Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 63 (2017) 184–188

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Journal of Food Composition and Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jfca

Original research article

Oxalate content of beverages MARK

⁎
Roswitha Siener , Ana Seidler, Susanne Voss, Albrecht Hesse
University Stone Centre, Department of Urology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: A high fluid intake is an integral part of the measures for the recurrence prevention of calcium oxalate stone
Oxalic acid formation. Since dietary oxalate is a primary risk factor for hyperoxaluria, the oxalate content of a wide variety
Oxalate of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages was analyzed using a validated HPLC-enzyme-reactor method. The
Calcium oxalate urolithiasis oxalate concentrations were 3.21–6.34 mg/100 mL in green and black teas, 0.28–1.96 mg/100 mL in iced teas
Beverages
and 0.08–1.82 mg/100 mL in herbal teas. The oxalate levels of soft, wellness, energy and sports drinks were
Fluid intake
below 0.81 mg/100 mL. The oxalate content varied among beer and wine, ranging from 0.30 mg/100 mL in
Diet
Urinary calculi white wine to 1.78 mg/100 mL in non-alcoholic beer. The oxalate concentration of wines was lower than that of
Stone formation the corresponding fruit juices. Certain beverages may provide considerable amounts of highly bioavailable so-
Food analysis luble oxalate. Further studies should examine the effect of fermentation on the oxalate content.
Food composition

1. Introduction substantial amounts of soluble and therefore highly bioavailable ox-

alate, e.g., black and green teas (Charrier et al., 2002; Hönow et al.,
Calcium oxalate is the major constituent of about 70% of all urinary 2010), comprehensive and reliable data on the oxalate content of many
stones (Lieske et al., 2014). Secondary hyperoxaluria, either based on other beverages are lacking. As urinary stone formers are encouraged to
high dietary intake or increased intestinal absorption of oxalate, is increase fluid intake, an accurate knowledge of the oxalate content of
considered a primary risk factor in the pathogenesis of calcium oxalate beverages is highly important. The aim of this study was to determine
stone formation (Siener et al., 2003). It has been suggested that dietary the oxalate concentration of a wide variety of alcoholic and non-alco-
oxalate contributes up to 50% of urinary oxalate excretion (Holmes holic beverages, including beer, wine, black, green, herbal and iced
et al., 2001). A high dietary oxalate intake can significantly increase teas, soft, energy, sports and wellness drinks.
urinary oxalate excretion even in healthy subjects without disturbances
in oxalate metabolism (Siener et al., 2013). In calcium oxalate stone 2. Materials and methods
patients, intestinal hyperabsorption of oxalate may additionally con-
tribute to urinary oxalate excretion (Voss et al., 2006). 2.1. Samples and preparation
It is well established that copious fluid intake is the most important
dietary measure for recurrence prevention of urinary stone formation All beverages were commercially produced and purchased from
(Borghi et al., 1996; Fink et al., 2013). Accordingly, dietary re- local establishments in Bonn, Germany. Samples were obtained shortly
commendations involve increasing fluid intake to obtain a urine volume before analysis. The products are listed in Tables 1–5. The different
of at least 2.0–2.5 liters per 24 h (Hesse et al., 2009). A high urine methods for preparation of tea samples are shown in Tables 2–4. The
volume decreases the saturation of lithogenous salts, thereby reducing black and green tea samples were prepared by steeping 1.75 g of leaves
the risk of stone formation (Siener and Hesse, 2003). However, apart in 200 mL 70 °C water for 5 min. For herbal teas, the tea bags were
from increasing urine volume, beverages may affect urine composition. infused in 70 °C water for 5, 10 or 15 min, respectively, according to the
In particular, care should be exercised to avoid beverages which contain manufacturer’s instructions. Each tea infusion was cooled to room
high concentrations of oxalate and which may consequently increase temperature. The instant iced tea samples were prepared by dissolving
the risk of calcium oxalate stone formation. 7 g instant powder in 100 mL water. All beverages were shaken prior to
Recently, the oxalate content of certain vegetable juices such as analysis.
rhubarb nectar and beetroot juices has been reported to be considerably The measurement of the oxalate content was performed following
high (Siener et al., 2016). While several beverages are known to contain the method outlined by Hönow and Hesse (2002). For analysis 4 mL of

⁎
Corresponding author at: University Stone Centre, Department of Urology, University of Bonn, Sigmund−Freud−Str. 25, D−53105 Bonn, Germany.
E-mail address: [email protected] (R. Siener).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfca.2017.08.005
Received 18 March 2017; Received in revised form 10 August 2017; Accepted 16 August 2017
Available online 24 August 2017
0889-1575/ © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
R. Siener et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 63 (2017) 184–188

Table 1
Oxalate content of beer and wine (mg/100 mL).

kind of sample manufacturer soluble oxalate

n Mean SD

beer
beer Kölsch; 4.8% alc. Dom; Früh; Gaffel 3 1.50 0.52
beer Pils; 4.8% alc. Bitburger; Krombacher 2 1.34 0.81
beer wheat beer; 5.3% alc. Erdinger 1 1.30 –
beer wheat beer with yeast; 5.3% alc./5.5% alc. Erdinger; Paulaner 2 1.70 0.14
beer non-alcoholic beer Bitburger; Löwenbräu 2 1.63 0.78
beer malt beer Vitamalz; Feldschlößchen 2 1.78 0.28

wine
white wine Pinot gris; 12% alc. Nagyréde, Hungary 1 0.30 –
white wine Riesling; 11% alc. Wine Cooperative Moselland, Germany 1 0.33 –
red wine Pinot noir; 12.5% alc. Brogsitter, Germany 1 0.69 –
red wine 60% Mantonegro, 30% Cabernet Sauvignon, 7% Tempranillo, 2% Callet, 1% Syrah; 12% alc. José L. Ferrer, Spain 1 1.27 –
cider apples from organic farming; 2.8% alc. Voelkel 1 0.36 –

alc.: alcohol by volume; SD: standard deviation

Table 2
Oxalate content of black and green tea (mg/100 mL).

kind of sample preparation manufacturer soluble oxalate

n mean SD

black tea Camellia sinensis

black tea Darjeeling 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Lord Nelson 1 6.34 –
black tea Earl Grey tea from whole leaves of Orange Pekoe 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Meßmer 1 4.62 –
black tea Earl Grey tea from whole leaves of Orange Pekoe, loose tea 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Meßmer 1 3.94 –
black tea black tea blend from whole leaves 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Meßmer 1 5.64 –
black tea black tea blend from Ceylon, India and other provenances 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Teekanne 1 4.92 –

green tea Camellia sinensis

green tea green tea from China 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Teekanne 1 3.21 –
green tea green tea, peppermint and lemongrass 1.75 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C Teekanne 1 3.45 –

SD: standard deviation

samples were filtered (folder filter, 80 mm in diameter; Schleicher & 2016). The samples were immediately analyzed by HPLC-enzyme-re-
Schuell GmbH, Erdmannhausen, Germany) and directly acidified with actor method after dilution. All samples were analyzed in duplicate. If
50 μL 2 N hydrochloric acid (p.a.; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) to one sample was analyzed in duplicate, the mean value was indicated.
stabilize ascorbic acid potentially present. Oxalate generation due to Mean and standard deviations were reported, if the number of samples
oxidation of ascorbic acid occurs at pH values above 5.0 (Chalmers of different origin was two or more. The detection limit was 0.68 μM/L
et al., 1985). The acidification of the filtrate with 50 μL 2 N hydro- (0.06 mg/L) (Hönow and Hesse, 2002). The oxalate content is pre-
chloric acid to a pH below 5.0 can prevent oxalate generation during sented as mg/100 mL fresh weight, as this is how these products are
sample preparation (Hönow and Hesse, 2002). Since no residues were consumed. The number of different products (n) is indicated in the
left after filtration, the determination of the insoluble oxalate content of tables.
beverages was not required (Hönow and Hesse, 2002; Siener et al.,

Table 3
Oxalate content of iced tea (mg/100 mL).

kind of sample manufacturer soluble oxalate

n mean SD

iced tea
black tea, apple water, black tea extract, apple juice, ready-to-drink Lipton 1 1.58 –
black tea, lemon water, black tea extract, flavour, ready-to-drink Flight; Hardthof; Euroshopper 3 0.65 0.21
black tea, lemon water, black tea extract, lemon juice, ready-to-drink Comet; Natreen; Lipton 3 1.38 0.41
black tea, lemon-lime black tea, lemon and lime juice, ready-to-drink Pfanner 1 0.92 –
black tea, peach water, black tea extract, flavour, ready-to-drink A & P; Flight 2 0.83 0.29
black tea, peach water, black tea extract, lemon and peach juice, ready-to-drink Comet 1 1.15 –
black tea, lemon, instant black tea extract, lemon fruit powder; 7 g instant powder/100 mL Krüger 1 0.53 –
black tea, peach, instant black tea extract, flavour; 7 g instant powder/100 mL Krüger 1 0.73 –
green tea, grapefruit water, green tea extract, flavour, ready-to-drink Lipton 1 1.96 –
green tea, lemon-prickly pear green tea, apple and lemon juice, ready-to-drink Pfanner 1 1.06 –
red tea blend, lemon-lotus blossom hibiscus, rooibos and pu-erh tea, apple and lemon juice, ready-to-drink Pfanner 1 0.28 –

SD: standard deviation.

185
R. Siener et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 63 (2017) 184–188

2.2. HPLC-Enzyme-Reactor method

soluble oxalate

0.15
0.14
SD

–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–

–
–
Analysis of filtrates was performed by a selective and sensitive
mean
HPLC-enzyme-reactor method (Hönow et al., 1997). This method

0.08
0.74
0.68
1.82
0.68
0.41
0.83
0.52

0.87
0.43
1.21

0.35
0.81
combines enzymatic conversion of oxalate to hydrogen peroxide and its
1 amperometric detection with the selectivity of a chromatographic se-

1
2
2

1
1
1
1

1
1
1

1
1
n

paration. HPLC-system (Gynkotek Model 300 with Gina 50 auto-

Teekanne; Westcliff
sampler, Gynkotek, Germering, Germany) consisted of an anion ex-
Bad Heilbrunner

Bad Heilbrunner
manufacturer

change column (AS4A-DIONEX; ThermoFisher Scientific, Waltham,

Westcliff; kd

St. Benedikt

Marco Polo
Teekanne

Teekanne
MA), a mobile phase of aqueous EDTA solution (2.0 g/L, adjusted to pH

Teekanne
Westcliff
Meßmer

Meßmer
Milford
5.0 with 0.3 mol/L NaOH; flow rate: 0.6 mL/min; Merck, Darmstadt,
Germany), an enzyme reactor containing 5 units of immobilized oxalate
oxidase (oxalate oxidase: E.C. 1.2.3.4.; Sigma Diagnostics, St. Louis,
1.75 g/200 mL,10 min, 70 °C
1.8 g/150 mL, 15 min, 70 °C

2.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70° C

2.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C
1.8 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C
1.8 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C
1.8 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C

3.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C

3.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C

2.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C

2.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C
2.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C

2.0 g/200 mL, 5 min, 70 °C

MO; carrier: VA Epoxy Biosynth, Riedel-de-Häen, Seelze, Germany),
which oxidized oxalate to hydrogen peroxide and carbon dioxide. Re-
sulting hydrogen peroxide was analyzed by an amperometric platinum
detector (potential: +0.5 V; silver–silver chloride electrode; Gynkotek
PED 300, Germering, Germany). Peaks were quantified via peak area
preparation

and external calibration curves (Hönow et al., 1997).

3. Results
lemon grass, roasted mate (31%), cinnamon, flavour, guarana (5%), black tea extract (5%), kola nuts (caffeine content: 2 g/
rooibos, blackberry leaves, orange and vanilla flavour, verbena, peppermint, chamomile, fennel, licorice root, cinnamon
peppermint leaves (25%), anise (15%), bitter fennel (15%), chamomile blossoms (15%), caraway (15%), valerian root,
Orthosiphon leaves (37.5%), restharrow root (37.5%), birch leaves, bean-pods, licorice root, rose hip peel, fennel fruits

The oxalate contents of various types of alcoholic and non-alcoholic

hibiscus, rose hip, apples, calcium sulfate, orange peel, berry flavour, blue berry, black currant, elderberry, vitamins

beverages are listed in Tables 1–5. The highest oxalate concentrations,

ranging from 3.21 to 6.34 mg/100 mL, were found in black and green
rose hip, hibiscus, apples, flavour, orange peel, citric acid, ascorbic acid, elderberries, apricot fruit granules

teas. The oxalate values of iced teas containing extracts from black or
barley malt (45%), roasted carob, chicory root, cardamom, cinnamon (9%), licorice root, black pepper

green tea were between 0.53 and 1.96 mg/100 mL. Low levels of ox-
alate were found in herbal teas (0.08 to 0.87 mg/100 mL), except for
barley malt (1.82 mg/100 mL) and mate-guarana tea (1.21 mg/
100 mL). The oxalate concentration of soft, wellness, energy and sports
drinks were below 0.81 mg/100 mL. Among wine, the oxalate levels
were highest in red wine (0.69 to 1.27 mg/100 mL) and lowest in white
wine and cider (0.30 to 0.36 mg/100 mL). The oxalate content of al-
lapacho bark, pimento, fennel, cardamom, cinnamon, coriander, flavour, cloves

hibiscus, lemon grass, blackberry leaves, rose hip, peppermint, lemon verbena

coholic and non-alcoholic beer was similar, ranging from 1.30 to

1.78 mg/100 mL, but higher than that of wine.

4. Discussion

The most important measure for the prevention of urinary stone

recurrence is a high urine dilution (Borghi et al., 1996; Fink et al.,
2013). To ensure an adequate urine volume, a daily fluid intake of at
least 2.5 to 3.0 liters is recommended (Hesse et al., 2009). Because a
high dietary oxalate intake can markedly contribute to urinary oxalate
excretion, a primary risk factor for calcium oxalate stone formation, the
oxalate content of beverages should be considered.
The highest oxalate concentrations were found in black and green
melissa leaves, cinnamon bark

teas, ranging from 3.21 to 6.34 mg/100 mL. Among black teas, the
highest oxalate content was present in Darjeeling tea, which is known
as a high quality tea, whereas Earl Grey tea revealed the lowest oxalate
levels. In many countries tea is the most commonly consumed beverage,
honey bush leaves
peppermint leaves

rose hip, hibiscus

rooibos, flavour
kind of sample

secondly to water. The consumption of 1 liter of black or green tea

would result in an intake of between 32 and 63 mg soluble and there-
fore highly bioavailable oxalate per day. These values are within the
100 g)

range of those previously reported for black and green teas (Charrier
Oxalate content of herbal tea (mg/100 mL).

et al., 2002; Hönow and Hesse, 2002; Hönow et al., 2010; McKay et al.,
herbal tea (stomach and intestine tea)

1995). The present results confirm previous findings that tea is a con-
herbal tea (kidney and bladder tea)
honey bush tea Cyclopia intermedia

siderable source of oxalate intake (Hönow et al., 2010). For calcium

peppermint tea Mentha piperita
rooibos tea Aspalathus linearis

oxalate stone formers, the intake of black teas with milk could reduce
fruit tea blend, multi-vitamin

rose hip tea with hibiscus

intestinal oxalate absorption by binding oxalate to calcium (Charrier

fruit tea blend, apricot

et al., 2002; Savage et al., 2003).

SD: standard deviation
six-herbs tea blend

Data on the oxalate content of iced teas have been lacking so far. In
mate and guarana
herbal tea blend
barley malt tea

the present study, the oxalate content of iced teas containing extracts
lapacho tea

from black or green tea was between 0.53 and 1.96 mg/100 mL and
herbal tea

therefore lower than that of black and green teas. However, the intake
Table 4

of 2 liters of iced tea per day would provide up to approximately 40 mg

highly bioavailable soluble oxalate. Calcium oxalate stone formers

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R. Siener et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 63 (2017) 184–188

Table 5
Oxalate content of soft, energy, wellness and sport drinks (mg/100 mL).

kind of sample manufacturer soluble oxalate

n mean SD

wellness drinks
aloe vera drink beverage with 50% multi-fruit juice (apple, orange, pineapple, passion fruit, mango, Pro Health 1 0.28 –
lemon), 20% aloe vera juice and vitamins
apple-sea buckthorn drink beverage with multi-fruit juice (2.5% grape, 2.0% apple, 0.5% sea buckthorn juice Kneipp 1 0.06 –
from concentrates) and vitamins
bread drink beverage from fermented whole grain bread (wheat, rye, oats) Kanne 1 0.72 –
grape-St. John’s wort drink beverage with 5% grape juice (from concentrate), extracts of St. John's wort and lemon Kneipp 1 0.04 –
balm and vitamins
kombucha drink low-calorie beverage with 29% fermented herbal tea (water, multi-fruit juice Pro Health 1 0.30 –
concentrate, herbal extract, kombucha cultures) and 28.5% fruit tea
kombucha herbal tea drink herbal tea infusion (herbal tea blend) with kombucha cultures and lactobacillus Stock Vital 1 0.44 –
vital drink beverage based on fermented cereals and 20% multi-fruit juice (orange, apple, passion Pro Health 1 0.31 –
fruit juice from concentrates, mango pulp) and vitamins
vital apple-mint drink beverage with multi-fruit juice (45% apple, 4% quince, lemon) and extracts of green Dr. Koch 1 0.81 –
tea and peppermint
vital drink apple, peach, passion beverage with 70% multi-fruit juice (apple, peach, grape, passion fruit, acerola and Hohes C 1 0.35 –
fruit lemon juice from concentrates) and extracts of red malva, artichoke and melissa

soft drinks
cola, regular caffeinated soft drink Afri Cola; Coca-Cola; Pepsi; 4 0.10 0.05
Sinalco
cola, diet caffeinated low-calorie soft drink Afri Cola; Coca-Cola; Pepsi 3 0.10 0.00
lemon soda soft drink with lemon flavor Pepsi; Sinalco 2 0.06 0.01
orange soda soft drink with orange flavor Coca-Cola 1 0.18
ginger ale soft drink with ginger extract Schweppes 1 0.04
tonic water soft drink with quinine Schweppes 1 0.05
bitter lemon soft drink with 3% lime juice and quinine Schweppes 1 0.10

energy drinks
Caps Energy apple, grape, with fruit juice (10%), guarana, taurine, caffeine (25 mg/100 mL) Capri-Sonne, Deutsche SiSi 1 0.21
blackcurrant Werke, Germany
Red Bull Red Bull Red Bull 1 0.09

sports drinks
Powerade isotonic drink Coca-Cola 1 LOD
Trendy Isorade lemon low-calorie isotonic drink Plus 1 0.24

LOD: Limit of detection (0.006 mg/100 mL); SD: standard deviation

should refrain from the consumption of iced teas. The oxalate content of various types of alcoholic and non-alcoholic
Except for barley malt (1.82 mg/100 mL) and mate-guarana tea beer was similar, ranging from 1.30 to 1.78 mg/100 mL, but higher
(1.21 mg/100 mL), low oxalate concentrations were found in herbal than that of wine. It is suggested that the oxalate content in beer is
teas, ranging from 0.08 to 0.87 mg/100 mL. The low oxalate levels primarily derived from malted barley and/or wheat, cereals that are
were close to those reported previously (Charrier et al., 2002; McKay known to contain oxalate (Siener et al., 2006).
et al., 1995). The herbal teas measured by McKay and co-workers Comprehensive and reliable data on the oxalate content of different
(1995) using an enzymatic method contained 0.25 to 0.69 mg/100 mL types of wines are still lacking. Among the analyzed wines, red wines
oxalate. Due to their low oxalate contents, the majority of herbal teas is contained higher levels of oxalate (0.69–1.27 mg/100 mL) than white
suitable for increasing urine volume and, therefore, can be re- wines (0.30–0.33 mg/100 mL) and cider (0.36 mg/100 mL).
commended for the recurrence prevention of urinary stones as an al- Corresponding to the oxalate content of wines, juices from red grapes
ternative to black and green teas. The unexpectedly higher oxalate were found to contain higher oxalate concentrations than those from
concentration of barley malt (1.82 mg/100 mL) and mate-guarana tea white grapes (3.93 mg/100 mL and 1.50 mg/100 mL, respectively) and
(1.21 mg/100 mL) can be explained by the content of ingredients, e.g. apple juice (0.87 mg/100 mL) (Siener et al., 2016). Overall, the oxalate
black tea, mate and black pepper that are known to contain oxalate content of these wines was approximately 2.5 to 5 times lower than that
(Hönow and Hesse, 2002). of the corresponding fruit juices, which have been analyzed using the
Comprehensive and reliable data on the oxalate content of soft, same HPLC-enzyme-reactor method. Interestingly, Saccharomyces cere-
wellness, energy and sports drinks are not available. The analyzed visiae, a species of yeast generally used in the wine making process,
drinks contained low levels of oxalate, ranging from not detected to demonstrated potential for oxalate-degrading activity during fermen-
0.81 mg/100 mL. The highest oxalate concentrations were found in tation of Icacina mannii (a starchy tuber) (Antai and Obong, 1992).
vital apple-mint drink and bread drink, probably due to their content of Fermentation of Icacina mannii paste with Saccharomyces cerevisiae re-
oxalate-containing green tea extracts and fermented whole grain bread, sulted in a decrease in the oxalate content from 638 mg/kg to 463 mg/
respectively (Hönow et al., 2010; Siener et al., 2006). Although these kg (Antai and Nkwelang, 1998). The lower oxalate content found in the
drinks are low in oxalate, the intake of sugar-sweetened beverages analyzed wines compared to the corresponding fruit juices could be
contributes to energy surplus. In addition, the phosphoric acid content associated with the oxalate-degrading potential of Saccharomyces cere-
of cola beverages increases dietary phosphate intake. Previous studies visiae during fermentation. Further studies are necessary to examine the
found that consumption of soft drinks acidified by phosphoric acid effect of fermentation with Saccharomyces cerevisiae on the oxalate
causes unfavourable changes in urine composition and is associated concentration of wines.
with an increased risk of urinary stone recurrence (Rodgers, 1999;
Shuster et al., 1992).

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R. Siener et al. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 63 (2017) 184–188

5. Conclusions Charrier, M.J.S., Savage, G.P., Vanhanen, L., 2002. Oxalate content and calcium binding
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holic and non-alcoholic beverages is required as an important pre- current nephrolithiasis in adults: a systematic review for an American College of
Physicians clinical guideline. Ann. Intern. Med. 158, 535–543.
condition for the accurate assessment of dietary oxalate intake and the Hönow, R., Hesse, A., 2002. Comparison of extraction methods for the determination of
recommendation of suitable beverages in calcium oxalate stone disease. soluble and total oxalate in foods by HPLC-enzyme-reactor. Food Chem. 78, 511–521.
The highest oxalate concentrations were found in black, green and iced Hönow, R., Bongartz, D., Hesse, A., 1997. An improved HPLC-enzyme-reactor method for
the determination of oxalic acid in complex matrices. Clin. Chim. Acta 261, 131–139.
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were found in herbal teas, except for barley malt and mate-guarana tea, ferent origin, quality, preparation and time of harvest. Urol. Res. 38, 377–381.
soft, wellness, energy and sports drinks. The oxalate content of cider, Hesse, A., Tiselius, H.G., Siener, R., Hoppe, B., 2009. Urinary Stones: Diagnosis,
Treatment, and Prevention of Recurrence, 3rd ed. Karger, Basel.
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Holmes, R.P., Goodman, H.O., Assimos, D.G., 2001. Contribution of dietary oxalate to
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amounts of highly bioavailable soluble oxalate. McKay, D.W., Seviour, J.P., Comerford, A., Vasdev, S., Massey, L.K., 1995. Herbal tea: an
alternative to regular tea for those who form calcium oxalate stones. J. Am. Diet.
Conflict of Interest Assoc. 95, 360–361.
Rodgers, A., 1999. Effect of cola consumption on urinary biochemical and physico-
chemical risk factors associated with calcium oxalate urolithiasis. Urol. Res. 27,
None. 77–81.
Savage, G.P., Charrier, M.J.S., Vanhanen, L., 2003. Bioavailability of soluble oxalate from
tea and the effect of consuming milk with the tea. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 57, 415–419.
Funding Shuster, J., Jenkins, A., Logan, C., Barnett, T., Riehle, R., Zackson, D., Wolfe, H., Dale, R.,
Daley, M., Malik, I., Schnarch, S., 1992. Soft drink consumption and urinary stone
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding recurrence: a randomized prevention trial. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 45, 911–916.
Siener, R., Hesse, A., 2003. Fluid intake and epidemiology of urolithiasis. Eur. J. Clin.
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Nutr. 57 (Suppl. 2), S47–S51.
Siener, R., Ebert, D., Nicolay, C., Hesse, A., 2003. Dietary risk factors for hyperoxaluria in
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