 Flat Plate Collector:

# Describe basic types of solar energy collector (3).

1. Flat-Plate Collectors: Absorb sunlight on a flat surface, heat fluid for domestic hot water
and space heating.
2. Evacuated Tube Collectors: Use vacuum-sealed tubes to capture sunlight, high
efficiency in cold/cloudy conditions.
3. Parabolic Trough Collectors: Focus sunlight with curved mirrors, used in large-scale
power plants.
4. Solar Towers: Concentrate sunlight with heliostats onto a central receiver, generating
steam for electricity.
5. Photovoltaic (PV) Collectors: Convert sunlight directly into electricity using
semiconductor cells.

# Describe construction of a solar water heater and show different parts with help of a figure
and explain the working process. (7).

A solar water heater typically consists of a solar collector, insulated storage tank, and circulation
system. The solar collector absorbs sunlight, heating the fluid inside. The heated fluid then
transfers heat to water in the storage tank. The circulation system ensures continuous fluid
movement. Here’s a simple diagram:

markdown
_______ _______
| | ---------> | |
|Collector| | Tank |
|_______| <--------- |_______|

Working Process: Sunlight heats the collector fluid, which circulates through the system,
transferring heat to the water in the storage tank for use.
# Differentiate between solar water heater and solar air heater (4).
A solar water heater uses solar collectors to heat a liquid, typically water or an antifreeze solution,
which is then stored in a tank for domestic hot water or space heating. A solar air heater heats air
directly using solar collectors; the warmed air is then circulated to heat indoor spaces. Water heaters
are designed for fluid heating and storage, while air heaters focus on direct air heating for immediate
use.

PRINCIPAL DIFFERENCES WITH WATER HEATERS

(i) The entire surface area is available for heat transfer to the air stream
(ii) The fan/blower of higher capacity is required.
(iii) Corrosion is not an important problem with air collectors

#Write a short note on solar concentrating system and show with help of figures (7).

A solar concentrating system focuses sunlight onto a small, high-intensity area to generate heat,
which can then be used to produce electricity or for industrial processes. This system uses
mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight, achieving higher temperatures and efficiencies
compared to non-concentrating solar collectors.

Types of Solar Concentrating Systems:

1. Parabolic Trough Collectors

o Description: Uses curved, parabolic mirrors to focus sunlight onto a receiver tube
located at the focal line of the trough.

 Solar Power Tower (Central Receiver System)

 Description: Utilizes a field of mirrors (heliostats) to direct sunlight onto a central

receiver mounted on a tower. The concentrated energy heats a working fluid, typically
molten salt, which is used to generate steam and produce electricity.

 Parabolic Dish Collectors

 Description: Uses a dish-shaped reflector to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver

positioned at the focal point. The receiver absorbs the concentrated sunlight and transfers
the heat to a working fluid.
 Application: Small-scale power generation and experimental setups.


 )
 Linear Fresnel Reflectors

 Description: Employs long, flat mirrors arranged in a series to focus sunlight onto a
fixed receiver positioned above the mirrors. This system is simpler and cheaper than
parabolic troughs.
 Application: Industrial process heat and electricity generation.

Working Process:

1. Sunlight Collection: Mirrors or lenses capture and focus sunlight onto a receiver.
2. Heat Absorption: The receiver absorbs the concentrated solar energy, heating a working
fluid (such as oil, molten salt, or air).
3. Heat Transfer: The heated fluid is used to produce steam or hot air.
4. Electricity Generation: The steam drives a turbine connected to a generator, producing
electricity, or the heat is used directly for industrial processes.

These systems are highly efficient and capable of producing large amounts of energy, making
them suitable for both power generation and industrial applications.

# Write the simplified form of Hotel-Whillier-Bliss equation / useful energy gain equation and
specify its parameters (4).

he simplified form of the Hottel-Whillier-Bliss equation for useful energy gain (QuQu) in a solar
collector is:

Qu=Ac⋅Fr⋅[S−UL⋅(Ti−Ta)]Qu=Ac⋅Fr⋅[S−UL⋅(Ti−Ta)]

Where:

 Qu: Useful energy gain (W)

 Ac: Collector area (m²)
 Fr: Heat removal factor
 S: Solar radiation absorbed per unit area (W/m²)
 UL: Overall heat loss coefficient (W/m²·K)
 Ti: Inlet fluid temperature (°C)
 Ta: Ambient temperature (°C)

# Classify solar concentrating systems and show with help of figures (7).
# Write down the mathematical expression for calculating the efficiency of the solar thermal
collector and specify its parameters (4).

The efficiency (ηη) of a solar thermal collector is calculated using the expression:

η= Qu/Ac⋅G

Where:

 η: Efficiency of the collector

 Qu: Useful energy gain (W)
 Ac: Collector area (m²)
 G: Solar irradiance (W/m²)

This formula represents the ratio of useful energy output to the incident solar energy.

# Show the characteristics graph of a solar thermal collector (3).

Solar Distillation:

# Why do we need solar distilled water? (2)

Solar distilled water is crucial for regions with limited access to clean water sources or facing water
scarcity. Solar distillation offers a sustainable method to produce potable water by harnessing sunlight
to evaporate and condense water, removing impurities and contaminants. It provides a reliable and
environmentally friendly solution for communities lacking safe drinking water, contributing to improved
public health and sanitation.

# Describe basic distillation with figure. (5)

Basic distillation involves heating a liquid to create vapor, which is then cooled and condensed back into
a liquid form, resulting in purified water. The process separates contaminants and impurities from the
original liquid. Here's a simplified diagram:

# What is solar still and how does it work? (7)

A solar still is a simple device that uses solar energy to produce distilled water from contaminated or
saline water sources. It typically consists of a transparent cover, which allows sunlight to enter, and a
basin containing the impure water. Solar radiation heats the water, causing evaporation. The vapor
rises, condenses on the cool inner surface of the cover, and drips down into a collection channel,
producing purified water.

1) Heat water to point of vaporization

2) Water vapor condenses on cooler surfaces

3) Condensate runs off into collection bin

# What is the material required in solar still? (2)

Materials required for a solar still include:

1. Transparent Cover: Glass or clear plastic to allow sunlight in.

2. Basin: Dark-colored, waterproof container to hold contaminated water.
3. Condensation Surface: Sloped inner surface for water collection.
4. Collection Channel: To gather distilled water.
5. Sealants: To prevent leaks.

8. Hydro Power:

 What is hydropower? Describe with equation. (4)

Hydropower is the generation of electricity using the energy of flowing or falling water. It
converts the kinetic energy of water into mechanical energy, which is then transformed into
electrical energy via turbines and generators.

The power output PP from a hydropower system is given by the equation:

P=η⋅ρ⋅g⋅Q⋅HP=η⋅ρ⋅g⋅Q⋅H

Where:

 PP: Power output (Watts)

 ηη: Efficiency of the system (dimensionless)
 ρρ: Density of water (kg/m³), approximately 1000 kg/m³
 gg: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s²), approximately 9.81 m/s²
 QQ: Flow rate of water (m³/s)
 HH: Height difference (head) of water (m)
This equation highlights the dependence of power generation on the water flow rate and the
height from which the water falls.

 How water power works? (3)

Water power works by channeling flowing or falling water to turn turbines connected to generators. The
kinetic energy of water is converted into mechanical energy by the turbines, which is then transformed
into electrical energy by the generators, producing hydropower. This process efficiently harnesses
renewable water energy for electricity.

Water power is the combination of Head (difference in elevation between water intake and the turbine)
and Flow (volume per second).

Consider a typical hydro system:

Water is diverted from a stream into a pipeline, where it is carried downhill and through the turbine
(Flow).

The vertical drop (Head) creates pressure at the bottom end of the pipeline.

The pressurized water emerging from the end of the pipe creates the force that drives the turbine.

More Flow and more Head, produces more power.

 Describe with schematic diagram of a conventional hydro Power Plant. (5)

 Describe main components of a conventional hydro power plant and show with help of figure. (7
Dam: Most hydropower plants rely on a dam that holds back water, creating a large water reservoir that
can be used as storage

Intake, penstock and surge chamber: Gates on the dam open and gravity conducts the water through the
penstock (a cavity or pipeline) to the turbine. There is sometimes a head race before the penstock. A surge
chamber or tank is used to reduce surges in water pressure that could potentially damage or lead to
increased stresses on the turbine.

Turbine: The water strikes the turbine blades and turns the turbine, which is attached to a generator by a
shaft. There is a range of configurations possible with the generator above or next to the turbine. The
most common type of turbine for hydropower plants in use today is the Francis Turbine, which allows a
side-by-side configuration with the generator

Generators: As the turbine blades turn, the rotor inside the generator also turns and electric current is
produced as magnets rotate inside the fixed-coil generator to produce alternating current (AC).

Transformer: The transformer inside the powerhouse takes the AC voltage and converts it into higher-
voltage current for more efficient (lower losses) long-distance transport.

Outflow: Finally, the used water is carried out through pipelines, called tailraces, and re-enters the river
downstream. The outflow system may also include “spillways” which allow the water to bypass the
generation system and be “spilled” in times of flood or very high inflows and reservoir levels.

 What is fluid machines? Write name of different type of turbines with example. (2+3)

Fluid machines are devices that transfer energy between a fluid and a mechanical system.
Turbines are a common type of fluid machine used to extract energy from flowing fluids,
typically water or steam, and convert it into mechanical or electrical energy. Different types of
turbines include:

1. Pelton Turbine: Suitable for high head, low flow applications, used in hydroelectric
power plants.
2. Francis Turbine: Versatile turbine for medium head, medium flow conditions,
commonly used in hydroelectric power plants.
3. Kaplan Turbine: Designed for low head, high flow conditions, often used in rivers and
tidal power projects.

 What is specific speed and efficiency of turbine? (5)

Specific speed (NsNs) is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the performance of a

turbine design. It represents the speed at which a geometrically similar turbine would operate
under unit head and unit flow rate conditions, providing a basis for comparing different turbine
types.

Efficiency (ηη) of a turbine refers to the ratio of the actual useful work output to the theoretical
work input. It indicates how effectively the turbine converts the energy of the flowing fluid into
mechanical or electrical energy. Higher efficiency implies better performance and less energy
loss during operation.

7. Solar Radiation (Full Slide):

 What do you mean by the Astronomical Unit? Briefly describe different types of
solar radiation. (2+2)

The Astronomical Unit (AU) is a unit of length used in astronomy, defined as the average
distance between the Earth and the Sun, approximately 149.6 million kilometers (93 million
miles).

Solar radiation encompasses various types of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the Sun,
including:

1. Visible Light: The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum visible to the human eye.
2. Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation: Short-wavelength radiation responsible for sunburn and
vitamin D synthesis.
3. Infrared (IR) Radiation: Longer-wavelength radiation felt as heat on Earth

 Write short notes on the following terms: a) Irradiance, b) Irradiation, c) Air

mass, d) Albedo radiation, e) Zenith (7)
a) Irradiance: Irradiance refers to the power of electromagnetic radiation per unit area incident
on a surface, typically expressed in watts per square meter (W/m²). It represents the amount of
solar energy received by a given area .

b) Irradiation: Irradiation is the accumulation of solar energy received by a surface over a

specific period, typically expressed in watt-hours per square meter (Wh/m²) or kilowatt-hours per
square meter (kWh/m²). It accounts for both the intensity and duration of solar radiation
exposure.

c) Air Mass: Air mass refers to the path length of sunlight through Earth's atmosphere. It is a
measure of how much atmosphere sunlight must traverse before reaching the surface.

d) Albedo Radiation: Albedo radiation refers to the portion of solar radiation that is reflected
back into space by the Earth's surface, clouds, and atmosphere. It plays a crucial role in Earth's
energy balance, influencing climate and temperature patterns. Surfaces with higher albedo reflect
more sunlight, while those with lower albedo absorb more.

e) Zenith: Definition: Zenith is the imaginary point that is directly above a particular location
on the celestial sphere.

 Define peak sun hour. What is the total peak sun hours for a day with an average
irradiance of 600 W/m2 over an 8 hour period? (3)

Peak Sun Hour (PSH):

Peak sun hours is the number of hours required for a day’s total solar irradiation to accumulate at
peak sun condition

To calculate the total peak sun hours for a day with an average irradiance of 600 W/m² over an 8-
hour period:
Therefore, the total peak sun hours for the day is 4.8 PSH

 Define insolation. How does it differ from Irradiation? (3)

Insolation refers to the amount of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area during a
specific time period, typically expressed in kilowatt-hours per square meter (kWh/m²).

Difference from Irradiation: While both refer to solar energy, insolation is the energy received
over time, whereas irradiation is the instant power per unit area

 Write uses of pyranometer & pyrheliometer. (2)

Pyranometer Uses:

1. Solar Energy Assessment: Measures global solar radiation on a horizontal surface,

crucial for solar panel efficiency studies and energy output estimation.
2. Climate Research: Helps monitor solar radiation, aiding in climate modeling and
atmospheric studies.
3. Agricultural Applications: Assesses sunlight availability for crop growth and
agricultural planning.
4. Building Energy Management: Evaluates solar gain for optimizing heating, cooling,
and lighting in buildings.

Pyrheliometer Uses:

1. Direct Solar Radiation Measurement: Measures direct beam solar radiation, essential
for solar concentrator systems like parabolic troughs and solar towers.
2. Solar Resource Mapping: Assists in mapping solar potential and selecting optimal
locations for solar power plants.
 3. Meteorological Studies: Supports weather stations in providing accurate data on solar
radiation.
4. Material Testing: Used in testing the durability and performance of materials under
direct sunlight conditions.

 Briefly describe the measurement systems for different types of solar radiation. (3)

1. Global Solar Radiation:

o Instrument: Pyranometer
o Description: Measures the total solar radiation received from the entire sky,
including both direct sunlight and diffuse sky radiation.
2. Direct Solar Radiation:
o Instrument: Pyrheliometer
o Description: Measures the direct beam solar radiation received from the sun,
excluding diffuse sky radiation.
3. Diffuse Solar Radiation:
o Instrument: Shaded Pyranometer (with a shading ring or ball)
o Description: Measures the solar radiation scattered by the atmosphere and
received from the sky excluding direct sunlight.
4. Reflected Solar Radiation:
o Instrument: Albedometer (or Upward-facing Pyranometer)
o Description: Measures the amount of solar radiation reflected from the ground or
other surfaces.

Each instrument is calibrated to ensure accurate and reliable measurements, providing essential
data for various applications in solar energy, climate science, and environmental studies.