble in water
 Does not react with NH-4
 Provides residual disinfection
 It may produce toxic chlorate
and chlorite
 Installation of filtration system is Feedwater.c
necessary before point of use o.uk
 OZONATION
 Ozone is a strong oxidant
 It is generated on-site at
water treatment facilities
by passing dry oxygen or
air through a system of
high voltage electrodes.
 Widely used in Europe
 More effective
against microbes
compared to
chlorination
 No taste and odor problems
 No residual disinfectant
 Difficult to monitor and control
www.koronaozon.pl
 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
 Damages DNA, inhibits
replication
 No known toxic by-products
 Effective against bacteriaand
viruses
 No disinfectant residual
 Water must have low turbidity
 Lamps must be free of slimes
and organic materials
 Difficulty in determining
dosage
Freshwatersyste
 No taste and odor m.com
 OTHER METHODS OF DISINFECTING WATER

 Boiling
- effective method for small batches of
water during water emergencies.
 Solar disinfection (SODIS)
 Bromine
 Iodine
 Chloramine
 Potassium Permanganate
 ultrasound
• Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) and hypochlorite (OCl-)ion compose
what is called the free chlorine residual.
• These free chlorine compounds can react with many organic and
inorganic compounds to form chlorinated compounds.
• If the products of these reactions posses oxidizing potential, they
are considered the combined chlorine residual.
• A common compound in drinking water systems that reacts with
chlorine to form combined residual is ammonia.
• Reactions between ammonia and chlorine form chloramines,
which is mainly monochloramine (NH2Cl), although some
dichloramine (NHCl2) and trichloramine (NCl3) also can form.
• Many drinking water utilities use monochloramine as a
disinfectant.‘
• If excess free chlorine exits once all ammonia nitrogen has been
converted to monochloramine, chloramine species are oxidized
through what is termed the breakpoint reactions.
The overall reactions of free chlorine and nitrogen can be
represented by two simplified reactions as follows:
Water Distribution Systems
• The purpose of distribution system is to
deliver water to consumer with appropriate
quality, quantity and pressure.
• Distribution system is used to describe
collectively the facilities used to supply water
from its source to the point of usage.
Requirements of Good Distribution System

1.Water quality should not get deteriorated in the distribution

pipes.
2.It should be capable of supplying water at all the intended
places with sufficient pressure head.
3.It should be capable of supplying the requisite amount of
water during fire fighting.
4.The layout should be such that no consumer would be
without water supply, during the repair of any section of the
system.
5.All the distribution pipes should be preferably laid one
metre away or above the sewer lines.
6.It should be fairly water-tight as to keep losses due to
leakage to the minimum.
• Layouts of Distribution Network
• The distribution pipes are generally laid below
the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads.
• There are, in general, four different types of pipe
networks; any one of which either singly or in
combinations, can be used for a particular place.
They are:
– Dead End System
– Grid Iron System
– Ring System
– Radial System
Dead End System:
• It is suitable for old towns and cities having no
definite pattern of roads.
Advantages:
• Relatively cheap.
• Determination of discharges and pressure easier
due to less number of valves.
Disadvantages
• Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water
occurs in pipes.

•
Grid Iron System:
• It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where
the water mains and branches are laid in rectangles.
Advantages:
• Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of
dead ends.
• In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is
available from some other direction.
Disadvantages
• Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to
provision of valves on all branches.
Ring System:
• The supply main is laid all along the peripheral
roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
• Thus, this system also follows the grid iron
system with the flow pattern similar in character
to that of dead end system.
• So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.
Advantages:
• Water can be supplied to any point from at least
two directions.
Radial System:
• The area is divided into different zones. The
water is pumped into the distribution
reservoir kept in the middle of each zone and
the supply pipes are laid radially ending
towards the periphery.
Advantages:
• It gives quick service.
• Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
Methods of Water Distribution
• For efficient distribution, it is required that water
should reach every consumer at the required rate
of flow.
• Therefore, the same pressure in the pipelines is
necessary which should force the water to reach
every place.
• The distribution systems can be classified as
follows:
– Gravity Flow System
– Pumping system
– Combined gravity and pumping system
Gravity flow system
• When the distribution reservoir is located at a higher
elevation than the target community; then water is supplied
with the gravity flow and such a system is called Gravity Flow
Water Distribution System.
• This method is much more suitable when the source is the
river or impounded reservoir at sufficient height than the
target community.
• Usually pumping water is not required at any stage of this
type of distribution.
• In hilly or high altitude regions, water supply is generally done
by the gravity method. There is no control of water pressure
in pipelines.
• Due to the high gradient, the velocity of water is also very
high. So, Break Pressure Tanks are built at suitable distances
to reduce the hydrostatic pressure in the pipe
Advantages of Gravity Flow Water Distribution System
1. No energy is required to operate the system as water is
conveyed by gravity.
2. No pump is required.
3. Economical for long-term use.

Disadvantages of Gravity Flow Water Distribution

System
1. Not applicable in plain or flat terrain where an
elevation source of water supply is not available.
2. Water loss by leakage is comparatively higher.
3. Requirement of break pressure tanks to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure in the pipelines
Pumping System
• In the pumping water distribution system, water is
supplied to the consumers with the help of pumps.
• Some extra pumps are also installed for emergency
causes like fire hazards, peak water demand, etc.
• This method is suitable if the source is at a lower
elevation than the target community.
• However, this system of distribution becomes very
expensive for long-term use.
• In this system, the water may be insufficient when the
power fails. So diesel pumps are also managed as an
alternative.
• This method has no problem with the pressure and
maintaining the head at the consumer’s tap
Advantages of Pumping Water Distribution System
1. Water can be pumped only when required.
2. Low water loss due to leakage.

iii. Disadvantages of Pumping Water Distribution

System
1. Break down of system may occur if power fails.
2. Maintenance and operation cost is high.
3. During pumping hours, the inflow of water
through leaks may cause water contamination.
Combined Gravity and Pumping System
• It is a combination of a gravity system and a
pumping system. So it is called the Dual
System.
• In this system, the treated water is pumped
and stored in an elevated reservoir, from
where it is supplied to the consumer by the
action of gravity.
Distribution-network analysis

The methods are:

1. Hardy Cross Method

2. Equivalent Pipe Method.
Hardy-Cross Method:
• In this method, the corrections are applied to the assumed
flow in each successive trial.
• The head loss in each pipe is determined by pipe flow
formula.
• The successive corrections are made in the flows in each pipe
until the heads are balanced and the principle of continuity is
satisfied at each junction.
• Now if Qa be the assumed flow in a pipe and Q be the actual
flow in that pipe, then correction will be given by the relation
If the head loss in the pipe under reference is H t, it can be determined by
the formula
• this equation the numerator is obtained by the algebraic
sum of the head losses in the various pipes of the closed
loop.
• As a common practice + ve sign is given to the head losses
in clockwise direction and – ve signs to those in the anti-
clockwise direction.
• The value of x is taken 1.85 (as per Hazen Williams formula)
or 2 (as per Manning’s/ Darcy’s formula) in this method
• The minor losses are usually neglected, although they can
be calculated by substituting an equivalent length of pipe.
• In case of network of pipes having many loops, the system
must be divided into two or more loops, such that each
pipe in the network is included in the circuit of one loop
For first correction

From loop BCDB

For first correction From ABDA
For second correction

After Ist
correction
For second correction
The corrected flow after second correction is plotted on pipe
network in the figure shown below
Equivalent Pipe Method
• Equivalent pipe is a method of reducing a combination of
pipes into a simple pipe system for easier analysis of a pipe
network, such as a water distribution system.
• An equivalent pipe is an imaginary pipe in which the head
loss and discharge are equivalent to the head loss and
discharge for the real pipe system.
• In this method a complex system of pipes is replaced by
single hydraulically equivalent pipe.
• Hydraulically equivalent pipe means it will have same
capacity.(Q)
• It will have same amount of head loss.(hf )
• When the pipes are connected in series, the total head loss
is equal to the summation of the individual head losses.
• When the pipes are laid parallel the head loss through the
parallel pipes(or set of pipes) will be the same
• The headloss through pipes in series , such as AB and BD are
additive ie (HL)ABD= (HL)AB+(HL)BD
• The headloss through pipes in parallel , such as ABD and ACD
are identical ie (HL)ABD = (HL)ACD
The headloss through pipes in series
(HL)ABD= (HL)AB+(HL)BD
𝑄 2
𝑓𝐿𝑉 𝑓𝐿( )2
16𝑓𝐿𝑄 2
𝐾𝐿𝑄 2
𝐾𝐿𝑄 𝑛
𝐻𝐿 = = 𝐴 = = =
2𝑔𝐷 2𝑔𝐷 2
2𝑔𝜋 𝐷 5 𝐷 5 𝐷𝑋
Hence n=2 and x=5
The length of equivalent pipe , for pipes AB and BD in
series given by the relation:
𝐿𝐸 𝐿1 𝐿2 5 𝐿1 𝐿2
= + , 𝐿𝐸 = 𝐷𝐸 〔 5 + 〕
𝐷𝐸5 𝐷15 𝐷25 𝐷1 𝐷25

𝑳
𝑳𝑬 = 𝑫𝑿
𝑬∑
𝑫𝑿
The headloss through pipes in parallel
(HL)ABD = (HL)ACD
𝐾𝐿𝑄 2
𝐻𝐿 =
𝐷5
𝐿1 𝑄1 2 𝐿2 𝑄1 2 𝐿3 𝑄2 2 𝐿4 𝑄2 2
5 + 5 = 5 +
𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3 𝐷4 5

𝐿3 𝐿4
+
𝑄1 𝐷35 𝐷45
=
𝑄2
𝐿1 𝐿2
5+ 5
𝐷1 𝐷2

Q1 = A Q2 ; Q = Q1+Q2 = Q2 (A+1)
If LE and DE are the properties of equivalent pipe AD, we get
𝐿𝐸 𝑄. 2 𝐿3 𝑄2 2 𝐿4 𝑄2 2
5 = 5 +
𝐷𝐸 𝐷3 𝐷4 5
𝐿𝐸 . 𝐿3 . 𝐿4 .
5 (𝐴 + 1)2 = 5 +
𝐷𝐸 𝐷3 𝐷4 5
𝑫𝟓𝑬 𝑳𝟑 𝑳𝟒
𝑳𝑬 = 𝟐
[ 𝟓 + 𝟓]
(𝑨 + 𝟏) 𝑫𝟑 𝑫𝟒
 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
𝐿𝐸 = 𝐷𝐸5 〔 5 + 5 + 5〕
𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3
300 400 500
𝐿𝐸 = (0.3)5. 〔 5+ + 〕
0.4 0.35 0.25
= 4268 m
TOTAL EQUIVALENT LENGTH = LE (AB)+ LE (BD)+LE(DF0
Equivalent legth for BD,
(HL)BCD = (HL)BED
𝐾𝐿𝑄 2
𝐻𝐿 =
𝐷5
𝐿2 𝑄1 2 𝐿3 𝑄1 2 𝐿4 𝑄2 2 𝐿5 𝑄2 2
5 + 5 = 5 +
𝐷2 𝐷3 𝐷4 𝐷5 5
𝐿4 𝐿5
+ 5
𝐷5
4 𝐷5
𝑄1
= =1.175
𝑄2 𝐿2 𝐿3
5 + 5
𝐷2 𝐷3
A=1.175
Q1 = A Q2 , Q = Q1+Q2 = Q2 (A+1)=2.175 Q2

𝐷𝐸5 𝐿5 𝐿4
𝐿𝐸 = 2
[ 5 + 5]
(𝐴 + 1) 𝐷5 𝐷4
=395.9 m
Now AB, BD and DF are in series
LE= LE(AB)+LE(BD)+LE(DF)
𝑳
𝑳𝑬 = 𝑫𝑿
𝑬∑
𝑫𝑿
5 100 200
𝐿𝐸 = 0.3. . [ 5 + ]+395.9
0.4 0.4 5

=467.091 m