Journal of Hydrology X

Journal of Hydrology X 15 (2022) 100121
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Hydrology X
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-hydrology-x
Research papers
Assessing the role of groundwater recharge from tanks in crystalline

bedrock aquifers in Karnataka, India, using hydrochemical tracers
Bentje Brauns a, *, Somsubhra Chattopadhyay b, 1, Dan J. Lapworth c, Sian E. Loveless c, 2, Alan
M. MacDonald d, Andrew A. McKenzie c, Muddu Sekhar e, Siva Naga Venkat Nara f,
Veena Srinivasan b
a
British Geological Survey, Environmental Science Centre, Keyworth NG12 5GG, UK
b
Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560064, India
c
British Geological Survey, Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford OX10 8BB, UK
d
British Geological Survey, The Lyell Centre, Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
e
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560012, India
f
Interdisciplinary Centre for Water Research, Indian Institute of Science, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560012, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: The majority of India’s rural drinking water supply is sourced from groundwater, which also plays a critical role
India in irrigated agriculture, supporting the livelihoods of millions of users. However, recent high abstractions are
Groundwater recharge threatening the sustainable use of groundwater, and action is needed to ensure continued supply. Increased
Fractured rock
managed aquifer recharge (MAR) using the > 200,000 existing tanks (artificially created surface water bodies) is
Hydrochemistry
Stable isotopes
one of the Indian government’s key initiatives to combat declining groundwater levels. However, few studies
Tanks have directly examined the effectiveness of tank recharge, particularly in the complex fractured hydrogeology of
Peninsular India. To address this gap, this study examined the impact of tanks in three crystalline bedrock
catchments in Karnataka, southern India, by analysing the isotopic and hydrochemical composition of surface
waters and groundwaters, combined with groundwater level observations. The results indicate that tanks have
limited impact on regional groundwater recharge and quality in rural areas, where recharge from precipitation
and groundwater recycling from irrigation dominate the recharge signal. In the urban setting (Bengaluru),
impermeable surfaces increased the relative effect of recharge from point sources such as tanks and rivers, but
where present, pipe leakage from public-water-supply accounted for the majority of recharge. Shallow
groundwater levels in the inner parts of the city may lead to groundwater discharge to tanks, particularly in the
dry season. We conclude that the importance of aquifer recharge from tanks is limited compared to other
recharge sources and highly dependent on the specific setting. Additional studies to quantify tank recharge and
revisions to the current guidelines for national groundwater recharge estimations, using a less generalised
approach, are recommended to avoid over-estimating the role tanks play in groundwater recharge.
1. Introduction 2015; Pahuja et al., 2010; Shah et al., 2003). The Indian Government
reports that, on a national scale, groundwater abstraction (of which 90%
It is estimated that nearly 700 million Indians living in villages (50% is used for irrigation) was 249 billion cubic metres (BCM) for the year
of India’s population) depend on groundwater for basic needs (Kulkarni 2017 — approximately two thirds of the estimated annual net extract
et al., 2015). Groundwater is also the primary water source for over 50% able groundwater of 393 BCM (CGWB, 2019a). The scale of groundwater
of India’s irrigated agricultural land (GoI, 2015). As such, it is a vital abstraction differs across the country, and since the 1980s, groundwater
resource both for public health and economic growth (Kulkarni et al., levels have declined in several regions as a result of increased
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Brauns).
1
Present address: Department of Hydrology, Meteorology and Water Management, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland.
2
Present address: Environment Agency, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford OX10 8BD, UK.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydroa.2022.100121
Received 4 June 2021; Received in revised form 24 November 2021; Accepted 21 January 2022
Available online 29 January 2022
2589-9155/© 2022 British Geological Survey (c) UKRI 2022. All rights reserved. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
B. Brauns et al. Journal of Hydrology X 15 (2022) 100121
abstraction due to enhanced and more affordable pump technology. Few studies report the local impact of tanks in these crystalline
Nearly a third of the groundwater assessment units in peninsular India basement settings in India. Investigating recharge from mostly small
are therefore in ‘semi-critical’ (14%), ‘critical’ (5%), or ‘over-exploited’ tanks with < 0.4 km2 zone of influence (‘command area’) in Andhra
(17%) status (CGWB, 2019a), with strongest declines observed in the Pradesh, Reddy and Behera (2009) found farmers reported shallower
sedimentary basins in the northwestern states (Ambast et al., 2006; groundwater levels and fewer dry wells in areas with restored tanks than
CGWB, 2019a; MacDonald et al., 2016; Rodell et al., 2009) and in parts in areas without tanks. A study using macro level data from West Bengal
of southern India’s crystalline basement aquifers (e.g. in the states of to model the linkage between groundwater levels and tanks found an
Karnataka and Tamil Nadu), which cover about 60% of the country inverse relationship between tank density and depth to groundwater
(CGWB, 2019a; Sharma et al., 2018). (Chowdhury and Behera, 2018). However, in both of these studies, it is
The importance of enhanced groundwater management in India has not clear if the difference in groundwater level can be attributed to
clearly been recognized by the Government of India, acknowledging in recharge by tanks, or is influenced by other factors, such as decreased
the Third National Water Policy document (GoI, 2012b) that water groundwater abstractions in areas with higher surface water availability
governance needs to be improved to alleviate “a critical situation in (i.e. tanks). Other studies, mainly using water balance approaches, have
many parts of the country”. One of the key suggestions is to enhance quantified average daily percolations rates of 5.5–18.4 mm/day (Bois
water availability by using ‘tanks’ — the local term for typically small, son et al. 2014; Perrin et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2004), and percolation
surface water storage structures, such as farm ponds, but also larger efficiencies, defined as the percolated fraction of tank water depletion
lakes — for water harvesting and managed aquifer recharge (MAR) over a given time period, of 35–68% (Boisson et al. 2014; Massuel et al.,
(CGWB, 2007; CGWB, 2013). The use of tanks is a long-standing tradi 2014; Metha and Jain, 1997; Perrin et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2004;
tion especially in southern India since ancient and medieval times (Dixit Sukhija et al., 1997). However, little is known about how much of the
et al., 1993), and they are said to provide flood protection, water stor infiltrated water actually recharges groundwater, as not all water lost
age, ecosystem services, as well as recreational and aesthetic value and through the base of a tank can be expected to reach the groundwater
potential recharge to local groundwater (D’Souza and Nagendra, 2011; table, but some may be stored in the vadose zone or taken up by
Dixit et al., 1993; EMPRI, 2018; Esha, 2008; Nagendra and Ostrom, evapotranspiration (De Vries and Simmers, 2002). This is in particular
2014; Patil, 2011). Though it is difficult to know the precise number of discussed in a study by Boisson et al. (2014), which proposed a com
functional tanks in India (Pant and Verma, 2010), it is estimated that bined surface water and groundwater balance method in order to better
there are between 200,000 (Palanisami et al., 2010; Sharma, 2003) and consider flow within the unsaturated zone and found that only 53–88%
500,000 (Reddy, 2015). Recent tank restoration and promotion efforts, of the potential recharge from the tank percolate reach the groundwater
with a goal to enhance groundwater availability by means of MAR, have table. In summary, while some studies have assessed groundwater
been undertaken by the national and local governments (e.g. Tamil recharge from tanks in the Indian crystalline basement using a variety of
Nadu and Karnataka, often supported by local NGOs), and also received approaches, most have focussed on quantifying the percolation rates of
substantial support by international institutions such as the European the tanks. There remains significant uncertainty on how much of this
Union (EU), the National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development infiltrated water is recharging to deeper groundwater and how much of
(NABARD), the World Bank, and the International Water Management the water is lost in the unsaturated zone. Therefore, more site-specific
Institute (IWMI) (Richard-Ferroudji et al., 2018). studies are necessary to understand the effects of tanks on ground
However, there are few studies that directly evaluate recharge from water recharge in the crystalline basement.
tanks or investigate tank-groundwater connectivity in India’s basement In this study, a suite of direct measurements, i.e. water isotopic ra
setting, and therefore, little is known about the effectiveness and po tios, hydrochemistry and water level observations were used to inves
tential groundwater quality implications of tank restoration and pro tigate the degree of groundwater recharge and its impact on water
motion. In the suggested methodology for groundwater recharge quality from tank structures in three study areas in Karnataka State. The
estimations used for national groundwater resource assessment and areas reflect agricultural land use and different geological settings
planning, the Indian Government’s Groundwater Resource Estimation (fractured versus sheared crystalline basement). Because tanks are
Committee (GEC) acknowledges the limited availability of field studies. traditionally part of both the urban and rural landscape in southern
As a temporary measure, they suggest a recharge estimation method India, we also considered the city of Bengaluru — well known for its
using a fixed recharge rate of 1.4 mm/day/tank-area as approximation numerous interconnected tanks — in this study. Specific aims were to:
(GEC, 1997). This approach was carried forward into the most recent
GEC guideline (GEC, 2017) and the latest national groundwater review 1) Assess the connectivity of the deeper (fractured) basement aquifer to
(CGWB, 2019b). However, while recharge from tanks in the north In modern recharge processes from tanks and other sources;
dian alluvial plains is relatively high and homogeneous (Bhanja et al., 2) assess the significance of tank recharge compared to other recharge
2019), recharge to the lower-permeability crystalline aquifers dominant sources, and;
in southern Peninsular India is more complicated and likely much more 3) identify the contamination risk posed by tanks and other recharge
spatially variable. Crystalline basement aquifers are formed by a com sources to groundwater.
bination of weathering and tectonic forces and can be best conceptual
ized as zones of varying degree of weathering, i.e. a weathered upper 2. Methods
zone termed ‘saprolite’, which overlies a less weathered, but fractured
rock layer, followed by fresher basement rock (Collins et al., 2020; 2.1. Study locations
Singhal and Gupta, 2010). In the southern Indian context, the thickness
of the weathered zone is typically a few to several tens of meters, with This study focuses on three areas in south and southeastern Karna
fracture zones extending to depths of 200 to 300 m (CGWB, 2012). taka. There are seven perennial river basins in Karnataka, but due to the
Below the relatively permeable weathered zone, recharge to the crys high inter-annual variability of monsoon rainfalls and river flow, and
talline basement depends on the size (aperture) and distribution (con high vulnerability of local surface water sources to contamination,
nectivity) of fractures. Lateral connectivity varies spatially with depth groundwater is used as primary drinking water source in most of the
and depends on the vertical extent of the weathered zone and layout of state’s rural area (EMPRI, 2018). Groundwater resources in Karnataka
the fracture network at depth (Banks et al., 2009; Guihéneuf et al., 2014; are also heavily used for industrial and domestic water supply in major
Ofterdinger et al., 2019). The connectivity may also depend on the type cities such as Bengaluru (population about 8 million) and Mysore
of fissure network, for example on whether the bedrock is fractured or (population about 0.9 million), and for agricultural production across
sheared. the state. Recent (2017) estimates of groundwater withdrawals are 70%
2
of total extractable groundwater (compared to 63% on the national Karnataka (Fig. 1). All study areas are located in the Cauvery River
scale), and about 26% of Karnataka’s ‘taluks’ (administrative divisions) Basin, with exception of the north-eastern part of Bengaluru, which falls
are classified as ‘over-exploited’ with respect to groundwater use, which into the South Pennar basin. Table 1 lists key characteristics, such as
is 9% higher than on the national scale (CGWB, 2019b). size, tank density, and climatology of the study areas. Mean annual
The selected sites for this study are the city of Bengaluru, two sub- precipitation in the areas ranges 800–900 mm/year, but with high
catchments (Aralamallige and Hadonahalli) in the rural area of the annual variations (Fig. 1E), and its pattern is composed of two distinct
Thippagondanahalli (TG Halli) catchment about 30 km north of Ben monsoon periods, namely the dominant southwest summer monsoon
galuru, and the rural Berambadi catchment in the southern part of (June-September) that typically produces most of the annual
Fig. 1. Overview figure showing: (A) Map indicating the location of the three study areas in respect to the Cauvery Basin and Karnataka State, (B-D) water sampling
and groundwater monitoring locations in each catchment, (E) monthly precipitation and temperature 2016–2018 for Bengaluru/TG Halli and Berambadi. Areas of
low/high percentage of household water supply from piped mains water are indicated in Bengaluru (B), highlighting the high percentage of piped water supply
(imported mainly from the Cauvery River) in the inner city. Where samples were taken nearby larger surface water features in Bengaluru, the names of these features
are indicated by letter, and fully stated in the legend. Data sources: % piped water coverage in Bengaluru based on (GoI, 2012a), rainfall data provided by the Kabini
CZO and ATREE (see acknowledgement), elevation data from USGS SRTM data (http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov).
3
Table 1 and Srinivasan (2019) investigated variations in groundwater levels in

Basic information on the study areas. the two sub-catchments Aralamallige and Hadonahalli (about 7 km and
Catchment Size Number Tank density Mean Climate 20 km north of Hesaraghatta Tank, respectively), which corresponds to
Name (km2) of tanks (tanks/km2), annual region the areas used in this study. The Berambadi catchment is the site of the
Percentage of rainfall (Koeppen- Kabini Critical Zone Observatory (Sekhar et al., 2016).
catchment (mm) Geiger)
The three study areas are dominated by weathered and fractured
size (%)
bedrock aquifers of the Banded Gneiss Complex, with local variations in
Bengaluru 1307 681 0.52, 5% 900 Equatorial rock-composition. Bengaluru is mainly underlain by Precambrian mig
desert (Aw)
TG Halli 1447 617 0.42, 4.8% 830 Equatorial
matites, granodiorites, tonalites and gneiss, with local granitic in
desert (Aw), trusions, especially in the central part of the city (near Lalbagh Lake).
parts hot-arid The weathered horizon is about 15 m in thickness and overlain with red
steppe (BSh) loamy to gravelly superficial deposits of varying thickness (Hedge and
Berambadi* 89 53 1.67*, 1.3% 800 Equatorial
Chandra, 2012). A particularly thick saprolite formation of about 60 m
desert (Aw)
can be found in the eastern parts of Bengaluru (Hedge and Subhash
Data Bengaluru (numbers for Bengaluru Metropolitan Area, disused tanks Chandra, 2014). Groundwater levels in Bengaluru are observed from
excluded): (EMPRI, 2018). extremely shallow depths of only 1 m below ground level (bgl) to about
Data Berambadi: (Robert et al., 2017; Sekhar et al., 2016), calculation of
70 m bgl (Sekhar et al., 2018). The nearby TG Halli catchment likewise
Berambadi tanks based on satellite imagery.
consists of weathered (to a depth of about 20 m bgl), fissured and
Data TG Halli: (EMPRI, 2015; Srinivasan et al., 2015).
fractured granite and gneiss (Srinivasan et al., 2015). Boreholes are
Climate regions: (Kottek et al., 2006).
* in addition to the rain-fed tanks, about a third of farmers use small-scale ponds often deep (200–300 m), but may recharge from water-bearing joints at
for groundwater storage during the day Robert et al. (2017), which are not shallow depths as well as from deeper fractures, thus creating a
included in this table. complicated flow system with many of the water bearing fractures at
shallow depths. An extensive study in TG Halli from borehole scans and
precipitation (~85%), and the northeast winter monsoon from October groundwater levels of 83 boreholes revealed that groundwater levels
to December (Rahul et al., 2016). Mean temperatures are around 23 ◦ C, vary considerably between 28 and 222 m bgl, often with large differ
and potential evapotranspiration usually exceeds the annual rainfall ences between adjacent (proximities of < 100 m) boreholes (Ballukraya
with mean values of approximately 1100–1650 mm/year across the and Srinivasan, 2019). The Berambadi catchment, 200 km southwest of
study areas (Sekhar et al., 2016; Srinivasan et al., 2015). Bengaluru, is dominated by massive to extensively sheared gneiss,
Numerous long-established water tanks are characteristic of all three overlain by about 1 to 5 m of regolith (Collins et al., 2020), which is a
study areas (see Table 1) with region-specific distribution in size and set- thinner weathered zone than in the other catchments. Groundwater
up. Tanks can be divided into the following broad categories; river-fed levels in Berambadi have been monitored since 2010, and the observed
tanks constructed by using dams (locally termed anicuts) to check depths to groundwater range from 10 to 70 m (Sekhar et al., 2016).
water along a hydraulic gradient, or rain-fed tanks constructed by dig
ging a square cavity of shallow (few metres) depth into the ground 2.1.2. Water and land use
(EMPRI, 2018). Tank embankments can be site-specific, but typically, Water demand in Bengaluru has risen in recent decades and cannot
river-fed tanks have little embankment aside from the check dam, while be met using local water resources. To overcome acute water shortages,
smaller, rain-fed tanks are usually without raised embankments. additional water is drawn from the Cauvery River, and imported to the
Bengaluru has mostly cascading, large (> 1.2 ha), medium (0.4–1.2 city via a large pipeline. River Cauvery water is now the city’s main
ha), and small size (< 0.4 ha) tanks with seasonal to perennial water drinking water source, particularly in the centre of Bengaluru where the
storage. The city is naturally divided into three main river valleys, and density of the piped mains network is the greatest. Additionally,
most of the city’s tanks have been established by the use of anicuts to numerous boreholes have been drilled after the onset of more advanced
intercept rainwater and dam existing streams along topographic gradi and affordable pump technology in the 1980s to increase access to
ents; often with drains connecting a series of cascading tanks to each groundwater across Bengaluru. In the outskirts of the city, these are
other (D’Souza and Nagendra, 2011). Nowadays, the main tank inflows often used for drinking water as well as for small-scale agricultural ac
are from rainfall, and urban runoff, including waste waters (Rao et al., tivities. In the more rural study area of TG Halli, groundwater abstrac
2020). The depth of water bodies in Bengaluru ranges from 0.5 m to a tion has similarly increased in recent decades, and is likely one of the
maximum of 9 m (Sankay Tank). The TG Halli catchment is dominated causes of strong decline in surface water flows (Srinivasan et al., 2015).
by two large reservoirs, namely TG Halli reservoir itself (in the most In the Berambadi catchment, groundwater is the primary source of
southern part of the catchment) and Hesaraghatta Tank, which is water for most water uses. Increasing groundwater abstraction for
located about 30 km upstream from TG Halli along the Arkavathy River agricultural production has led to water table declines of up to 50 m
(a tributary to the Cauvery River). In addition, there are an estimate of (Sharma et al., 2018). However, the recent strong monsoon of 2018 has
about 600 smaller, often cascading in-stream tanks, of which most have resulted in significant recoveries in groundwater levels across the
been constructed by checking monsoon runoff (Srinivasan et al., 2015). catchment (Collins et al., 2020). Agricultural activities in the rural
In the Berambadi catchment, most of its 53 tanks — other than the catchments are intensive, with 2–3 cropping seasons a year, namely in
Berambadi tank — are ephemeral and only fill up for short periods after summer (January to May, always irrigated), kharif (May to September,
strong monsoon rains (Collins et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2018). There is frequently irrigated), and rabi (September to January, only irrigated if
no detailed bathymetry available for small tanks in TG Halli and rainfalls are insufficient) (Sekhar et al., 2016). The irrigation pattern
Berambadi, but the depth of these smaller ponds observed in similar means that the highest groundwater abstraction for the summer irriga
studies ranges around 4 m (Boisson et al., 2014, Massuel et al., 2014, tion coincides with the period of deepest groundwater levels.
Sharda et al., 2006).
2.2. Sampling and analysis
2.1.1. Hydrogeology
Previous hydrogeological studies have been undertaken in all three Repeat samples (total n = 112) were collected from surface water
areas: Sekhar et al. (2018) investigated groundwater level dynamics in (piped mains water, river water, and tank water) and boreholes from
Bengaluru for the period 2015–2017. At TG Halli catchment, Ballukraya shallow (a few metres) to about 300 m depth (Table 2) during two
sampling periods, reflecting post-monsoonal (October 2017) and pre-
4
Table 2
Overview of number of sites sampled in both sampling campaigns and additional one-off samples (indicated in parenthesis) taken from surface water and groundwater
in each round, and total number of samples collected. In addition to the listed samples, a total of 51 rainwater samples were taken in weekly to monthly intervals (35 in
TG Halli and 16 in Berambadi).
Catchment Piped water River/canal Tank Groundwater (by borehole depth)
< 50 m 51–150 m 151–250 m >250 m Total
post-monsoon (Oct ‘17) Bengaluru 3* 1 4 (+5) 2 6 2 (+1) 1 19 (+6)

TG Halli (+2) 3 (+1) 1 2 3 12 21 (+3)
Berambadi 3 (+1) 2 10 (+1) 1 16 (+2)
pre-monsoon (Mar-May ‘18) Bengaluru 3* 1 (+2) 4 2 6 (+1) 2 1 19 (+3)
TG Halli 3 1 2 3 12 21
Berambadi 3 2 10 1 16
All areas 6* 2 (+4) 20 (+7) 10 36 (38) 12 (13) 26 112 (+14)
* Only one of the three piped water samples in each round was collected from precisely the same location. However, as the piped water composition is presumed to be
independent from the sampling location, all three samples in each round are considered in the repeat-dataset.
monsoonal (March-May 2018) conditions. Groundwater samples were Berambadi to record water level variations at high frequency (15-minute
collected from boreholes (and in two locations from open wells), and intervals). Additional manual water level measurements (dip meter)
surface water — where possible — from nearby tanks, and in few cases were taken manually at approximately monthly intervals for five of the
from rivers (Vrishabhavathi River in Bengaluru) or canals. Additionally, sampling boreholes in Berambadi and five boreholes in the southern sub-
14 one-off samples (groundwater and surface water) were taken at catchment of TG Halli (see Fig. 1 B for detailed locations of all monitored
different locations (numbers indicated in parentheses in Table 2). The sites, and Supplementary Material Table S1 for additional information
surface water samples were obtained as grab samples (using a sampling on borehole elevations and depths). More comprehensive water level
beaker attached to a rod) at about 10–20 cm depth below the water observations for the same period from the Kabini observatory (Beram
surface and about 2–3 m off the river/tank edge. Samplers were faced badi) are available in Collins et al. (2020).
upstream where applicable, and there was no disturbance to the bottom
sediment immediately prior, or during sampling. Care was taken to 3. Results
avoid tank locations that appeared stagnant (based on visual evalua
tion), and sampling was undertaken near outflows where possible. No 3.1. Stable isotopes
detailed information is however available on the potential degree of
stratification within the surface water bodies. The samples for inorganic Results of the stable isotope analysis (including one-off samples) are
chemistry were filtered (0.45 μm cellulose membrane) into two 30 mL presented in Fig. 2 for rainfall samples (Panel A) and groundwaters and
Nalgene™ bottles without airspace, and un-acidified, but prior to surface water by sampling round (Panel B-C), along with the amount
analysis, cation samples were acidified and preserved with Aristar™ weighted mean rainfall composition for TG Halli (also used for Benga
grade concentrated nitric and hydrochloric acid (0.5% v/v). Water luru given the proximity of ~ 30 km) and Berambadi. Tabularized data,
chemistry samples were stored at 4 ◦ C, except during transportation to such as mean values and standard deviations for δ18O, δ2H, and d-excess
the UK (24 h at ambient room temperature). of surface waters and groundwaters by study area and sampling round
Bulk rainwater samples (n = 51) were collected for isotope analysis are provided in Table S2 in the Supplementary Material.
(δ2H and δ18O) in two of the study areas (TG Halli and Berambadi) for The δ18O ratio of the rainfall samples (n = 51) ranged between
the one-year period September 2017 to September 2018 using a spe − 9.3‰ and + 1.6‰ (median − 5.3‰), and that of δ2H between − 65.9‰
cifically designed totalizer that minimizes evaporation effects (based on and + 22.3‰ (median − 28.5‰). The amount weighted average for the
IAEA/GNIP, 2014). Sampling intervals of the rainwater varied slightly TG Halli rainfall samples was − 5.2‰ for δ18O and − 30.3‰ for δ2H, and
depending on rainfall events, but were approximately every two weeks. the (incomplete, i.e. missing data from one sample) amount weighted
Because of the close proximity (about 30 km) and similar altitude and average in Berambadi was − 3.7‰ for δ18O and − 20.0‰ for δ2H. The
climatology of TG Halli to Bengaluru, rainfall samples from TG Halli are overall distribution of δ18O and δ2H for the rainfall samples is similar to
considered as representative for the Bengaluru region as a whole in this the local meteoric water line (δ2H = 11.74 δ2H + 7.82) established by
study. Unfortunately, one sample for the period 11/11/2017 to 29/12/ Kumar et al. (2010) in an earlier study in Karnataka and the global
2017 (constituting about 10% of the annual rainfall) from Berambadi meteoric waterline (GMWL with δ2H = 8 δ2H + 10) (Fig. 2, note that the
was lost in transport before analysis. local and global meteoric waterlines are nearly identical).
In each sampling round, dissolved oxygen (DO), redox potential Surface water samples in Bengaluru (from piped mains, Vrishabha
(Eh), temperature, pH, and specific electrical conductivity (SEC), were vathi River, and tanks) have similar isotopic compositions to each other
measured in the field where possible in a flow cell, with bicarbonate in the post-monsoon season (reflecting wet conditions), but there is a
alkalinity (HCO3) concurrently determined by micro-titration. All sur slightly higher evaporative signal in the tanks compared to the piped
face waters and groundwaters were analysed for inorganic (major, mains and river water in the drier pre-monsoon sampling. This is indi
minor, trace) elements using ICP-MS (Agilent 8900) and Ion chroma cated for example visually by the slightly more positive δ18O (Fig. 2C) of
tography (Dionex ICS5000), and for stable isotopes (δ2H and δ18O) using the Bengaluru tank samples, and the lower pre-monsoon median d-
an isotope ratio mass spectrometer (VG-Optima) at the Centre for excess of the Bengaluru tanks (-8.3‰) compared to the piped and river
Environmental Geochemistry (CEG), UK. The δ2H and δ18O ratios were water (0.7 and 2.9‰, respectively, see Table S2 and Figure S1 in the
reported in reference to the Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water Supplementary Material). Surface waters in the rural catchments have
(VSMOW), with measurement precision within ± 0.05‰ for δ18O and ± slightly isotopically lighter composition than groundwaters in the post-
1‰ for δ2H. Deuterium excess (d-excess) was calculated using d-excess monsoon (Fig. 2B), and a stronger, but not significant (Wilcoxon rank
= δ2H – 8 * δ18O according to Dansgaard (1964). Results were visualised sum test) pre-monsoonal enrichment in heavier isotopes (median d-
using R version 3.6.1 (The R Foundation) and the ggplot2 package. excess of − 28.7 and –23.9‰ for TG Halli and Berambadi, respectively,
Spatial plots were undertaken using ARCGIS®. compared to only − 8.3‰ in Bengaluru, Figure S1, Table S1). Ground
In addition to the hydrochemical investigation, pressure transducers water isotopic compositions show a marked difference in spread be
were installed at six locations in Bengaluru and in one location in tween the urban and the rural catchments, with a larger variation
5
Fig. 2. Stable isotope composition (δ2H versus δ18O) for (A) rainfall sampled in about 6-weekly intervals from September 2017-September 2018, and (B-C)
groundwaters and surface water by sampling round (post-monsoon 2017 and pre-monsoon 2018). Water types are indicated by colour and symbol, and the weighted
mean rainfall refers to the one-year amount weighted rainfall mean (September 2017 to September 2018) for TG Halli and Berambadi (due to a data gap in rainfall
collection in Berambadi, the weighted average for this area may be slightly skewed). Note that the local meteoric water line (LMWL, dashed blue line) and global
meteoric waterline (GMWL, solid grey line) are nearly identical. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web
version of this article.)
between sample locations in Bengaluru compared to a very homogenous depth).

compositions in the rural catchments TG Halli and Berambadi (Fig. 2), Closer examination of groundwater samples from Bengaluru seems
plotting close to the amount average weighted rainfall. This is reflected to suggest that samples fall into two separate groups (with distinct
for example by the higher (three-fold) standard deviation for δ18O in behaviour, namely an ‘inner-city group’ (sampling sites near Lalbagh,
Bengaluru of ± 0.9‰ compared to ± 0.3‰ for TG Halli and Berambadi IISc, and Sankay tank, Figure 4 right column), which consists of
(Table S1, Supplementary Material). The observed variations in Ben groundwater samples that are more isotopically enriched (i.e. more
galuru seemed to be slightly greater in shallower boreholes, but there is evaporated) and have similar isotopic ratios to piped and tank waters,
no significant correlation between isotopic composition and borehole and a second group of groundwater samples from the outskirt areas
depth at either study area (Fig. 3, R = -0.27 for δ18O versus borehole (Allalasandra tank, Vrishabhavathi, and Kaikondrahalli tank, Figure 4
6
Fig. 3. Covariant plot of (A) δ18O and (B) NO3 concentration in groundwater versus borehole depth. Both plots demonstrate the lack of strong correlations between
concentrations and borehole depth (all R < 0.7, Pearson correlation).
Fig. 4. Plot of δ2H versus δ18O of sampled waters in Bengaluru, comparing the outskirts (sampling locations Allalasandra tank, Vrishabhavathi, and Kaikondrahalli
tank) and the inner-city region (sampling sites Lalbagh, Sankay, and IISc, located within ~ 1 km west of Sankay Tank; Fig. 1). Piped mains water and the amount
weighted mean rainfall is shown for both inner city and outskirts. The local meteoric water line (LMWL) is added in grey.
left column, refer to Fig. 1 for detailed locations). Samples from the monsoon 2017 and − 3.0‰ pre-monsoon 2018) compared to the inner-
outskirts are significantly (Wilcoxon rank sum test < 0.05 for d-excess city samples (-1.7‰ and − 1.4‰, Fig. 4).
and δ18O) less isotopically enriched, as indicated for example by the
lower mean δ18O of tank groundwaters from the outskirts (-2.9‰ post-
7
3.2. Hydrochemistry concentrations of K, Na, and Cl (Fig. 6, with tabular data given in Sup
plementary Material, Table S4). Mg concentrations in piped water
3.2.1. Water types and major ion chemistry (medians around 19 mg/L) are about twice as high as in the city’s tank
A piper plot (Fig. 5) of all analysed samples by study area and source water. Most noteworthy, NO3 was detected in the post-monsoonal piped
type demonstrates that the rural catchments are almost entirely domi water in concentrations of up to 19.7 mg/L, while little NO3 was
nated by alkaline earth elements (Ca, Mg), while some samples in the observed in Bengaluru’s tank water in either sampling round (all con
urban setting (Bengaluru) are dominated by Na. The dominant water centrations < 1 mg/L NO3). River water samples from Vrishabhavathi
type in Bengaluru is Ca-Na-HCO3, with exception of piped water (Ca- River showed generally higher concentrations of all major ions and SEC
Mg-HCO3 type) and eight samples with Cl as dominant anion (most of of around 1400 µS/cm (Fig. 6). Tank waters are relatively similar in
these near Kaikondrahalli tank). The rural catchments (TG Halli and composition for the three studied catchments, though the Bengaluru
Berambadi) exhibit a more diverse range of water types, with higher tanks have slightly higher ion concentrations with regards to Ca, Mg,
proportions of Mg both in tank water and in groundwaters. Contrary to HCO3, and most noteworthy higher Na and Cl (Fig. 6). The higher Cl
Bengaluru, Cl dominance in the rural catchments only occurred in two concentrations in Bengaluru exceed those of the rural catchments
pre-monsoonal tank samples in TG Halli, and in none of the samples in roughly by 30 mg/L and with higher concentrations at Kaikondrahalli
Berambadi (for more detailed information on water types by study area, Tank (>90 mg/L in both sampling rounds).
water source, and sampling round see Supplementary Material Pre-monsoonal Cl medians are higher than post-monsoonal ones in
Table S3). all study regions. In Bengaluru, this is mainly caused by strong increases
in Cl concentrations in the two tanks in the outskirts (increase by 101%
3.2.2. Surface water major ion chemistry and field parameters and 73% at Kaikondrahalli and Allalasandra Tank). The inner-city tanks
Piped water in Bengaluru has median concentrations of Ca, HCO3, Sankay and Lalbagh, surrounded by a more densely piped mains
and SO4 similar to the city’s tank water, but is generally lower in network (Fig. 1B), only show increases in Cl by 19% and 39%,
Bengaluru 0
10
10
0
TG Halli
Berambadi
80
80
Groundwater
Tank water
Ca
e
rid
lciu
60
River water
60
hlo
Piped mains water

+C
+M
ate
ag
40
40
lph
ne
Su
siu
Na-Cl-type
m
20
20
Mg/Ca-HCO3-type
0
0
Percent Percent
100 100
0
0
20
20
80 80
te
na
So
rbo
d
ium
ica
ium
40
40
60 60
+B
Su
+P
es
lp
gn
te
ota
ha
na
Ma
te
60
ss
rbo
60
40 40
ium
Ca
80
80
20 20
10
0
10
0
0
0
40
0
10
20
20
0
60
80
60
80
40
Percent
10
0
Calcium Chloride
Fig. 5. Piper plot of water samples (groundwaters and surface water) from both sampling rounds grouped by study areas. Colours indicate the study area, and
symbols reflect the water type.
8
Fig. 6. Boxplot showing post-monsoon (Oct’17) and pre-monsoon (Mar-May’18) concentrations of selected major ions and field parameters for surface waters and
groundwaters grouped by study area. Note that values exceeding the y-scale of the respective plot are included as values above the box. Lower and upper box hinges
correspond to 25th and 75th percentiles and whiskers indicate 1.5 × Interquartile Range (IQR).
9
respectively. SEC and pH in tank waters are higher in the pre-monsoon, HCO3, and SEC all follow a distribution of Berambadi > TG Halli >
with generally larger increases in the rural catchments than in Benga Bengaluru. Median K concentrations in groundwaters are without sig
luru (Fig. 6). nificant differences across study areas and in time, and range 5.5 to 6.8
mg/L. Median Cl concentrations followed the order TG Halli > Benga
3.2.3. Groundwater major ion chemistry and field parameters luru > Berambadi (highest/lowest median of 168.4 and 67.9 mg/L), and
Groundwaters in all three study areas have a relatively constant were slightly lower in the pre-monsoon sampling (decrease by 1–12%).
major ion composition over time (changes by < 25%) except for distinct Cl concentrations > 100 mg/L were measured in Bengaluru ground
decreases in NO3 (by 27–41% in all study areas) and Mg (by 27% in TG water near Kaikondrahalli, Lalbagh and Vrishabhavathi River (highest
Halli) in the pre-monsoon season. Ca, Mg, and NO3 concentrations in the measured concentration 560.9 mg/L; near Kaikondrahalli), and in TG
rural catchments are significantly higher than in Bengaluru, while the Halli in almost all samples from the Aralamallige southern sub-
reverse holds true for pH (Wilcoxon rank sum test < 0.5). Mg, NO3, catchment (maximum concentration 475.1 mg/L) but none of the
Fig. 7. Covariant plots of (A) Na versus Cl (meq/L) with indicated 1:1 line, (B) Ca versus Mg (meq/L) with indicated 2:1 line and 1:1 line. (C) Gibbs plot indicating
main evolution processes (evaporation / rock weathering / precipitation) of waters. Sample type is indicated by symbol and colour, and sampling round (post-
monsoon 2017/pre-monsoon 2018) by filled/hollow symbols.
10
samples from the second sub-catchment Hadonahalli (maximum con anthropogenic NaCl inputs, while there is excess Cl (or a depletion in
centration 61.3 mg/L). In Berambadi, a slight trend of increasing Cl Na) observed in TG Halli and Berambadi, especially in the post-monsoon
concentrations from west (mostly < 100 mg/L) to east (most concen season. In the covariant plot of Ca versus Mg (Fig. 7B), most ground
trations > 100 mg/L) was observed. High concentrations of NO3 water samples in all study areas fall between the 2:1 line and 1:1 line,
exceeding the Indian drinking water limit (DWL) of the Bureau of Indian though there is generally a stronger ion concentration and higher pro
Standards (BIS) of 45 mg/L NO3 (BIS, 2012) were primarily detected in portion of Mg in the rural catchments compared to Bengaluru. This
Berambadi (85% of all samples, maximum 446.3 mg/L NO3) and TG could be indicative either of local differences in geological setting, or be
Halli (33%, maximum 162.5 mg/L NO3), and only at one site in Ben an impact of agricultural inputs, e.g. application of CaNO3-type fertil
galuru (54.8 mg/L near Lalbagh tank; post-monsoon). It is noteworthy izer, indicated by a weak to strong correlation between Ca and NO3 in
that, except for a weak significant correlation for TG Halli, NO3 did not rural groundwaters (R = 0.53 and R = 0.74 for TG Halli and Berambadi,
show significant trends with the drilled depth of the sampled boreholes respectively, with p < 0.0005). Fig. 7C shows the Gibbs plot for TDS
(Fig. 3). For a full list of percent of samples exceeding DWLs by study versus Na/(Na + Ca) weight ratio, which can give information about the
area, see Supplementary Material Table S3. dominant evolution processes of waters (Gibbs, 1970). The results
indicate that neither study area exhibits strong evaporation nor pre
3.2.4. Chemical ratios, trends with distance to surface water and estimated cipitation dominance, and there is a stronger clustering of waters from
impact of tanks all source types in Bengaluru, while in the rural catchments, most tank
The covariant plot of Na versus Cl (Fig. 7A) demonstrates that Na:Cl waters are separated out from the groundwater samples.
ratios in Bengaluru (with the exception of the Cl-rich samples from near Fig. 8A shows the Cl/Br mass ratio versus Cl (mg/L) for each study
Kaikondrahalli) closely follow the 1:1 ratio for halite sources or area by source type. Ratios between Cl and Br in waters from different
Fig. 8. (A) Cl/Br mass ratio versus Cl (mg/L) per study area for all water sources that were sampled in both sampling rounds. The median Cl/Br mass ratio for
groundwater is indicated by the red dashed line. Arrows indicate the direction of potential groundwater mixing for rural groundwaters, which suggests endmembers
in TG Halli with similar Cl/Br ratio, but higher/lower Cl, and in Berambadi with stable Br and higher/lower Cl concentration. (B) Correlation plot of Cl concentration
(mg/L) in groundwater versus distance of the sample location from the nearest surface water, with Pearson correlation coefficients indicated on the top right. Dashed
coloured lines indicate the median Cl concentrations over both sampling campaigns for Vrishabhavathi (Bengaluru), piped mains water (Bengaluru), and tank water
(for each catchment). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
11
sources usually have a typical range, and due to these distinct ratios, the Table 3
Cl/Br ratio can give information on mixing processes (Alcalá and Cus Mean d-excess (‰ VSMOW) for rainfall (amount weighted rainfall), tank water
todio, 2008) and be used to identify recharge to groundwater. Whilst Cl and groundwater (mean over both sampling periods). It should be noted that the
is usually detected at concentrations well above the detection limit, it Berambadi rainfall is missing the analysis of one sample, and that a longer-term
should be noted though that low Br concentrations close to detection (several years) amount weighted rainfall would be considered more reliable.
Hence, these values are here only being used to exemplify that — considering
limits may cause some uncertainty in Cl/Br ratios. In our study, 4 of the
rainfall and tank water to be two end-members — tank water seems to play a
tank water samples had Br concentration < 1.5 times the detection limit
minor contribution in annual groundwater recharge.
(2 in TG Halli and 2 in Berambadi, concentrations of around 0.015 mg/
Catchment Mean d-excess (‰ VSMOW)
L). We have no repeat analysis of these samples, but a presumed un
certainty of +/- 10% would shift the Br/Cl mass ratio at the same per Amount weighted rainfall Tank water Groundwater
centage, so interpretation of these data will focus on the combination of Bengaluru 5.83 − 0.42 5.83
Br/Cl mass ratio and Cl concentration, without too much emphasis on TG Halli 5.83 − 9.85 5.67
the Br/Cl mass ratios alone. Berambadi 9.88 − 3.73 6.38
The Cl/Br plots show a distinct pattern for each study area. In Ben
galuru, groundwaters have a median Cl/Br mass ratio of 552 (indicated
result in a fraction of 2.6% (TG Halli) for tank recharge, which is very
by the dashed line, Fig. 8A). Surface water Cl/Br ratios mostly lay within
low and indicates that the effective recharge of deeper groundwater
442–2222. One location, Allalasandra tank, has a markedly low ratio of
within the fractured bedrock seems to be negligible compared to other
66 (post-monsoon) and 104 (pre-monsoon). This is caused by unusually
recharge sources. A more specifically designed monitoring network with
high Br concentrations of up to 1 mg/L (versus the overall median of 0.1
site-specific installation of deeper monitoring boreholes of varying dis
mg/L). Other tank waters in the inner-city of Bengaluru plot similarly to
tance from tanks could provide further details on whether significant
most of the piped water (Fig. 8A). As indicated in the previous chapter,
trends of conservative tracers might be detectable on smaller scales.
piped water and inner-city tanks in Bengaluru generally have lower Cl
than river water samples and samples from Kaikondrahalli tank, which
also creates a distinction in the Cl/Br plot. The groundwater samples 3.3. Groundwater level observations
mostly cluster according to their specific location, and no clear trend can
be observed. Fig. 9 shows the high-frequency (15-min interval and daily
In TG Halli, groundwater has a relatively uniform Cl/Br ratio with a maximum) monitored groundwater level observations from September
median of 239 (Fig. 8A), but with a large range in Cl concentrations 2017 to September 2018 for Bengaluru and (only until April 2018) one
(from 14–475 mg/L). Tank waters seem similar in Cl/Br ratio, but with site in Berambadi, and monthly to bi-monthly dipped data for TG Halli
some spread in Cl concentrations (3–89 mg/L). The shift in groundwater and Berambadi. The monitored boreholes are typically cased in the
composition is dominated by a shift along the x-axis which may indicate weathered zone and are open bores in the fresh rock, with depth of
mixing with either lower or higher Cl water (but with similar Cl/Br 50–163 m bgl in Bengaluru, 218–296 m bgl in TG Halli, and 61–98 m bgl
ratio). This could indicate a dilution of Cl-rich groundwater by the in Berambadi. Borehole head elevations in Bengaluru were at elevations
lower-Cl tank waters. However, a correlation analysis (Person correla of 889–926 m above sea level (asl; except Bangalore University at 831 m
tion) between the proximity of the borehole location to tanks does not asl) and 874–888 m asl in TG Halli. Borehole head elevations in
show significantly lower Cl concentration near tanks (Fig. 8B). Berambadi ranged 831–897 m asl (Supplementary Material Table S1).
Berambadi groundwater samples show a very pronounced pattern Most monitored sites show a decreasing trend in water level between
indicative of a mixing line that could be produced by waters with con November and April when precipitation is low.
stant Br concentration, but higher/lower Cl. Potentially, this is an In Bengaluru, groundwater levels are shallow (average daily
indication of recharge by return flow from groundwater irrigation, as maximum level ranging 1–9 m bgl) at the three sites closest to the city
one may suspect similar Br, but increased Cl due to evaporation pro centre, and deeper (19–34 m bgl) at sites towards the outskirts (Fig. 9B).
cesses (mixing of this type will result in a right shift due to the increased Daily groundwater level fluctuations are highly variable across sites, but
Cl, and upward shift due to the change in Cl/Br ratio). Some of the can be categorized into Group A: sites that experience high and rapid
higher Cl concentrated-tank waters seen on Fig. 8A could be a potential fluctuations (IISC, Yelahanka, Nimhans), and Group B: sites that show
endmember (in this case of lower chloride concentration than the little daily fluctuations (Cubbon Park, Lalbagh Park, Bangalore Uni
groundwaters, thus diluting their Cl concentration). However, the lack versity). Because rapid changes in groundwater level are most
of correlation between a borehole’s Cl concentration and its borehole commonly caused by nearby groundwater abstractions, it can be
proximity to tanks does not seem indicative of this (R = -0.15, p = 0.45; assumed that Group A is more directly influenced by anthropogenic
Fig. 8B), so that the mixing of the groundwater with higher Cl concen head changes, while Group B reflects a more undisturbed condition. The
trations seem more likely. extremely rapid drawdown in some of the boreholes (level decrease of
Aside from Cl, water isotopes are usually considered a conservative up to 3.5 m in 15 min) is indicative of a high fracture connectivity and
tracer, as they are commonly detected in groundwater with the same low storage in this part of the aquifer. The maximum daily water level in
isotopic composition as the recharging water, e.g. rainfall recharge (e.g. Bengaluru decreased by 1–5 m in the dry season, and showed no strong
Darling and Bath, 1988). Table 3 shows the mean d-excess for amount overall trends, but possibly some downward tendency at two sites (IISc
weighted rainfall, tank water and groundwater (mean over both sam and Lalbagh).
pling periods) in the three study catchments. It should be noted that the Groundwater levels in TG Halli (Fig. 9B) were only monitored from
Berambadi rainfall is missing the analysis of one sample, and that a September 2017 to end of March 2018, which coincides with the pre-
longer-term (several years) amount weighted rainfall would be consid monsoon water sampling. Water levels are much deeper than those in
ered more reliable. Hence, we are only using TG Halli here as example Bengaluru with averages ranging 79 to 148 m bgl. These levels may have
for a 2-endmember mixing. Because there is no significant correlation dropped somewhat lower in the summer months that are not included in
between d-excess and distance of the boreholes to the nearest tank this dataset. The strong variation in groundwater levels between sites
(Supplementary Material, Figure S2; this is in good correspondence with corresponds well to previous studies (Ballukraya and Srinivasan, 2019).
the lack of significant trends in Fig. 8B), the mean of all groundwater Three of the five monitored sites (indicated by the black lines Fig. 9B)
samples is considered. Assuming the fraction of tank water times tank show much more rapid level increases after strong rainfalls in September
water d-excess plus the fraction of amount weighted rainfall times to November 2017 (Fig. 9A), which is indicative of rapid fracture flow
rainfall d-excess to be equal to the groundwater composition, this would into these boreholes.
12
Fig. 9. (A) Precipitation data for Bengaluru/TG Halli and Berambadi from September 2017 to October 2018, and (B) depth to water in metres below ground level (m
bgl) for all three study areas. Observations in Bengaluru are shown as daily maximum groundwater level (coloured lines) and corresponding high-frequency
measurements (15-minute interval; grey lines below the coloured lines for each location), and for TG Halli (data only from Sep 2017 to end Mar 2018) and
Berambadi as monthly dipped data. Shaded vertical bars indicate times of groundwater sampling. Note the different scale of the y-axes.
In Berambadi, groundwater levels show a distinct regional gradient 4. Discussion

with the shallowest average groundwater level (14 m bgl) at the west
ernmost site, and deepest average level (62 m bgl) at the easternmost 4.1. Evidence of connectivity of the deeper basement aquifer to modern
location, which corresponds to observations from previous studies (e.g. recharge processes
Buvaneshwari et al., 2017; Collins et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2018). The
monitored sites exhibit a temporal trend with post-monsoon peak levels The observed lack of strong correlations between isotopic ratios or
in November 2017 and a gradual decline until the onset of the new NO3 concentrations with borehole depth in all study areas (Fig. 3) is
recharge in May 2018. Compared to Bengaluru and TG Halli, the sea indicative of a well-mixed system, and the detection of typical anthro
sonal groundwater level declines are more pronounced with a drop of pogenic pollutants, such as NO3, in high concentrations even at greater
13–15 m from the peak level in November 2017 to the lowest recorded depth indicates that recharge is modern. These findings are in accor
level in April 2018. dance with a parallel study by Collins et al. (2020) who demonstrated by
means of a range of hydrogeochemical techniques, including the resi
dence time tracer CFC, a high degree of lateral and vertical connectivity
in the Berambadi catchment. For example, a homogenously high con
centration of CFCs in both shallow and deep monitoring boreholes in
this study was found indicative of recent recharge and of a well-mixed
groundwater system without clear vertical stratification. However,
13
depending on the number and position of intercepted fractures (bore sparser mains system (Fig. 10B). This conceptualization is supported by
hole casings in the study area are usually cased down to the base of the strong post-monsoonal similarity between tank water and the amount
weathered zone, which likely ranges between 15 and 60 m bgl, and open weighted average rainfall composition in the outskirts, and conversely
bores from thereon), a water sample may represent an integrated sample the stronger post-monsoonal similarity of isotopic composition in tank
with contributions from shallower fractures in the upper part of the fresh waters with piped water and groundwater in the inner-city areas
rock potentially overlaying chemical signatures from deeper fractures. It (Fig. 4).
can be concluded that the deeper basement aquifer has a component of In the rural catchments (TG Halli and Berambadi), recharge path
modern recharge in all investigated catchments with either fractures or ways differ from the urban city in regards to a lack of water mains and
the boreholes acting as preferential pathways. the additional recharge from irrigation return flow (Fig. 11). The rural
groundwaters show higher spatial similarity in isotopic compositions (e.
g. lower standard deviations across the sample groups, see Supplemen
4.2. Comparison of relative contribution of tank recharge to other sources
tary Material, Table S2) than groundwaters in Bengaluru, and very
similar isotopic composition to the amount weighted average rainfall
The variability of isotopic ratios in the groundwater samples from
(Fig. 2). This could indicate that the majority of groundwater recharge in
Bengaluru (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Material Table S2), indicates that
the rural catchments is constituted either by rainfall or — considering
groundwater recharge in the urban setting is influenced by multiple
that most of this area is highly irrigated — also by (usually slightly more
sources including mains leakage, urban runoff and drainage, and infil
evaporated) return flow from irrigated agriculture. The latter is indi
tration from rainfall and surface waters (conceptualized in Fig. 10).
cated by the higher evaporative change in rural groundwaters (signifi
As expected for the complex urban setting, hydraulic heads in the
cant increase in d-excess in the pre-monsoon) compared to Bengaluru
monitored boreholes demonstrated distinct patterns, ranging from sites
(no significant change, Wilcoxon rank sum test; Supplementary Material
with little daily fluctuations (Cubbon Park, Lalbagh Park, Bangalore
Figure S1). The analysis of the Cl/Br ratios showed groundwater samples
University) to sites with high and rapid fluctuations (IISC, Yelahanka,
with relatively constant Cl/Br ratio, but with a high range of Cl con
Nimhans) (Fig. 9). From a monitoring perspective, these strong head
centrations, indicative for mixing of low Cl ‘pristine’ groundwater with a
changes at Bengaluru highlight that manual monitoring in low-storage
high Cl endmember, for TG Halli (Fig. 8). In Berambadi, a typical mixing
fractured aquifers is best undertaken by taking a series of measure
line of groundwater with an endmember with higher Cl and higher Cl/Br
ments over time to ensure that a representative water level is recorded.
could be observed. This mixing with Cl-rich water is a good indication
Monitored boreholes in areas with a higher density of the piped water
that irrigation return flows, which typically have increased Cl from
supply system that delivers mainly water from the Cauvery River as
agrochemical inputs, could be the dominant recharge source. High NO3
potable water supply generally exhibited shallow groundwater levels,
concentrations further corroborate this conclusion. Even though po
typically about 1 m bgl (Lalbagh and Cubbon Park). The shallower
tential recharge from Berambadi tanks is somewhat spatially distributed
groundwater level is likely caused by substantial recharge from the
because nearby farms may supply water from the tank to fields via
piped mains water network. This is in accordance with other recent
drainage channels (Collins et al., 2020), this neither creates an isotopic
studies (Sekhar et al., 2018; Tomer et al., 2021). The similar isotopic
signal in the groundwaters nor is there indication from the Cl/Br anal
signature (Fig. 4) and Cl/Br ratios in inner-city tanks, piped water and
ysis that much mixing of tank water and groundwater is taking place
groundwater (Fig. 8) also point to a strong connection between these
(tank waters mostly had higher Cl/Br, but lower Cl, and no mixing line
waters - with tanks possibly being recharged by the shallow ground
with tanks as endmember could be identified). Thus, this indicates that
water in the post-monsoon season. Pre-monsoon, most groundwater
much of the infiltrated water from tanks is lost within the unsaturated
levels were below the assumed average tank depth, and tanks would be
zone, for example by lateral flow processes and evapotranspiration
expected to lose water through infiltration and potentially recharge
(Scanlon and Cook, 2002), and is therefore not significantly adding to
groundwater (Fig. 10A). However, assumed flow is not based on precise
groundwater recharge.
monitoring of the tank water level, and a more detailed study would be
This finding is in contrast to those from investigations using recharge
necessary to clearly identify the predominant flow direction. In either
estimations based on water level fluctuation methods (Kumar et al.,
case however, connections and exchange of tank, piped and ground
2017), and studies relating tank density to groundwater levels
water in the inner-city area is of high likelihood. In the outskirts, tank
(Chowdhury and Behera, 2018) which observed higher groundwater
water is mainly fed by direct rainfall and runoff, as well as treated and
levels near tanks. However, in both of these studies, it is not clear if the
partially untreated sewage collected in drainage canals (indicated by a
higher water levels can be attributed to groundwater recharge by tanks,
higher pollutant load of these sites, e.g. Cl), and to a lesser extent by the
Fig. 10. Conceptual model of recharge sources and patterns (A) in the centre and (B) the outskirts of Bengaluru. Water levels are indicated for post-monsoon and pre-
monsoon. Different colours are used for source differentiation (e.g. brownish colour for tank water, lighter blue for rainwater). Arrows indicate recharge pathways,
with thickness of arrows corresponding to dominant recharge sources. (Drawings are not to scale.) (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend,
the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
14
Fig. 11. Conceptual model of recharge sources and patterns in TG Halli (A) and Berambadi (B). Water levels are indicated for post-monsoon and pre-monsoon.
Different colours are used for source differentiation (e.g. brownish colour for tank water, lighter blue for rainwater, darker blue for irrigation returns). Arrows
indicate recharge pathways, with thickness of arrows corresponding to dominant recharge sources. (Drawings are not to scale.) (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
or to other factors, such as decreased groundwater abstractions in areas Mg and Cl ‘hotspots’ near Kaikondrahalli tank and Vrishabhavathi
with higher surface water availability (i.e. tanks), or higher water River, and higher concentrations of NO3 near Lalbagh tank), while
storage from tanks in the vadose zone (i.e. less need for irrigation). contamination in the rural catchments seemed more widespread.
Previous studies have calculated percolation efficiencies of tanks, In Bengaluru, increased concentrations of Cl were present in tank
defined as the percolated fraction of tank water depletion over a given water and groundwaters, and the dominating 1:1 molar ratio of Na/Cl
time period, of 35–68% (Boisson et al. 2014; Massuel et al., 2014; Metha (Fig. 7A) and very high Cl/Br ratio (Fig. 8A) indicates that Cl contami
and Jain, 1997; Perrin et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2004; Sukhija et al., nation is related to anthropogenic sources, such as effluent from
1997). However, little is known about how much of the infiltrated water households and industry (Alcalá and Custodio, 2008). Increased levels of
actually recharges groundwater, as not all water lost through the base of Cl were found in particular in the western outskirts of Bengaluru, around
a tank can be expected to reach the groundwater table, but may be Kaikondrahalli tank, and our conceptualized model indicates that the
stored in the vadose zone or taken up by evapotranspiration (Boisson lower groundwater levels and lower density of mains network (i.e. lower
et al., 2014; De Vries and Simmers, 2002). A rare study using water level dilution of infiltrated tank water by mains leakage) will increase the
data in combination with water isotopes and chemical data to estimate risks to surface water quality. This holds true for tanks, but in particular
recharge sources concluded that rainfall was the main source of recharge also for larger perennial drainage systems, such as the Vrishabhavathi
with only marginal recharge from a nearby tank (Saha et al., 2013). River, which was found to have high concentrations of K, SO4, Cl and
Thus, a revised approach to directly estimate water fluxes below tanks HCO3 – also indicative of anthropogenic pollution. In the city centre,
may be beneficial, for example by more local-scale studies using envi water levels were extremely shallow in the wetter part of the year, and
ronmental tracers as suggested by (Boisson et al., 2014) combined with recharge/mixing of tank water with mains leakage will substantially
water level observations. Regardless of the recharge rate beneath indi reduce the impact of tanks on groundwater recharge. However, it should
vidual tanks, in the context of the landscape as a whole, tanks cover be noted that post-monsoon samples from the piped water showed high
small areas, especially in urban setting where they are encroached on for NO3 concentrations (up to 19.7 mg/L NO3 with a median of 15.2 mg/L).
development, and hence their overall contribution to recharge may al Considering that most of the piped water is imported from the Cauvery
ways be limited, but yet, it will be a useful endeavour to quantify better River, which flows through agricultural areas, it needs to be considered
the unit area impacts of tanks. For example, we did not see significant if the imported piped water might be introducing agricultural pollutants
trends of conservative tracers (stable isotopes and Cl, Pearson correla into the groundwater system.
tion) in groundwater with distance from tanks, and we estimated a Similar to Bengaluru, high Cl concentrations were detected in TG
recharge contribution only 2.6% from tank waters in TG Halli (based on Halli groundwaters (seasonal median up to 168.4 mg/L) and Berambadi
a two-end-member mixing for d-excess). Because of constraints on the (seasonal median up to 76.8). For comparison, Buvaneshwari et al.
regional data availability (for example, only a one-year amount (2020) only detected Cl concentration of mostly < 10 mg/L in a
weighted rainfall average was obtained for this study, and data on neighbouring, more pristine area in similar geological setting and at a
variations in tank surface areas and tank levels/storage for the three close distance to the Berambadi catchment. Therefore, the higher con
regions are not available) there is some uncertainty in these results, and centrations in Berambadi compared to its neighbouring area are unlikely
it may go beyond this study to define a per-unit-area value of tank to be of natural origin. The most likely cause of this are applied fertil
recharge. However, a more specifically designed monitoring network izers (e.g. Mg(NO3)2, Ca(NO3)2, KCl, or MgCl2), from which NO3 and Cl
with site-specific installation of deeper monitoring boreholes of varying are leached into the groundwater during the monsoon season (Buva
distance from tanks could provide further details on whether significant neshwari et al., 2020). This could also explain the higher concentrations
trends of conservative tracers might be detectable on smaller scales. We of Mg in the rural catchments, especially post-monsoon in Berambadi.
therefore propose that studies following a hydrochemical approach as NO3 concentrations exceeding the BIS DWL (drinking water limit) of 45
presented here combined with more site-specific monitoring networks mg/L were detected most frequently (85% of all groundwater samples)
as for example outlined in Knappett et al. (2012) and (Stahl et al., 2014) in Berambadi, with a peak concentration of 446 mg/L (Table S5, Sup
could be informative for the future. plementary Material). This is slightly higher than observed in the same
catchment by Buvaneshwari et al. (2017), who detected peak concen
trations of 360 mg/L, and average concentrations of 77 mg/L in
4.3. Contamination risks posed by tanks and other sources to
September 2012, and 75 mg/L in June 2013. Average concentrations in
groundwater
this study were somewhat higher with 133 mg/L (post-monsoon,
October 2017) and 113 mg/L (pre-monsoon, April 2018), which shows
Distinct hydrochemical patterns were observed in Bengaluru (e.g.
15
an upward trend in nitrate pollution in recent years and re-iterates that Nara: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Veena
better nutrient (and irrigation) management is crucial to prevent further Srinivasan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & edit
deterioration of the region’s groundwater quality (Sharma et al., 2018). ing, Resources, Funding acquisition.
5. Conclusions Declaration of Competing Interest
A suite of chemical analyses (stable isotopes, water chemistry) of The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
samples from piped water (sourced mainly from the Cauvery River), interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
surface waters (tank water and river water) and groundwater in three the work reported in this paper.
catchments set in the crystalline basement of the Cauvery Basin, Kar
nataka, India, was undertaken to investigate recharge patterns and
Acknowledgements
pathways. The three catchments comprised the urban area of Bengaluru
City (the state capital), and rural areas with higher levels of agricultural
The research underlying this paper was carried out under the
activity north of Bengaluru (TG Halli) and the Berambadi catchment in
UPSCAPE project of the Newton-Bhabha programme “Sustaining Water
southern Karnataka. The focus of this study was to use hydrochemical
Resources for Food, Energy and Ecosystem Services”, funded by the UK
tracers to see if significant groundwater recharge from ‘tank water’
Natural Environment Research Council (NERC-UKRI) [NE/N016270/1],
(water from artificial lakes) could be identified within the groundwater
and the Indian Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) [MoES/NERC/IA-
system.
SWR/P1/08/2016-PC-II (i), (ii)]. Interpretation and write up were
The distinct isotopic ratios and hydrochemistry between tank water
funded by the British Geological Survey NC-ODA Grant Geoscience for
and groundwaters at most sites — and especially in the rural catchments
Sustainable Futures [NE/R000069/1].
— observed in this study suggest that these are suitable tracers of tank
The authors would like to thank Carole Arrowsmith and Melanie
water recharge. The groundwater chemistry results indicate that tank
Leng in NIGL, BGS Keyworth for stable isotope analysis, and Michael
recharge is of limited importance to regional groundwater recharge and
Watts, Simon Chenery, Tom Barlow, Elliott Hamilton and Andy Marriott
quality in rural areas, where recharge from precipitation and ground
at BGS are thanked for providing the chemical analysis. The Central
water recycling from irrigation dominate the recharge signal. In the
Groundwater Board (CGWB) in Bengaluru is thanked for access to and
urban setting (Bengaluru), impermeable surfaces increased the relative
information on selected monitoring boreholes in the city and their
effect of recharge from point sources such as tanks and rivers, but where
support of field visits. P.R. Giriraja is thanked for collecting groundwater
present, pipe leakage from public-water-supply accounted for the ma
levels in Berambadi, and G. Manjunatha and C. Aradhya for field support
jority of recharge. Location-specific differences could be observed, e.g.
in TG Halli catchment. Amritha Thankachan, Renuka Prasad and Sub
between the city centre, where shallow groundwater levels are pre
hash Chandra are thanked for local guidance in Bengaluru, their valu
dominant and groundwater (as well as mains water leakage) is likely to
able advice, and field support. The Kabini Critical Zone Observatory is
interact and possibly recharge tanks, and the outskirts of Bengaluru.
managed by the Indo–French Cell for Water Sciences. It is part of the
This means that to sensibly estimate recharge by tank water, site-specific
Service National d’Observation (SNO) M-TROPICS, funded by the Uni
information, especially on water level fluctuations and alternative
versity of Toulouse, IRD and CNRS-INSU, and belongs to the French
recharge sources needs to also be considered. Additional studies to
network of Critical Zone Observatories: Research and Application. We
quantify tank recharge and revisions to the current guidelines for na
further acknowledge GIS support and provision of rainfall data by
tional groundwater recharge estimations, using a less generalised
ATREE ecoinformatics lab and from Amit Kumar Sharma, and assistance
approach, are recommended to avoid over-estimating the role tanks play
in spatial analysis by K.N. Sanjeeva Murthy at IISc. Lastly, we would like
in groundwater recharge.
to thank three anonymous reviewers whose critical reading and com
Groundwater contamination in Bengaluru from different sources was
ments/suggestions helped improve and clarify this manuscript. B.
observed with distinct regional patterns, e.g. Cl and Mg ‘hotspots’ near
Brauns, D.J. Lapworth, A.M. MacDonald and A.A. McKenzie publish
Kaikondrahalli tank and Vrishabhavathi River, and higher concentra
with the permission of the Director of the British Geological Survey
tions of NO3 near Lalbagh tank. Due to the shallow water levels in
(UKRI).
Bengaluru’s inner-city, and slight indication of recharge from tank water
in the outskirts, tanks in Bengaluru could be a possible source of
Appendix A. Supplementary data
contamination due to vertical infiltration to groundwater in the dry
season. In the rural catchments, especially Berambadi, contamination
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
was more ubiquitous, particularly regarding agricultural pollutants. The
org/10.1016/j.hydroa.2022.100121.
exceedance of DWLs by NO3 in the rural catchments is likely the impact
of diffuse recharge under fertilized areas, with tanks posing a negligible
References
risk to groundwater quality compared to other agricultural activities on
the land surface. Alcalá, F.J., Custodio, E., 2008. Using the Cl/Br ratio as a tracer to identify the origin of
salinity in aquifers in Spain and Portugal. J. Hydrol. 359 (1–2), 189–207. https://
CRediT authorship contribution statement doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.06.028.
Ambast, S., Tyagi, N., Raul, S., 2006. Management of declining groundwater in the Trans
Indo-Gangetic Plain (India): some options. Agric. Water Manag. 82 (3), 279–296.
Bentje Brauns: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Visu https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2005.06.005.
alization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Som Ballukraya, P.N., Srinivasan, V., 2019. Sharp variations in groundwater levels at the
same location: a case study from a heavily overexploited, fractured rock aquifer
subhra Chattopadhyay: Methodology, Investigation, Writing – review system near Bengaluru. South India. Curr. Sci. 117 (1), 130–138.
& editing, Resources. Dan J. Lapworth: Conceptualization, Methodol Banks, E.W., Simmons, C.T., Love, A.J., Cranswick, R., Werner, A.D., Bestland, E.A.,
ogy, Writing – review & editing, Funding acquisition. Sian E. Loveless: Wood, M., Wilson, T., 2009. Fractured bedrock and saprolite hydrogeologic controls
on groundwater/surface-water interaction: a conceptual model (Australia).
Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Writing – review & edit
Hydrogeol. J. 17 (8), 1969–1989. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-009-0490-7.
ing. Alan M. MacDonald: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – Bhanja, S.N., Mukherjee, A., Rangarajan, R., Scanlon, B.R., Malakar, P., Verma, S., 2019.
review & editing, Funding acquisition. Andrew A. McKenzie: Long-term groundwater recharge rates across India by in situ measurements. Hydrol.
Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Funding Earth Syst. Sci. 23 (2), 711–722. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-711-
201910.5194/hess-23-711-2019-supplement.
acquisition. Muddu Sekhar: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing BIS, 2012. Indian standard drinking water–specification (second revision). Bureau of
– review & editing, Funding acquisition, Resources. Siva Naga Venkat Indian Standards (BIS), New Delhi.
16
Boisson, A., Baïsset, M., Alazard, M., Perrin, J., Villesseche, D., Dewandel, B., Kottek, M., Grieser, J., Beck, C., Rudolf, B., Rubel, F., 2006. World map of the Köppen-
Kloppmann, W., Chandra, S., Picot-Colbeaux, G., Sarah, S., Ahmed, S., Maréchal, J. Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorol. Z. 15 (3), 259–263. https://doi.org/
C., 2014. Comparison of surface and groundwater balance approaches in the 10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130.
evaluation of managed aquifer recharge structures: Case of a percolation tank in a Kulkarni, H., Shah, M., Vijay Shankar, P.S., 2015. Shaping the contours of groundwater
crystalline aquifer in India. J. Hydrol. 519, 1620–1633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. governance in India. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. 4, 172–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jhydrol.2014.09.022. ejrh.2014.11.004.
Buvaneshwari, S., Riotte, J., Sekhar, M., Mohan Kumar, M.S., Sharma, A.K., Duprey, J.L., Kumar, B., Rai, S.P., Kumar, U.S., Verma, S.K., Garg, P., Kumar, S.V.V., Jaiswal, R.,
Audry, S., Giriraja, P.R., Praveenkumarreddy, Y., Moger, H., Durand, P., Braun, J.-J., Purendra, B.K., Kumar, S.R., Pande, N.G., 2010. Isotopic characteristics of Indian
Ruiz, L., 2017. Groundwater resource vulnerability and spatial variability of nitrate precipitation. Water Resour. Res. 46 (12) https://doi.org/10.1029/2009WR008532.
contamination: insights from high density tubewell monitoring in a hard rock Kumar, S., Bhadra, B.K., Paliwal, R., 2017. Evaluating the impact of artificial
aquifer. Sci. Total Environ. 579, 838–847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. groundwater recharge structures using geo-spatial techniques in the hard-rock
scitotenv.2016.11.017. terrain of Rajasthan, India. Environ. Earth Sci. 76 (17) https://doi.org/10.1007/
Buvaneshwari, S., Riotte, J., Sekhar, M., Sharma, A.K., Helliwell, R., Kumar, M.S.M., s12665-017-6953-6.
Braun, J.J., Ruiz, L., 2020. Potash fertilizer promotes incipient salinization in MacDonald, A.M., Bonsor, H.C., Ahmed, K.M., Burgess, W.G., Basharat, M., Calow, R.C.,
groundwater irrigated semi-arid agriculture. Sci. Rep. 10 (1) https://doi.org/ Dixit, A., Foster, S.S.D., Gopal, K., Lapworth, D.J., Lark, R.M., Moench, M.,
10.1038/s41598-020-60365-z. Mukherjee, A., Rao, M.S., Shamsudduha, M., Smith, L., Taylor, R.G., Tucker, J., van
CGWB, 2007. Manual on Artificial Recharge of Ground Water. Government of India, New Steenbergen, F., Yadav, S.K., 2016. Groundwater quality and depletion in the Indo-
Delhi, India. Gangetic Basin mapped from in situ observations. Nat. Geosci. 9 (10), 762–766.
CGWB, 2012. Aquifer Systems of India. Government of India, New Delhi, India. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2791.
CGWB, 2013. Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Ground Water in India. Government Massuel, S., Perrin, J., Mascre, C., Mohamed, W., Boisson, A., Ahmed, S., 2014. Managed
of India, New Delhi, India. aquifer recharge in South India: what to expect from small percolation tanks in hard
CGWB, 2019a. Ground water year book – India 2017-18, Ministry of Water Resources, rock? J. Hydrol. 512, 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.02.062.
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, Government of India, Faridabad, India. Metha, M., Jain, S., 1997. Efficiency of artificial recharge from percolation tanks.
CGWB, 2019b. National Compilation on Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India, Recharge of phreatic aquifers in (semi-) arid areas. IAH Int. Contrib. Hydrogeol 19,
2017. Government of India, Faridabad, India. 271–277.
Chowdhury, K., Behera, B., 2018. Is declining groundwater levels linked with the Nagendra, H., Ostrom, E., 2014. Applying the social-ecological system framework to the
discontinuity of traditional water harvesting systems (tank irrigation)? Empirical diagnosis of urban lake commons in Bangalore. India. Ecol. Soc. 19 (2), 18. https://
evidence from West Bengal. India. Groundw. Sustain. Dev. 7, 185–194. https://doi. doi.org/10.5751/es-06582-190267.
org/10.1016/j.gsd.2018.05.007. Ofterdinger, U., MacDonald, A.M., Comte, J.C., Young, M.E., 2019. Groundwater in
Collins, S.L., Loveless, S.E., Muddu, S., Buvaneshwari, S., Palamakumbura, R.N., fractured bedrock environments: managing catchment and subsurface resources – an
Krabbendam, M., Lapworth, D.J., Jackson, C.R., Gooddy, D.C., Nara, S.N.V., introduction. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 479(1): 1.1-9. doi:
Chattopadhyay, S., MacDonald, A.M., 2020. Groundwater connectivity of a sheared 10.1144/sp479-2018-170.
gneiss aquifer in the Cauvery River basin, India. Hydrogeol. J. 28 (4), 1371–1388. Pahuja, S., Tovey, C., Foster, S.S.D., H., G., 2010. Deep wells and prudence: towards
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-020-02140-y. pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India, The World
D’Souza, R., Nagendra, H., 2011. Changes in public commons as a consequence of Bank, Washington, USA.
urbanization: The Agara Lake in Bangalore. India. Environ. Manage. 47 (5), Palanisami, K., Meinzen-Dick, R., Giordano, M., 2010. Climate change and water
840–850. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9658-8. supplies: options for sustaining tank irrigation potential in India. Econ. Polit. Wkly.
Dansgaard, W., 1964. Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16 (4), 436–468. https:// 183–190.
doi.org/10.3402/tellusa.v16i4.8993. Pant, N., Verma, R., 2010. Tanks in Eastern India: a study in exploration. Hyderabad,
Darling, W.G., Bath, A.H., 1988. A stable isotope study of recharge processes in the India: International Water Management Institute, IWMI-TATA Water Policy
English Chalk. J. Hydrol. 101 (1–4), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(88) Research Program; Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India: Centre for Development Studies.,
90026-1. 232 pp. doi: 10.5337/2010.228.
De Vries, J.J., Simmers, I., 2002. Groundwater recharge: an overview of processes and Patil, N.K., 2011. Preservation of Lakes in the City of Bangalore: Report of the committee
challenges. Hydrogeol. J. 10 (1), 5–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0171- constituted by the Honorable High Court of Karnataka, Bangalore, Honorable High
7. Court of Karnataka, Bangalore.
Dixit, G., Kupaswamy, G., Mohan, S., 1993. Tank Irrigation in Karnataka-Historical Perrin, J., Ferrant, S., Massuel, S., Dewandel, B., Maréchal, J.C., Aulong, S., Ahmed, S.,
survey. Gandhi Sahitya Sanga, Malleswaram, Bangalore, Karnataka. 2012. Assessing water availability in a semi-arid watershed of southern India using a
EMPRI 2015. Final report on: Comprehensive assessment of Thippagondanahalli semi-distributed model. J. Hydrol. 460-461, 143–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Reservoir catchment area and its preservation zone. Volume-I. jhydrol.2012.07.002.
EMPRI, 2018. Inventorisation of Water Bodies in Bengaluru Metropolitan Area (BMA), Rahul, P., Ghosh, P., Bhattacharya, S.K., Yoshimura, K., 2016. Controlling factors of
Technical Document, Centre for Lake Conservation (CLC), EMPRI, Bengaluru, India. rainwater and water vapor isotopes at Bangalore, India: Constraints from
Esha, S., 2008. Telling otherwise: a historical anthropology of tank irrigation technology observations in 2013 Indian monsoon. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 121 (23),
in South India. Technol. Cult. 49 (3), 652–674. https://doi.org/10.1353/ 13936–13952. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016jd025352.
tech.0.0054. Reddy, P.R., 2015. An over view of Irrigation Tanks Rehabilitation in semi arid hard rock
GEC, 1997. Ground Water Estimation Methodology–1997. Government of India, New terrain. J. Indian Geophys. Union 19 (4), 481–487.
Delhi, India. Reddy, V.R., Behera, B., 2009. The economic and ecological impacts of tank restoration
GEC, 2017. Report of the Ground Water Resource Estimation Commitee (GEC-2015) – in South India. Eur. J. Dev. Res. 21 (1), 112–136. https://doi.org/10.1057/
Methodology, Ministry of Water Resources. River Development & Ganga ejdr.2008.12.
Rejuvenation, Government of India, New Delhi, India. Richard-Ferroudji, A., Raghunath, T., Venkatasubramanian, G., 2018. Managed aquifer
Gibbs, R.J., 1970. Mechanisms controlling world water chemistry. Science 170 (3962), recharge in India: consensual policy but controversial implementation. Water Altern.
1088–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.170.3962.1088. 11 (3), 749–769.
GoI, 2012a. Census of India 2011: House Listing and Housing Census. Government of Robert, M., Thomas, A., Sekhar, M., Badiger, S., Ruiz, L., Willaume, M., Leenhardt, D.,
India, Government of India (GoI), New Delhi, India. Bergez, J.-E., 2017. Farm typology in the Berambadi Watershed (India): Farming
GoI, 2012b. National Water Policy, Government of India (GoI). New Delhi, India. systems are determined by farm size and access to groundwater. Water 9 (1), 51.
GoI, 2015. All India report on Agricultural Census 2010–11, Government of India (GoI). https://doi.org/10.3390/w9010051.
New Delhi, India. Rodell, M., Velicogna, I., Famiglietti, J.S., 2009. Satellite-based estimates of groundwater
Guihéneuf, N., Boisson, A., Bour, O., Dewandel, B., Perrin, J., Dausse, A., Viossanges, M., depletion in India. Nature 460 (7258), 999–1002. https://doi.org/10.1038/
Chandra, S., Ahmed, S., Maréchal, J.C., 2014. Groundwater flows in weathered nature08238.
crystalline rocks: impact of piezometric variations and depth-dependent fracture Saha, D., Dwivedi, S.N., Roy, G.K., Reddy, D.V., 2013. Isotope-based investigation on the
connectivity. J. Hydrol. 511, 320–334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. groundwater flow and recharge mechanism in a hard-rock aquifer system: the case of
jhydrol.2014.01.061. Ranchi urban area, India. Hydrogeol. J. 21 (5), 1101–1115. https://doi.org/
Hedge, G.V., Chandra, K.C.S., 2012. Resource availability for water supply to Bangalore 10.1007/s10040-013-0974-3.
City, Karnataka. India. Curr. Sci. 102 (8). Scanlon, B.R., Cook, P.G., 2002. Theme issue on groundwater recharge. Hydrogeol. J. 10
Hedge, G.V., Subhash Chandra, K.C., 2014. Piezometric water-level condition in (1), 3–4. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0175-3.
Bangalore city, Karnataka, India. Curr. Sci. 106 (2), 156–159. Sekhar, M., Riotte, J., Ruiz, L., Jouquet, J., Braun, J.J., 2016. Influences of Climate and
IAEA/GNIP, 2014. International Atomic Energy Agency/Global Network of Isotopes in Agriculture on Water and Biogeochemical Cycles: Kabini Critical Zone Observatory.
Precipitation: precipitation sampling guide. Available under: http://www-naweb. Proc. Indian National Sci. Acad. 82 (3) https://doi.org/10.16943/ptinsa/2016/
iaea.org/napc/ih/documents/other/gnip_manual_v2.02_en_hq.pdf, Date of last 48488.
access 05/09/2021. Sekhar, M., Tomer, S., Thiyaku, S., Giriraj, P., Murthy, S., Mehta, V., 2018. Groundwater
Knappett, P.S.K., McKay, L.D., Layton, A., Williams, D.E., Alam, M.J., Huq, M.R., Mey, J., Level Dynamics in Bengaluru City. India. Sustainability 10 (2), 26. https://doi.org/
Feighery, J.E., Culligan, P.J., Mailloux, B.J., Zhuang, J., Escamilla, V., Emch, M., 10.3390/su10010026.
Perfect, E., Sayler, G.S., Ahmed, K.M., van Geen, A., 2012. Implications of fecal Shah, T., Roy, A.D., Qureshi, A.S., Wang, J., 2003. Sustaining Asia’s groundwater boom:
bacteria input from latrine-polluted ponds for wells in sandy aquifers. Environmental an overview of issues and evidence. Nat. Resour. Forum. Wiley Online Library 27
science & technology 46 (3), 1361–1370. https://doi.org/10.1021/es202773w. (2), 130–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.00048.
17
Sharda, V., Kurothe, R., Sena, D., Pande, V., Tiwari, S., 2006. Estimation of groundwater Srinivasan, V., Thompson, S., Madhyastha, K., Penny, G., Jeremiah, K., Lele, S., 2015.
recharge from water storage structures in a semi-arid climate of India. J. Hydrol. 329 Why is the Arkavathy River drying? A multiple-hypothesis approach in a data-scarce
(1–2), 224–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2006.02.015. region. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 19 (4), 1905–1917. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-
Sharma, A., 2003. Rethinking tanks: Opportunities for revitalizing irrigation tanks. 19-1905-2015.
Empiricalfindings from Ananthapur district, Andhra Pradesh, India, Working Paper Stahl, M.O., Tarek, M.H., Yeo, D.C.J., Badruzzaman, A.B.M., Harvey, C.F., 2014. Crab
62. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka, Available under: burrows as conduits for groundwater-surface water exchange in Bangladesh.
http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR62.pdf, Geophysical Research Letters 41 (23), 8342–8347. https://doi.org/10.1002/
Date of last access: 09/05/2021. 2014GL061626.
Sharma, A., Hubert-Moy, L., Buvaneshwari, S., Sekhar, M., Ruiz, L., Bandyopadhyay, S., Sukhija, B.S., Reddy, D.V., Nandakumar, M.V., 1997. A method for evaluation of
Corgne, S., 2018. Irrigation history estimation using multitemporal landsat satellite artificial recharge through percolation tanks using environmental chloride. Ground
images: application to an intensive groundwater irrigated agricultural watershed in water 35 (1), 161–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1997.tb00071.x.
India. Remote Sens. 10 (6), 893. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10060893. Tomer, S.K., Sekhar, M., Balakrishnan, K., Malghan, D., Thiyaku, S., Gautam, M.,
Singh, J., Awasthi, M., Sharma, R., 2004. Quantification of percolation from percolation Mehta, V.K., 2021. A model-based estimate of the groundwater budget and
tank. J. Soil Water Conserv. 3 (3), 128–132. associated uncertainties in Bengaluru, India. Urban Water J. 18 (1), 1–11.
Singhal, B.B.S., Gupta, R.P., 2010. Applied hydrogeology of fractured rocks. Springer
Science & Business Media, The Netherlands. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-8799-7.
18

Journal of Hydrology X

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Hydrology X

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Hydrology X

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Journal of Hydrology X 15 (2022) 100121

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Assessing the role of groundwater recharge from tanks in crystalline

Table 1 and Srinivasan (2019) investigated variations in groundwater levels in

< 50 m 51–150 m 151–250 m >250 m Total

post-monsoon (Oct ‘17) Bengaluru 3* 1 4 (+5) 2 6 2 (+1) 1 19 (+6)

between sample locations in Bengaluru compared to a very homogenous depth).

Piped mains water

In Berambadi, groundwater levels show a distinct regional gradient 4. Discussion

5. Conclusions Declaration of Competing Interest

You might also like