Water Quality 1

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Water quality management

For EHS 2 nd yr. students


Instructor:
yonas L.(BSc.,MSc.)

Debremarkos University College of Health Science


Department of Environmental Health

1
Water quantity and quality
Objectives
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to
• Estimate water demand for different purposes
• Describe physical quality of water
• Describe chemical quality of water
• Describe bacteriological quality of water
• Explain setting of guideline values

2
Introduction

 The availability of a clean and safe water supply is


essential for public health.
 Water is used for a number of needs but in
subsistence economies the most important use is the
domestic purposes and for small productive uses
such as garden irrigation.
 Water for domestic use needs to be safe and free
from pathogens and other harmful substances.
 According to WHO survey 80% all illnesses in
developing countries are water associated.
3
…cont’d
 The use of unsafe water causes high prevalence of diarrhea
diseases among children in high infant and child mortality
rate.
 According to the EDHS 2016, 65% of households (97 %
Urban, 57% rural) in Ethiopia receiving drinking water from
improved sources.
In planning a community’s water supply program the
following points should be considered:-

4
…cont’d

Quality of water: must be safe, wholesome and


convenient.

Quantity of water: must be adequate for liberal use.

Convenience: The water should ideally be piped to


house holds and be easily accessible to consumers,
and it should be reasonably cheap to develop and use.

5
…cont’d
Choosing Water resources – Starting point of WQ
interventions
Water Quality - How good is it?
Affordability - What does it cost?
Adequacy – Can it supply enough water?
Reliability - How long will it last?
Convenience - How far away is it from homesteads?

6
Percent distribution of households by source of drinking
water according to residence, Ethiopia 2016. Evidenced
from EDHS data
Source of drinking water
Characteristics Urban Rural Total

Improved sources 97.3 56.5 64.8


Piped into dwelling/yard/plot 63.0 1.8 14.3
Piped to neighbor 12.3 1.1 3.4
Public tap/standpipe 13.1 18.9 17.7
Protected dug well 3.2 13.1 11.1
Tube well/borehole 1.5 7.0 5.9
Protected spring 3.3 13.9 11.7
Rain water 0.0 0.7 0.5
Bottled water, improved source for 0.9 0.0 0.2
drinking 7
Percent distribution of households by source of drinking water
according to residence, Ethiopia 2016. Evidenced from
EDHS data

Source of drinking water

Characteristics Urban Rural Total


Unimproved sources 2.7 43.4 35.1
Unprotected dug well 0.2 5.1 4.1
Unprotected spring 1.3 24.7 20.0
Tanker truck/cart with small tank 0.5 0.4 0.4
Surface water 0.7 13.2 10.7
Bottled water, unimproved source for 0.0 0.0 0.0
drinking

8
Percent distribution of households by time to obtain drinking
water according to residence, Ethiopia 2016. Evidenced from
EDHS data

Water accessibility
Characteristics Urban Rural Total
Time to obtain drinking water
(round trip)
Water on premises 76.8 5.6 20.1
Less than 30 minutes 10.2 41.7 35.3
30 minutes or longer 12.6 52.6 44.5

9
Percent distribution of households by treatment of water
prior to drinking according to residence, Ethiopia 2016.
Evidenced from EDHS data

Water treatment prior to drinking


Treatment method Urban Rural Total
Boil 2.8 2.0 2.2
Bleach/chlorine added 6.1 2.5 3.2
Strained through cloth 0.5 1.9 1.7
Ceramic, sand, composite, or other 1.6 0.9 1.0
filter
Solar disinfection (SODIS) 0.0 0.1 0.1
Let it stand and settle 0.0 0.3 0.3
No treatment 88.4 92.1 91.3
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Water quantity
The amount of water a person needs each day is determined by
a number of factors. These are:
Cultural habits
Socioeconomic status and standard of living
Hygiene awareness
Productive uses
The charge for water
The quality of water as experienced by the users
Distance of water sources
Note: Depending on climate and work load the human
body needs from 3 to 10 liters of water per day for normal
functioning. Part of this water may be derived from food.

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Set out typical domestic water usage data for different types of water
supply systems.
TYPES OF WATER SUPPLY RANGE
L/c/day L/c/day
_Communal water point
( e.g. village well, public stand pipe )
_ At considerable distance 7 5 ___10
( >1000 m )

At medium distance ( 500 to 1000 m ) 12 10 ___ 15

village well
walking distance < 250m 20 15 ____ 25

_ Communal stand pipe


- walking distance < 250m 30 20 ___50

_ yard connection
- tap placed in house yard 40 20 ___80
_ House connection
Single tap 50 30 ___60

Multiple tap 105 70 ___250


12
…cont’d

In the selection of the type of service, finance is usually


an important factor and the choice also depends on:

The location and size of the community

The geographical conditions and

The available water source

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WATER DEMAND
The following are the various types of water demands of
a town or a city:
Domestic demand: It includes the water required
in the houses for drinking, cooking, bathing,
washing of clothes and utensils, gardening, etc.
Commercial demand: It includes the water demand
in commercial centers like office buildings, hotels,
restaurants, shopping centers, cinema houses,
dairies, etc.
Industrial demand: The industrial demand of water
depends on the type of industry in the area.
Public demand: It includes the water requirement
for public places such as public sanitary blocks,
parks, swimming pools, etc. 14
…cont’d
To obtain a first estimate of the water demand of a community it is
easier to establish the number of households from an aerial survey
rather than a door – to – door census.

Making careful analysis:-It is often very difficult to estimate the


future water demand of a community accurately
 Over sizing to over estimation of population and consumption
makes schemes uneconomical and leads to high unit costs for
those people already connected to the supply.
The right decision requires careful analysis.

15
…cont’d
Factors related to better estimates of water quantity are:-
Local knowledge of population growth rates
Affordability criteria
The type of schemes envisaged

To have a better estimate:


Consultation with the local communities on the demand of the
different user groups
Building on experiences from neighboring or similar areas is
helpful

16
…cont’d
 The design would typically be based on the daily water demand estimated
for the end of the specified design period

(Typically 10 years for water intake works and treatment plant, and 25 years
for the distribution network system).

The estimation would use:

 A design population (present population multiplied by growth factor)

 Multiplied by an estimate of initial and final per capita consumption.

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Table shows population growth factors for various yearly
growth rates for periods of 10, 15, 20, and 25 years.
(1+v/100)n
DESIGN
PERIOD( Y E A R L Y G R O W T H R A T E
YEARS)
2% 3% 4% 5%
10 1.22 1.34 1.48 1.63
15 1.35 1.56 1.80 2.08
20 1.49 1.81 2.19 2.65
25 1.64 2.09 2.67 3.39

18
DESIGN CAPACITY:
Population project:
The population projection is estimated by using the following
formula:-
N = No (1 + v/100)n
Where: N= population after year n
No = present population
V = population growth rate
n = design period (years)

19
…cont’d
Categories of water demand / use :
The water use/demand in the distribution network has been
divided in to three categories, namely:
I. Domestic
II. Industrial and
III. Other.
I. Domestic use: is the demand at the house hold level for:
 Cooking,
 Washing and
 Drinking
And the projection is entertained for the three main modes of
services (house, yard and stand posts connection).
20
…cont’d
The following formula is used to compute domestic use (D).

D = dn x N x 365 x 10-9 Mm3/year


Where: - dn = per capita consumption (L/c.d )
N = population served

II. Industrial
Industrial use is the demand at the commercial and industrial area /
activities. The industrial use (I) is computed as follows:-
I = in x N x 365 x10-9Mm3/year
Where: -
N= total population at nth year.
in= average industrial consumption (L/c.d) at the nth year.

21
…cont’d
III Other uses
-In addition to the domestic and industrial uses the water is used for
other activities such as cleaning and watering of public parks,
gardens and streets, and firefighting.
- In a similar way as for domestic and industrial uses, the water
demand for other use (O) is computed as follows:-
O = On x N x 365 x 10-9 Mm3/year
Where: - N = Total population at nth year
On = average other use consumption (L/c.d ) at nth year.
The total water demand (WD) into the distribution network is
given by:-
WD = D + I + O
N.B add 20% wastage

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Water quality
Quality aspects of drinking water: Water for domestic
use is required to be both wholesome and safe.
Drinking water should be:( criteria of water quality)
1. Free of micro-organisms and chemical substances that
are injurious (harmful) to health.
2. Free of any disagreeable taste or odor. To enable
consumers to prepare tea, coffee, soup etc.
3. Of such quality that consumers don’t question the
safety.
As a consequence:
Turbidity, color, taste/odor should be low or absent.
Organisms e.g. worms, fly nymphs should be absent.
23
…cont’d
4. Suitable for house keeping.
As a consequence:
Iron and manganese concentration should be low. Iron
causes a brown and manganese a black color e.g.
resulting in staining laundry.
Hardness should not be high due to scale formation in
water heaters and increased soap consumption.
5.Non-aggressive to materials used in distribution
networks and house-installation.
• Water borne diseases are caused by ingestion of water
contaminated by human or animal feces or urine
containing pathogenic microorganisms.
24
Examples of water borne diseases
MICROORGANISMS DISEASE
Entamoeba histolytica1 Amoebic dysentery
Bacillus vibrio cholera2 Cholera
Hepatitis A, E,F virus Hepatitis
Polio virus Paralytic poliomyelitis
Salmonella2 Typhoid fever

Key 1= Protozoan 2= bacteria

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Other diseases, which can be caused by contaminated drinking
water as well. E.g.

Organisms Diseases
Guinea worm Dracunculiasis

Cryptosporidium1 Cryptosporidiosis
Giardia1 Giardiasis
Legionella2 Legionellosis
(pneumonis)3
Key 1= protozoan
2= Bacterium
3= caused by inhalation of legionella-containing aerosols generated by;
e.g. air conditioning systems, hot water whirlpools

26
…cont’d
“Drinking water should be free of injurious (micro-) organisms”.
It is not stated “absolutely free”. Because
It is not possible;
It is not necessary.
Why it is not possible and necessary?
“Absolutely free means e.g. no microorganisms present in: 1ml,
100ml, 1L, 1m3 106 m3, 109 m3. Therefore it is impossible to
produce 106 m3 or 109 m3 water that is “absolutely free of any
harmful organisms” and to verify that.

27
…cont’d
Why is it not necessary?
Answer: In general a person will not become ill when one
microorganism is ingested.
Example
Whether ingestion of (micro-) organism’s result in disease
depends on:
How virulent (ill natured) the (micro-) organisms is :
How many (micro-) organisms are ingested;
How resistant is the consumer.

28
…cont’d
For example:
105 to 106 poliomyelitis viruses have to be ingested, to be
infected, depending on the resistance (condition) of the
consumers.
This number is called infective dose, for those who are not
vaccinated.
Remark: Some viruses are very infectious.
• Just one can cause an infection.
• However these are exceptions.
• The following equation illustrates these effects:
29
…cont’d
r = NxV/R
where:
r = is a factor related o the probability of diseases;
N= Number of (microorganisms ingested;
V = Virulence of (micro-) organisms;
R = Resistance
If r >1 disease will occur
If r < 1 disease will probably not occur.
• Unfortunately N,V,R are very difficult to determine.
• So in practice the policy is to keep/ bring the concentration as
low as possible.

30
…cont’d
E . coli as indicator for faecal contamination
This policy resulted in a guideline for E.coli
(Escherichia coliform) of:
“ E.coli should be absent in 100ml samples”
Reasons for this approach are:
Measurement of pathogenic ( micro-) organisms in
water is very complicated, time consuming and very
costly;
Fecally polluted water is responsible for spreading
enteric diseases;

31
…cont’d
Reason
Coliform bacteria in particular E. coli, Streptococci,
Clostridia spores are execrated in large numbers by
healthy human beings and warm blooded animal.
These micro-organisms are normal intestinal
organisms and are not harmful.
In practice coliform and faecal coliform (E.coli) are
commonly applied as indicators of faecal pollution of
drinking water.

32
Examples of risk classification for faecal coliform or E.
coli for rural water supplies
COUNT/ 100ML RISK CATEGORIES

0 In conformity with WHO


guidelines
Low risk
1-10
11-100 Intermediate risk
101-1000 High risk
> 1000 Very high risk

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A HUMAN BEING IS EXECRATING ABOUT 200X109 E. COLI BACTERIA
PER DAY

The relevance of this bacterium is illustrated in the table


showing the concentration of different (micro-)
organisms in domestic sewage.

Microorganisms No. of cells in ml


E.coli 105 to 106
Streptococcus fecalis 103 to 105
C. preferringes spores 102 to 103
Vibrio cholera 1 to 102
Viruses Up to 102
34
Related to chemicals
“Drinking water should be free of chemical substances,
which are injurious to health”.
Remark: It is not stated “absolutely free”
Because:
It is not possible ;
It is not necessary;
Reason:
In harmful effects if a substance depend not only on the
toxicity of a compound but from the quantity consumed as
well.

35
…cont’d
The toxicity of compounds is divided in two
categories:
Acute toxicity;
Sub-acute toxicity
• Acute toxicity is expressed as LD-50 or Lethal dose
50%.
• This is the quantity of a compound ingested at once,
that results in the dead of 50% of the consumers
(animals or human being) in a few days.

36
…cont’d

Note: If the LD-50 of a substance is very small, it has a high power of toxicity
and vise versa.

37
Guideline Value
• Guideline value (GV) is derived from the TDI:

GV= TDI. bw. p


C
• Where:
bw = body weight (60 Kg for adults, 10 Kg for children,
5 Kg for infants )
P = fraction of the TDI allocated to drinking water;
C = daily consumption of drinking water (2L for adults,
1L for children, 0.75L for infants)
TDI =Tolerable Daily Intake

38
…cont’d
Highest desirable level is a requirement whose
fulfillment is desirable but whose non-fulfillment will
not be sufficient cause for disqualification of the water
for drinking and domestic use.
Maximum permissible level is a requirement level
whose non fulfillment would disqualify the water for
drinking and domestic use because of its probable
hazard to health.
This is the level that can be tolerated with out
significant health risks.

39
…cont’d
For non-genotoxic carcinogen compounds the
guideline value is derived from the Tolerable Daily
Intake.
• For genotoxic carcinogens a mathematical model is
used.
• This model is based on an excess lifetime cancer risk
of 10-5 ( one additional cancer case per 100,000 of
population for 70 years).
Sub – acute toxicity for non-carcinogens and non-
genotoxic carcinogens is expressed as:
NOAEL = No-observed-adverse-effect-level.
40
…cont’d
• This is the highest dose or concentration of a
substance that causes no detectable health effect
preferably based on long-term studies.
• If a NOAEL is not available, LOAEL may be used.
This is the lowest observed dose or concentration of a
substance at which there is a detectable adverse
health effect.
NB: For Carcinogens and Potential Carcinogens
having genotoxic effect a different approach is
being followed.

41
…cont’d
Guidelines based on NOAEL or LOAEL
• Tolerable daily intake (TDI)
• Is the amount of a substance, expressed on a body
weight (e.g. mg/Kg of body weight of a person) that
can be ingested daily with e.g. food, air, water with
out appreciable health risk.
• The TDI can be derived as follows:
• TDI = NOAEL/ UF or LOAEL/ UF
• UF = uncertainty factor e.g. 1 to 10,000

42
…cont’d
Uncertainty Factors
They are used to correct both the NOAEL and LOAEL for the
uncertainties intrinsic to extrapolation between animal studies and human
populations or from a small human group to the general population.
Example for calculation Guideline value
Cadmium ( non carcinogen)
LD- 50 = 350 - 3500mg for humans;
TDI = 1 µg/Kg of body weight per day;
P= 10% of the TDI is allocated to drink- water;
C = 2L daily water consumption

GV = TDI . bw .p
C
= 1 µg/Kg . person. day x 60kg x 10% = 3µg/L
2L/day. Per. person
43
WHO Guidelines for drinking
water
These guidelines comprise:
1. Bacteriological quality of drinking water;
2. Chemicals of health significance in drinking water:
A. Inorganic constituents;
B. Organic constituents;
C. Pesticides;
D. Disinfectants and disinfections byproducts.
3.No significant health effect of chemicals at that
concentrations but normally found in drinking water;
4. Radioactive constituents of drinking water;
5. Substances and parameters in drinking water that may
give rise to complaints consumers.

44
…cont’d

45
…cont’d

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