ShortNotes Ancient and Medieval History VyasIAS KING R QUEEN P

Ancient and medieval history notes by Vyasa IAS
1. SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

The study of ancient Indian history is an important for several reasons, through it we would come to know about how when and where people develop the
earliest culture in our country it tells us how our ancestors started agriculture which made life secure and settled.
In order to understand the life of Indian people in the past archaeologist and scholars rely on different sources of Indian history the sources of ancient Indian
history can be studied under the following three heads
1. Archeological Sources
2. Literary Sources
3. Foreign Accounts
SOURCES EVIDENCES INFORMATION

Archeological Sources: Archaeology is the scientific study • The process of exploring penetrating or ranging over for purpose of discovery is
of materials remains of past known as exploration.
Sites buried underground can be detected by simple methods like inserting
human life and activities on the
metal probes or rods into the ground. There are also more sophisticated
other hand archaeological sources
remote sensing techniques such as LANDSAT imagery.
refers to the source obtained by
process of archaeological • Almost every aspect of lifestyle like, use of pottery type, house construction design,
excavation. agriculture (grains produced), animals domesticated, type of tools, weapons etc. and burial
practicesof the time and geography.
Methods: • VERTICAL EXCAVATIONS Where the digging involved a small surface area that provides
1. Exploration chronological sequence of material culture.
2. Excavation
• HORIZONTAL EXCAVATION Where a large surface is exposed, gives complete idea of
3. Epigraphy
particular culture.
4. Numismatics
The study of coins is called • Punched Marked Coins: These are found between 6th century BC to 2nd century
Numismatics. BC, each unit is called Ratti (0.11gm), found during Mauryan Period, Coins such
as Rupyarupa (Silver), Suvarnarupa (Gold) and Tamarupa (Copper) were found
Numismatics evidence are
with average weight of 50-54 gm of silver.
important to determine
COINS:
chronology, property, territorial • Indo-Greek Coins:
extent, religion and relation 1. Buster head of ruler
with neighboring countries of 2. Bilingual: Greek and Kharosthi
the reigning king and dynasty. 3. Greek God and Goddess like Zeus, Hercules and Apollo
4. Later also found Indian deities
5. Coins issued by Kanishka employed Greek character.
• Coins of Satvahanas
1. Found between 232 BC to 227 AD
2. Satvahanas have mostly used lead as a material for their coins
3. Silver coins are very rare
4. Used alloys of silver and copper which was called Potin
5. Copper coins are also available
6. One side figure of Elephant, Horse, lion and Chaityas and another
side with Ujjain symbol
7. Dialect used as Prakrit
• Coins of Indo-Scythians
1. Found between 35 to 205 AD
Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

2. Western India: Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar
3. Saka Origin, bear date of Saka Era (78AD)
4. Found Buddhist Chaityas and Stupas
5. Dialect as Prakrit
• Coins of Gupta Age
1. Period of great Hindu revival
2. Mainly made up of gold later issued silver and copper coins also.
3. Silver coins issued after Chandragupta 2
4. One site playing veena, Ashvamedha, riding horse or an elephant,
slaying a lion or tiger, Rhinoceros with a sword and bow.
5. Another side with goddess Lakshmi on a throne or lotus seal figure
of queen also found.
6. Inscription Sanskrit.
• Coins of Vardhanas Dynasty and Chalukyas
1. Harshavardhana: One Side head of king another side figure of
Peacock.
2. Pulakeshin I: Capital Badami in Karnataka
3. Image of Temple or a lion legend and on another side was left
blanks or symbol of Boar at centre.
Epigraphy is the study of

Inscriptions; Paleography: Study
• There are various kinds of inscriptions
of old writings on inscriptions
and other records. 1. Commercial Seals of Indus Valley.
Inscriptions carved on seals, 2. Magical Inscriptions on the amulets
INSCRIPTIONS stone pillars, rocks, copper 3. Religious and Administrative Inscriptions of Ashoka
plates, temple walls and bricks or 4. Eulogistic The Allahabad pillar inscription of Harisena,
images.
5. Votive The Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II.
Earliest in Prakrit (300 BC), later in
Sanskrit and further late in 6. Commemorative Kings at that time issued inscriptions as token of
regionallanguages. birth, death and victories like Hathigumpha inscription of king
Kharavela.
• Inscriptions in Ancient India
1. The Harappan seals depict the earliest system of writings,
however, they have not been decoded.
2. The Ashokan inscriptions are claimed to be the earliest form of
the systems of writing. Ashoka's inscriptions are found written in
four scripts-Greek, Aramaic, Kharosthi and Brahmi.
3. Kharosthi script was used in Pakistan region, which is written
from right to left and is evolved on the Varnamala (alphabet)
system of the Indian languages.
4. Brahmi script was used for the rest of the empire from Kalsi in the
North in Uttarakhand up to Mysore in the South. Brahmi script
was adopted by the rulers after Ashoka.
5. Greek and Aramaic script inscription Bi-lingual of Ashoka was
found at Kandahar.
6. In 1837, James Prinsep completed the chart of Ashokan
inscription.
7. Inscriptions of the Indo-Greeks, 'Saka-kshatrapas" and "Kushanas'
adopt Indian names after two or three generations. These
inscriptions illustrate that they were also engaged in social and
religious welfare activities like any other Indian kings.
8. Junagarh rock inscription of Rudradaman was written in the mid

of AD 2nd century. It was an early example of an inscription
written in Sanskrit: however, Sanskrit became prominent since
the Gupta period.
Secular Literature Ptolemy – Geography

LITERARY SOURCES: Herodotus – Historica
Megasthenes – Indica
Fa-Hein – Fo kyo ki
Huen Tsang – Si yu ki
Nayachandra Suri – Hamir Mahakavya
Banabhatta – Harshacharita
Vakpati – Gaurvaho
Bilhana – Vikramankadevacharita
Atula – Mushikavamsa
Hemchandra – Kumarpalacharita
Ballaladeva – Bhojaprabandha
Kalidas – Abhijnanashakuntalam, Malvikagnimitram
Harshavardhana – Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda
Vatsyayan – Kamasutra
Vishakadatta – Mudrarakshasa
Panini – Asthadhyayi
Kautilya – Arthashastra
Kshemendra - Kathasaritasagara
Kamadanka – Nitishara
Sudraka – Mrcchakatika
Dandin – Dashakumaracharita
Jayapala – Kumarpala Charita
Naryan pandit – Hitopadesha
Varahamihira – Panchasiddhantika
Harisena - Brihat katha kosh
Religious Literature Rigveda: Collection of hymns; Oldest of all Vedas; Associated with Sakel
community; Collection of 1017 hymns after adding “Bihilya Sukta” number is
1028.
Samaveda: They are Vedas of melodies and chants, it has 1549 verses.
Yajurveda: It is primarily Vedas of prose mantra for worship rituals, it was sung
by priest “Adhavaryu”, it has been divided Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla
Yajurveda
Atharva Veda: Mantras for magical spells, oldest text on Indian Medicine.
Brahmana: Detailed literature; interpretation of Vedic hymns; A type of religious
philosophy
Aranyaka: literally, it means “Jungle”; Provide description of moral science and
philosophy; give stress on meditation.
Buddhist Literature
• Tripitaka (Three Baskets) It can be categorised as
1. Vinayapitaka (Book of Discipline) is concerned with monastic discipline.
2. Sutta Pitaka it is sutia related to Buddha and his close companions. It
contains over 10 thousand sutras related to Buddha and his companions.
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka It is a philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism. It has seen
hook Vibhaga Puggala pannatti Dhammasangini Dhatukatha Kathava stthu.
Yamaka, Patthana
Jain Literature
They are commentaries of various Jain ascetics divided into Digambara literature and
Svetambara literature. Agamas are Jain texts based on discourses of the Tirthankara.
Jain literature can be divided into four categories
1. Dravanayog Philosophical doctrines
2. Ganitanuyog It deals with mathematics, geography, astronomy, etc.

3. Charankaranauyog It deals with principles of conduct and observance.
4. Dharamakathanauyog It contains stories, informations, tables, arts, literature,

history, etc.
Accounts of Greeks, Romans or • Alexander’sinvasionis solely reconstructed based on

Chinese either as official Greek sources.
historians, diplomats, pilgrims or
FOREIGNER ACCOUNTS • “INDICA”ofMegasthenesprovides information about
even navigators/explorers.
Mauryan period.
• Trade imbalance between India and Roman empire is accounted in Pliny’s
“NATURALISHISTORIA”.
These travelers were welcomed by Kings of the time and wrote about
almost everything that they witnessed be it architecture, social divisions,
religious and cultural practices

2 . Pre-Historic Period
The English word ‘history’ comes from the Greek historia, meaning “inquiry,
knowledge acquired by investigation”. It corresponds to the study of the past and
throws light on various past events of significance which shaped and evolved human
experiences.
History is further divided into pre-history, proto-history, and history. Events
occurring before the invention of writing are considered the domain of prehistory,
which is generally represented by the three stone ages.
Stone Age is classified primarily into three types:
1. Old stone Age, Paleolithic Age (5,00,000−10,000 BCE)

2. Late Stone Age, Mesolithic Age (10,000−6000 BCE)
3. New Stone Age, Neolithic Age (6,000−1000 BCE)
Paleolithic period: This was the earliest phase of the Stone Age, spanning from approximately 2.6 million years ago to around
10,000 BCE. During this period, early humans were hunter-gatherers, relying on hunting and gathering for sustenance. They used
simple stone tools, such as hand axes and spears, and lived in nomadic communities.
• Tools: Paleolithic humans used simple tools made from stone, such as hand axes, chisels, and scrapers.
These tools served various purposes like hunting, processing food, and creating shelter.
• Fire Control: The control and use of fire were significant achievements during this era. Fire provided warmth,
protection, and facilitated cooking, which had a profound impact on early human lifestyles.
• Art: The earliest known artistic expressions date back to the Paleolithic era. Cave paintings, sculptures, and
engravings were created, often depicting animals and hunting scenes. These artistic endeavors demonstrate
the early humans' cognitive abilities and their connection with the natural world.
Age Information
• It covers the greater part of the Ice Age.
Lower Paleolithic • They had no knowledge of agriculture, they could not make pottery, had no knowledge
Age (~100,000 BCE) of making fire, could not make houses and were ignorant of any metal.
• Use of Chopping tools as Hand axes, cleavers etc.
• Hunters and food gatherers; tools used were hand axes, choppers and cleavers. Tools
were rough and heavy.
• This age is represented by Sohan Culture now in Pakistan.
• One of earliest lower Paleolithic sites is Bori in Maharashtra.
• Limestone was also used to make tools.
• Major sites of lower Paleolithic age
1. Soan valley (in present Pakistan)

2. Sites in the Thar Desert
3. Kashmir
4. North of the Cauvery River
5. Belan valley, Singrauli Basin in UP
6. Didwani in Rajasthan
7. Attirampakkam near Chennai
• There are habitation sites including caves and rock shelters.
• An important place is Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh- few old stone age paintings are
found here.

Middle Paleolithic ● This age was also called as ‘Age of Flakes’.
Age: 100,000 BCE to ● Tools used were flakes, blades, pointers, scrapers and borers.
40,000 BC ● The tools were smaller, lighter and thinner.
● There was a decrease in the use of hand axes with respect to other tools.
● They had no house to live in, lived under rocks, in caves and hollow tree trunks.
● Important middle Paleolithic age sites
1. Belan valley in UP
2. Luni valley (Rajasthan)
3. Son and Narmada rivers
4. Bhimbetka- Recent discovery -India’s Only Known Fossil Dickinsonia. World’s Oldest
Animal Ever Discovered in Bhimbetka Caves.
5. Tungabhadra river valleys
6. Potwar Plateau (between Indus & Jhelum)
7. Sanghao cave (near Peshawar, Pakistan)
Upper Paleolithic ● It coincided with the last phase of the ice age when the climate became comparatively
Age (40,000 to warmer and less humid.
10,000 BCE) ● Emergence of Homo sapiens.
● Innovation in tools and technology. A lot of bone tools, including needles, harpoons, parallel-
sided blades, fishing tools and burin tools.
● Rock paintings and carvings have been found in Bhimbetka reflects art and rituals
● Characteristic features of upper Paleolithic art: red and green colors
● Animals Depicted are: Bisons, elephants, tigers, boars, rhinoceros, etc.
● Major sites of Upper Paleolithic age:
1. Bhimbhetka (South of Bhopal) –hand axes and cleavers, blades, scrapers and a few
burins have found here.
2. Belan valley (UP)
3. Son valley (UP & MP)
4. Chota Nagpur plateau (Bihar)
● Bone tools have been found only at cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi
in Andhra Pradesh.
Mesolithic Age
• The term Mesolithic was introduced by Hodder Westropp in 1866. In India, it started from 9000 BC to 4000 BC.
It is an archaeological term used to describe specific cultures between Paleolithic and Neolithic periods.
• The use of small chipped stone tools called 'Microliths', restricted bladelets are the key factors to identify
Mesolithic as a pre-historic period.
• It is also called the 'Middle Stone Age'. By nearly 25000 BC man-made progress regarding implements as well
as living. Men used jasper, chert, bloodstone and bones of wild animals to make implements and weapons.
• They lived on hunting, gathering and fishing. They have domesticated animals. They depended on fruits, fish
and animals for food, but built no houses for themselves.
• The remnants of this age found in Birbhanpur in Bengal, Loteshwar and Langhnaj in Gujarat, Adamgarh in
Madhya Pradesh and Nagaur in Rajasthan. Ample evidence of rock paintings at Bhimbetka, 45 km South of
Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.

Mesolithic Period • The Mesolithic Age represents the intermediate stage in Stone Age Culture
(10000 to 6000 BCE) • Mesolithic and Cultures belong to the Holocene era (which succeeded the
Pleistocene era around 10,000 years ago)
• The Mesolithic man lived on hunting, fishing, food gathering, and in later stages,
also domesticated animals.
• One of the key aspects of the Mesolithic Age was the reduction in size of well-
established tool types.
• The characteristic tools of this age were microliths
• Some of the other aspects of the Mesolithic Age are:
1. Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, but it is present at Langhnaj in
Gujarat and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (UP).
2. The last phase of this age saw the beginning of plant cultivation.
3. In 1867, the first rock paintings in India were discovered at Sohagighat
(Kaimur Hills, UP).
4. Bhimbetka Cave Painting Burials and rock paintings give us ideas about
the development of religious practices and also reflect the division of
labour on the basis of gender.
• Important Mesolithic sites are:
1. Bagor, Rajasthan on River Kothari is one of the largest and best
documented Mesolithic sites in India.
2. Chhotanagpur Region, Central India. Both Adamgarh, M.P. and Bagor
provide the earliest evidence for the domestication of animals
3. South of River Krishna, Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu
4. Birbhanpur in West Bengal
5. Sarai Nahar Rai, near Allahabad, Pratapgarh area.
Neolithic Age
• Neolithic period, also called as New Stone Age, was the final stage of cultural evolution or technological
development among pre-historic humans.
• The main occupations of this time were hunting and fishing. Domestication of animals started now. Towards
the end of Neolithic period, agriculture became the main occupation of the people and started producing crops.
• Crafts of carpenter, stonemason, potter, weaver, dyer etc were also known. Crops like ragi, horsegram, cotton,
rice, wheat and barley were grown during this period. They domesticated animals like sheep, goat, cattle.
• Neolithic revolution is also called agricultural revolution, as it is a transition from hunter gatherers to
agricultural settlements. They led a settled life.
Neolithic Age It introduced a lot of innovations such as:

(New Stone Age) (6000 • Advent of food production: The Neolithic man cultivated land and grew fruits &
to 1000 BCE) corn like ragi and horse gram (kulathi). He domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats.
• Innovations in technology: The Neolithic man innovated in the production of
stone tools, producing implements such as polished, pecked, and ground stone tools.
• Invention of pottery: The Neolithic era communities first made pottery by hand
and then with the help of the potter’s wheel. Their pottery included black burnished
ware, grey ware, and mat-impressed ware.
• Emergence of self-sufficient village communities: In the later phases of the
Neolithic era, people led a more settled life. They lived in circular and rectangular
houses made of mud and reed. They also knew how to make boats and could spin
cotton and wool and weave cloth.

Important Neolithic Sites:
1. Burzahom (unique rectangular chopper, domestic dogs buried with their masters in
graves) and Gufkraal in Jammu and Kashmir (famous for pit dwelling, stone tools,
and graveyards located within households)
2. Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal (proof of cattle herding), Budihal (community food
preparation and feasting), and Tekkalakota in Karnataka
3. Paiyampalli in Tamil Nadu and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh
4. Garo Hills in Meghalaya, Chirand in Bihar (considerable use of bone implements,
especially those made of antlers) Saraikhola, near Taxila on Potwar plateau, Amri,
Kotdiji and Mehrgarh (the earliest Neolithic site known as the Breadbasket of
Baluchistan, a province of Pakistan)
5. Chopani – Mando, Belan valley (earliest evidence of use of pottery)
Chalcolithic Age / Copper-Stone Age (c. 3000−500 BCE)

The Chalcolithic Age, also known as the Copper Age, is a period of human history characterized by the use of copper
tools and weapons alongside stone tools. It represents a transitional phase between the Neolithic (New Stone Age)
and the Bronze Age.
Chalcolithic Period • The Chalcolithic age marked the emergence of the use of metal along with stone
(3500 BCE – 1000 BCE) tools. The first metal to be used was copper, though they also occasionally used
bronze.
• The chalcolithic age largely applied to the pre-Harappan phase, but in many
parts of the country, it appears after the end of the bronze Harappan culture.
• Pottery: Black and red pottery majorly found in the ochre-colored pottery was
also popular, potter’s wheel was used.
• Paintings: Painting with white linear designs was done.
• Rural settlements: Rural settlements and were not acquainted with burnt bricks.
• Society: Beginnings of social inequalities in Chalcolithic societies; Chiefs were
lived in rectangular houses, other people in round huts. Infant Mortality very
high, can be evident from burials in western Maharashtra.
• Economy: The chalcolithic economy is considered as a village economy. The
beginning of social inequalities, as chiefs lived in rectangular houses while the
commoners lived in round huts.
• Art and Craft: The chalcolithic people were expert in Coppersmiths and also
know the art of copper smelting and were good stone workers as well, they
knew spinning and weaving and were well acquainted with the art of
manufacturing cloth.
Important Chalcolithic Sites:
1. Ahar (Banas valley, South Eastern Rajasthan): The people of this region
practiced smelting and metallurgy, supplied copper tools to other contemporary
communities. Rice was cultivated here.
2. Gilund (Banas valley, Rajasthan): Stone blade industry was discovered here.
3. Daimabad (Ahmednagar, Maharashtra): The largest Jorwe culture site in
Godavari valley. It is famous for recovery of bronze goods such as bronze
rhinoceros, elephant, two wheeled chariot with a rider and a buffalo.
4. Malwa (Madhya Pradesh): The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located
on the Narmada and its tributaries. It provides evidence of the richest
chalcolithic ceramics, and also spindle whorls.
5. Kayatha (Madya Pradesh): The settlement of Kayatha culture was mostly
located on the Chambal River and its tributaries. Houses had mud-plastered
floors, pre-Harappan elements in pottery along with copper objects with sharp
cutting edges were found.
6. Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur (Bihar), Mahishdal (West Bengal): These are the
prominent chalcolithic sites in these states.
7. ● Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik (Maharashtra): Large mud houses with ovens
and circular pit houses have been discovered here.
8. Navdatoli (on Narmada): It was one of the largest chalcolithic settlements in
the country. It was spread over 10 hectares and cultivated almost all food
grains.

3 . INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
In 1924, scholars in history were roused by the announcement of Sir John Marshall that his Indian aides, particularly
R.D. Banerjee, discovered (1922-23) at Mohenjo-Daro in the Larkana district of Sind, now in Pakistan, the remains of a
civilization, one of the oldest of the world.
A few hundred miles towards the north of Mohenjo-Daro, four or five superimposed cities were excavated at Harappa
in the Montgomery district of the Punjab, now in Pakistan. Recently, excavations carried out on the site of Kalibangan
have revealed a third city as large as Harappa and Mohenjo daro.
Name of Sites Year of Excavators Region/ River Features

Excavation
Harappa 1921 Dayaram Sahani Montgomery • City followed grid planning
District of Punjab • Row of six granaries
on the left bank • Only place having evidence of
of Ravi. coffin Burials and fractional
burials
• Cemetery H & R37.
• Granary outside the fort.
• Phallus worship.
• Graveyard.
• Mother goddess.
Mohen jo Daro 1922 R.D Banerjee Larkana District in • Prepared Garments.

Sindh on the right • Temple-like Palace.
bank of Indus • Pashupati seal.
• Statue of a dancing girl.
• Ivory weight balance.
• The Great Bath.
• The Great Granary.
• Priest-king statue.
Chanhu Daro 1931 N. Gopal Situated in Sindh • The city has no citadel
Majumdar on the bank of • Famous for bead making
Mackey Indus • A small pot, possibly an inkpot
• Foot prints of a dog chasing a
cat
• Evidence of copper or bronze
tools of carts with seated
drivers
• Three different cultural layers –
Indus, Jhukar and Jhangar.
Kalibangan 1953 A Ghosh Situated in • Shows both Pre- Harappan and

Rajasthan on the Harappan Phase
bank of Ghaggar • Evidence of furrowed land
• Evidence of seven fire altars
and camel bones.
• Many houses had their own
well
• Kalibangan stands for Black
Bangles
• Evidence of a wooden Furrow
• Evidence of two types of
Burials (i) Burials in rectangular
grave (ii) Burials in a circular
grave.
Lothal 1953 SR Rao Situated in • A tilled floor which bears

Gujarat on intersecting design of circles
bhogava river • Remains of rice husk (Rangpur
near Gulf of
is the only other Harappan city
cambay
where the rice husk has been
found)
• Evidence of Horse from a
terracotta figurine
• A ship designed on seal
• A terracotta ship
• An instrument for measuring
angles
• Pointing to modern day
compass
• House with entrances on the
main street a unique feature as
the house of all other
Harappan cities had side
entries .
• First man made port in the
world and a dock
• Evidence of joint Burial
Banawali 1974 R S Bisht Situated in Hissar • Shows both Pre Harappan and
district of Harappan Phase
Haryana • Good quality of barley found
here
Surkotada 1964 JP Joshi Situated in Kutch • Bones of horses

district • Bead making shops
Sutkagendor 1927 Stein RL Situated in • Trade point between Harappa

Baluchistan on and Babylon
Dast River • Belong to mature phase
Amri 1935 NG Majumdar Situated in Sindh • Evidence of Antelope

on the bank of
Indus
Dholavira 1985-90 RS Bisht Situated in • Seven cultural stages

Gujarat in Rann of • One of the largest sites
Kutch • Three parts of city
• Unique water management
Rangpur 1953 MS Vats, BB Lal Situated on the • Rice was cultivated

and SR Rao bank of Mahar
Kot Diji 1953 Fazal Ahmed Situated on the • Wheel made painted pottery
bank of Indus • Traces of defensive wall and
well aligned streets
• Knowledge of metallurgy,
artistic toys etc.
• Five figurines of mother
goddess
Ropar 1953 YD Sharma Situated on the • Evidence of burying a dog
bank of Sutlej below the human burials.
• One example of rectangular
mudbricks chamber was
noticed.
• Fivefold culture: Harappan,
PGW, NBP, Kushana-Gupta and
Medieval.
Geographical Extent
The Harappan culture was the most extensive of the ancient civilizations in area, including not only the Indus plain (the Punjab and
Sind), but also northern Rajasthan and the region of Kathiawar in western India.
It was essentially a city culture and among the centres of authority were the two cities of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. The 1400
settlements, discovered so far are distributed over a very wide geographical area. Its known extent in the west is upto Sutkagendor
in Baluchistan: Alamgirpur in Meerut district (Uttar Pradesh) in the east, Daimabad (Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra) in south;
and Manda (Akhnoor district, Jammu and Kashmir) in the north, covering an area of almost 1600 km. east-west and 1400 km.
north-south.
The total geographical area over which this civilization flourished is more than 20 times of the area of Egyptian and more than 12
times of the area of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations combined. It covers an area of about 12,50,000 sq. km. Harappan
settlements are mostly located on river banks of Indus and Saraswati.
Town Planning
The first thing that strikes us with regard to Harappan culture is the
town planning and urbanisation. Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Lothal or
Sutkagendor were built on similar plan.
To the west of each was a citadel built on a high platform. It was

defended by wall and on it were constructed the public buildings.
Below this citadel was the town proper. Everywhere, the main streets
ran from north to south and other streets ran at right angles to the
main streets. Houses, residential or others, stood on both sides of the
streets.
Both at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, houses were built of kiln- burnt bricks. At Lothal and Kalibangan, residential
houses were made of sun-dried bricks. The drains, wells and bathing platforms were made of kiln-burnt bricks.
An average house had, besides kitchen and bath, four to six living rooms. Large houses with thirty rooms and
staircases suggest that there were large two or three storyed buildings.
Most of the houses had wells within them and a drainage system carried the waste water to the main underground
drain of the street. There were also public baths with wells.
The covered drains of the streets had soak-pits and manholes for clearing. There were also arrangements for street
lighting.
Economic aspects: The discovery of granaries and the urban lifestyle of the people proves that the Harappan
people were undoubtedly 'comfort loving and were prosperous.
Agriculture: • The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and
reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April before the advent of the next flood.
• The Harappans probably used the wooden plough with wooden or copper ploughshare. Gabarbands or
nalas enclosed by dams for storing water were a feature in parts of Balochistan and Afghanistan, but
channel or canal irrigation seems to have been absent.
• The Indus people produced wheat, barley, peas, kodon, sanwa, jowar, ragi, etc. They produced two
types of wheat and barley. A good quantity of barley has been discovered at Banwali.
• In addition to this, they produced sesame and mustard. The Indus people were the earliest people to
produce cotton.
Domestication • Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were kept on a large scale. Oxen, buffaloes,
of Animals: goats, sheeps domestic fowls and pigs were domesticated.
• The humped bulls were favoured by the Harappans. From the very beginning. dogs were regarded as
pets. Cats were also domesticated, and signs of the feet of both dogs and cats have been noticed.
• They also kept asses and camels, which were possibly used as beasts of burden. Elephants were well
known to the Harappans, who were also acquainted with the rhinoceros, spotted dear, sambhar deer,
hog deer, wild pig, etc.
Trade and • The thriving agricultural economy supported a flourishing trade both within the northern and
Commerce: western areas of the sub-continent and between the people of this culture and those of the
Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia.
• The products of Indus have been found in Mesopotamia. Its seals and produce were also
discovered at Sumer. The findings of Indus seals suggest that merchants from Indus actually
resided in Mesopotamia.
• Their chief merchandise was probably cotton exported from probably Lothal harbour. The
Mesopotamian records from about 2350 BC refer to trade relations with Meluha, which was
the ancient name given to the Indus region.
• There were two intermediate trading stations called Dilmun and Makan which lay between
the regions of two civilizations.
Crafts and • Mohenjo-daro was a great industrial centre. Weaving was probably the chief industry.
Industries:
• Harappans were also acquainted with the art of dyeing. Pottery was an important industry.
Harappans used to export these pots made on potter's wheel and burnt in kilns not only to
nearby areas was an but also to the far-flung places.
• The art of smelting metals was well-known to the people of Harappa. The use of lead, bronze
and tin was rampant. Huge brick structures suggest that brick-laying important craft. They
also attest to a class of masons.
• The Harappans also practised boat-making, seal- making and terracotta manufacturing. The
Harappans were also experts in beadmaking
Weights and • The regulation of weights and measures forms the basis of trade and Harappans were very
Measures: accurate in this respect.
• The sexagesimal system and the decimal system were known to the Harappans. The weights
were of cubical and spherical in shape and were made of chert, jasper and agate and
sometimes of grey stone and were in a series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64 then going to
160, 320, 640 and so forth.
• The unit of ratio was 16 equivalent to 13.64 grams.
Transport: • Transport and communications are a major part of trade and commerce. Harappans also
had good transporting system for their internal and external trade.
• Representation of ships and boats are found on some seals and as graffiti on pottery.
• For onland journey and transport. they relied upon the bullock carts and rarely horse carts.
• They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
Harappan Pottery
Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and is uniformly sturdy and well
baked.
It is chiefly wheel made, and consists of both plain and painted ware, the
plain variety being more common.
Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed,

polychrome, incised perforated and knobbed. The glazed Harappan
pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient world.
On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though

the painted designs on some pieces show a remarkable artistic touch.
Major Imports by the Harappans
Materials Sources
Gold Afghanistan, Persia, Karnataka
Silver Afghanistan, Iran
Copper Balochistan & Khetri (Rajasthan)
Tin Afghanistan, Central Asia
Agates Western India
Chalcedony Saurashtra
Lead Rajasthan, South India, Afghanistan,
Iran
Lapis Lazuli Badakashan and Kashmir
Social and Religious life: The social life of the Harappans can be arranged into following categories:
Class: • It is not proved if there existed any classes or caste as the Aryan's varna system. Based
upon the mounds we can assume that there were classes if not castes according to the
occupation of the people.
Dress and • As far as their dress is concerned, one cannot say anything definitely, because all
Ornaments: information about their dress is based on inferences arrived at from two types of
materials
• firstly, on the basis of spindles discovered and secondly from the dress of statues and
carvings on different seals found in those cities.
• Ornaments were also popular among both men and women. Necklaces, fillets, armlets,
finger-rings and bangles were probably used by both the sexes. Girdles, nose studs, ear-
studs, anklets etc. may have been worn by women only as are proved by the statues.
Religion: • Following were the highlights of the religious life of the Harppans:
1. The chief male deity was the Pashupati Mahadeva (Proto-Siva), represented in
seals as sitting in a yogic posture on a low throne and having three faces and two
horns.
2. He is surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino and buffalo), each facing a
different direction, and two deers appear at his feet.
3. The chief female deity was the Mother Goddess, who has been depicted in various
forms.
4. There is sufficient evidence for the prevalence of phallic worship. Numerous
stone symbols of female sex organs (yoni worship), besides those of the phallus,
have been discovered.
5. The worship of fire is proved by the discovery of fire altars at Lothal, Kalibangan
and Harappa.
6. Indus people also worshipped Gods in the form of trees (pipal, etc.) and animals
(unicorn etc.).
7. They believed in ghosts and evil forces and used amulets as protection against
them.
Script
The script of the Harappan people had 400 to 500 signs and it were no:
alphabetic but was logosyllablic writing system. Although the Harappan script
is yet to be deciphered, overlaps of letters on some of the potsherds from
Kalibangan show that the writing was from left to right and from right to left in
alternate lines, i.e. boustrophedon'.
Decline of Indus Valley civilization
The decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is a topic that continues to be debated among historians and researchers,
as concrete evidence for its exact cause is still elusive. However, several theories have been proposed to explain the
decline and eventual disappearance of this ancient civilization:
Environmental Factors: One theory suggests that environmental changes, such as shifts in the course of major
rivers, could have played a role. The Ghaggar-Hakra River, which once sustained many
Indus Valley cities, is believed to have gradually dried up or changed its course. These
changes may have disrupted agricultural practices and caused a decline in food
production, ultimately impacting the sustainability of the civilization.
Climate or Natural Natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, or changing monsoon patterns could have
Disasters: also contributed to the decline. Some evidence suggests that the region experienced
seismic activity and flooding during the later stages of the civilization, which could have
led to the abandonment of cities and disruption of farming activities.
Socio-Political Factors: Internal conflicts, political instability, or external invasions have been proposed as
possible factors in the civilization's decline.
However, there is limited archaeological evidence supporting these theories, and no
concrete evidence of large-scale warfare or invasion has been found to date.
Economic Factors: Changes in trade networks and economic relationships may have impacted the
civilization. Shifts in trade routes, decline in long-distance trade, or changes in economic
patterns could have negatively affected the prosperity of the Indus Valley cities.
4. Vedic Age
The Vedic age began in India in about 1500 BC with the coming of the Aryans, who scattered on the plains
of northern India. Max Muller believes it an anomaly to regard the race as Aryan because scientifically
Aryan connotes nothing but language. The relationship between the race and language of these people
with the classical languages of Europe was established by a Bavarian Franz Bopp in 1816.
Aryans developed Vedic culture based on Vedas. The meaning of the word Veda is "knowledge", the best of
all knowledge in the eyes of Hindus.
It is a collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies and sacrificial formulae. There are four Vedas, namely,
Rig Veda, Sam Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.
Origin of The Aryans
Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar,

believe that originally, the Aryans seem to have lived
somewhere in the area east of the Alps, in the region
known as Eurasia, the region of the Caspian Sea and the
southern Russian steppes, and gradually dividing into a
number of tribes migrated in search of pasture, to Greece
and Asia Minor, to Iran and to India.
By that time, they came to be known as Aryans.
This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the

Kassite inscriptions of 1600 BC. and the Mitanni
inscriptions of the fourteenth century BC. found in Iraq
which suggest that from Iran a branch of the Aryans
moved towards the west.
Aryans' Arrival in India • The Aryans came to India in several waves

• The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic people who appeared
in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC.
• They came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the
Dravidians mentioned as dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda.
• The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by Divodasa, who
belonged to the Bharata clan.
• Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original inhabitants of
the country, and an Aryan chief who overpowered them was called
Trasadvasyu
• The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly hostile to the
dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the dasyus, is repeatedly
mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Dravidians • It is believed that before the coming of the Aryans in India, the greater
part of Northern and North- Western India was inhabited by a group of
people known as Dravidians.
• On arrival of the Aryans, unable to meet their challenge, they gradually
moved southwards.
• Perhaps, in India, they were first to use rivers for navigation and
irrigation.
Aryans • The group of Indo-Europeans who moved to Persia and India are known
to Aryans
• The Aryans are the original inhabitants of Central Asia.
• They arrived in India around 1500 BC. The region where the Aryans
settled in India was called Sapta Sindhu (also referred to as the
Brahmavarta)
• The Aryans established themselves in India by defeating the natives
whom they called Dasas or Dasyus.
• The period when the Aryans first settled in India, is known as Early Vedic
Period.
• The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic plains in the later Vedic Period and
this region came to be known as Aryavarta.
• The Aryans were the first people in India to know the use of iron and
brought horses along with them.
Rig Vedic Polity • The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic period
worked with the tribal chief in the centre. He was called rajan.
• Although his post was hereditary, we have also some traces of election
by the tribal assembly called the samiti. The king was called the
protector of his tribe.
• He protected its cattle, fought its wars and offered prayers to gods on its
behalf.
• Several tribal assemblies, such as the sabha, samiti, vidatha, and gana
mentioned in the Rig Veda exercised deliberative, military and religious
functions.
• Even women attended the sabha and vidatha in Rig Vedic times. But
from the political point of view important were the sabha and sumiti.
• In the day-to-day administration, the king was assisted by a few
functionaries. The most important functionary seems to have been the
purohita.
• The two priests who played a major part in the time of Rig Veda were
Vasishtha and Visvamitra. The next important functionary seems to be
the senani. Princes received from the people voluntary offering called
bali.
• There were cases of theft and burglary, and especially we hear of the
theft of cows. Spies were employed to keep an eye on such unsocial
activities. The officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground was
called vrajapati.
• He led the heads of the families called Kulapas, or the heads of the
fighting hordes called gramanis to battle. The king did not maintain any
regular or standing army, but in times of war he mustered a militia whose
military functions were performed by different tribal groups called vrata.
Tribal Polity • The chief was he protector of the tribe or Jana.
• However, he did not possess unlimited powers for he had to reckon with
the tribal assemblies.
• Sabha, Samiti, Vidhata and Gana were the tribal assemblies. Of these,
Vidhata was the oldest. These assemblies exercised deliberative, military
and religious functions.
• The two most important assemblies were the Sabha and Samiti. Samiti
was general in nature and less exclusive than Sabha.
• Women attended Sabha and Vidhata in Rig Vedic times.
Purushasukta Theory
Purushasukta is a late hymn (of Mandal X) of the Rig Veda. The hymn says that when the God
divided purusha or the Primeval creator, the Brahman was his mouth; Kshatriya (rajanys) was
made his arms; the Vaishya was his thighs; and the Shudra sprang from his feet. This is the only
hymn in the Rig Veda in which the names rajanya, vaishya and shudra occur.
Socio-Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Tribal Organization: • Kinship was the basis of social structure. People gave their primary loyalty
to the tribe, which was called jana. Another important term which stands
for the tribe in the Rig Veda is vis.
• Probably the vis was divided into grama or smaller tribal units meant for
fighting. When the gramas clashed with one another, it caused samgrama
or war.
• The term for family (kula) is mentioned rarely in the Rig Veda. It seems
that family in early Vedic phase was indicated by the term griha.
• Differentiation in family relationships leading to the setting up of separate
households had not proceeded far, and the family was a very large joint
unit.
• It was obviously a patriarchal family headed by the father. Since it was a
patriarchal society, the birth of a son was desired again and again.
Marriage and Status • The institution of marriage was established, although symbols of primitive
of Women: practices survived. We also notice the practice of levirate and widow
remarriage in the Rig Veda.
• The status of women was equal to men and they received Upanayana and
education, studied Vedas and some of them even rose to the rank of seers
composing Vedic hymns. Monogamy was established, though polygamy
and polyandry were also known.
Varna System: • Varna was the term used for colour and it seems that the Aryans were fair
and the indigenous inhabitants dark in complexion.
• The dasas and dasyus, who were conquered by the Aryans, were treated
as slaves and sudras. Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three
groups-warriors, priests and the people.
• The fourth division called the Shudras appeared towards the end of the
Rig Vedic period. In the age of the Rig Veda, divisions based on
occupations had started. But this division was not very sharp.
Occupation • Their earliest life seems to have been mainly pastoral, agriculture being a
secondary occupation. The Aryans did not lead a settled life. Although
they used several animals, the horse played the most significant role in
their life.
• The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of agriculture.
Ploughshare is mentioned in the earliest part of the Rig Veda though some
consider it an interpolation. Possibly, this ploughshare was made of wood.
Rig Vedic Gods. • Indra: He was the most important divinity. He played the role of a warlord,
leading the Aryan soldiers to victory against the demons. 250 hymns are
devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He was associated with thunder and
storm and is addressed by various names: Ratheshtha, Jitendra Somapa,
Purandra, Varitrahan and Maghayam.
• Agni: He was the second important divinity. He was intermediary between
Gods and men. 200 hymns of the Rig Veda are devoted to him.
• Varuna: He was the upholder of Rita or cosmic order or natural order. He
personified water.
• Soma: He was considered to be the god of plants. An intoxicant drink was
also called xoma.
• Yama: He was the guardian of the world of dead.
• Surya: Similar to that of the Greek God Helios.
• Savitri: The famous Gayatri mantra is addressed to Savitri.
• Pusan: Lord of jungle path, main function was that of guarding of roads,
herdsmen and cattle.
• Vishnu: A relatively minor God at that time.
• Ashvins: Healers of diseases and experts in surgical art.
• Rudra: An archer God, whose anger brought disease.
Rig Vedic Name New Name

Gomati Gomal
Krumi Kurram
Kubha Kabul
Suvastu Swat
Sindhu Indus
Drishadvati Ghaghar
Satudri Satluj
Vipas Beas
Parushni Ravi
Askini Chanab
Vitasta Jhelum
Later Vedic Phase

Period and spread • The Later Vedic Age extends from 1000 BC to 600 BC when the three later
Vedas, Yajur, Sama and Atharva, the Brahmanas and few early Upanishads
were composed. After the Upanishads, the age of Epics followed.
• The later Vedic texts show that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the
whole of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab. South
was penetrated many centuries later.
• The Ramayana has partly unfolded the tale of the Aryan advent into the
south.
• In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning and later with the use of
iron tools (which became common by 1000-800 BC).
Later Vedic Polity • In later Vedic times, the vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and
and Economy samiti continued to hold the ground, but their character changed.
• Women were no longer permitted to sit in the sabha, and it was now
dominated by nobles and Brahmanas.
• The formation of wider kingdoms made the king more powerful.
• Tribal authority tended to become territorial. The term rashtra, which
indicates territory, first appears in this period. The King performed the
rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed to order confer supreme power on
him.
• He performed the asvamedha, which meant unquestioned control over an
area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. He also performed the
vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the royal chariot was made to win the
race against his kinsmen.
• During this period collection of taxes and tributes seems to have become
common. They were probably deposited with an officer called ed to
sangrihitri.
• In the discharge of this duties, the king was assisted by the priest, the
commander, the chief queen and at of a few other high functionaries.
• At the lower level the administration was possibly carried on by village
assemblies, which may have been controlled by the chiefs of the dominant
tribes
• Even in later Vedic times the king did not possess a standing army. Tribal
units were mustered in times of war, and, according to one ritual for
success in war, the king had to eat along with his people (vis) from the
same plate
Occupation • The Aryans now lived a sedentary life domesticated animals and cultivated
on a greater scale than earlier sugar-cane.
• Cattle still constituted the principal form of movable property. Elephants
were tamed. However, the idea of private possession of land gradually
began to crystallize.
• Wheat was also cultivated during this period along with barley. Rice is
mentioned in sources but was not an important crop at this time.
• Beans and Sesame and pulses such as Moong, Urad etc. were also known.
• New arts, artists and craftsmen also emerged i.e., smelters, ironsmiths,
carpenters, weavers, leather workers, jewellers, dyers and potters. Trade
was also boosted.
Pottery • The later Vedic Aryans used four types of pottery - Black and Red Ware,
Black Slipped Ware, Painted Grey Ware (PGW), and Red Ware.
• The black and red earthen pots were used around 600 BC by the people of
Koshala.
• The Aryans knew copper or bronze (lohitayas) and Iron (Krishna ayas).
• They introduced the PGW in northern India. It consisted of bowls and
dishes, which were used either for rituals or for eating or both. These were
mostly found to the upper Gangetic basin.
Currency • A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in

Sathapatha-Brahmana.
• Nishka was the popular currency. Suvarna and Krishnala were two other
classes of coins in circulation.
• Barter system still continued in spite of the presence of metallic coins.
Money- lending was a lucrative trade and the interest on loan was
moderately charged. The usurer is mentioned as Kusidin
Important Officials About

Purohita Chief Priest, is also sometimes referred to as Rashtragopa
Senani Supreme Commander of army
Vrajapati Officer in charge of pasture land
Jivagribha Police Officers
Spasa/Dutas Spies who also some time worked as messengers
Gramani Head of village
Kulapati Head of family
Madhyamasi Mediator on disputes
Bhagadugha Revenue collector
Sangrahitri Treasurer
Mahishi Chief Queen
Suta Charioteer and court Minstrel
Govikartana Keeper of games and forests
Palagala Messenger
Kshatri Chamberlain
Akshavapa Accountant
Sthapati Chief judge
Takshan Carpenter
Later Vedic Society

Social Organisation • The later Vedic society came to be divided into four varnas called the
Brahmanas, rajanyas or kshatriyas, vaisyas and shudras.
• Brahmanas conducted rituals and sacrifices for their clients and for
themselves, and also officiated at the festivals associated with
agricultural operations. They prayed for the success of their patron in
war, and in return the king pledged not to do any harm to them.
• Sometimes, the brahmanas came into conflict with the rajanyas, who
represented the order of the warrior-nobles. for position of supremacy.
• The vaisyas constituted the common people and they were assigned
the producing functions such as agriculture, cattle-breeding etc.
• Some of them also worked a artisans. Towards the end of the Vedic
period, they began to engage in trade. All the three higher varnas
shared one common feature, they were known as Dvijas (twice born),
i.e.. they were entitled to upanayana or investiture with the sacred
thread according to the Vedic mantras.
• The fourth verna was deprived of the sacred thread ceremony, and with
this began the imposition of disabilities on the shudras. Outside the
caste-system, there stood two important bodies of men, namely,
Vratyas and Nishadas.
Marriage • Marriage: Eight types of marriages were prevalent in the later Vedic
age. Of these, four (Brahma, Daiva, Arsaand Prajapati) were generally
approved and were permissible.
1. Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same

varna with Vedic rites and rituals.
2. Daiva: Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priest as part of
fee or dakshina.
3. Arsa: A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
4. Prajapati: Marriage without dowry and bride-price
5. Gandharva: Marriage by the consent of two parties, often
clandestine. A special form of it was swayamvara or self-choice.
6. Asura: Marriage by purchase.
7. Paisacha: It is the seduction of a girl while asleep. mentally
deranged or drunk hence, it can hardly be called a marriage.
8. Rakshasa : Marriage by capture.
Gotra System • The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times. Literally, it means
the cow-pen or the place where cattle belonging to the whole clan are
kept.
• The gotra has been regarded as a mechanism for widening the socio-
political ties, as new relationships were forged between hitherto
unrelated people.
• People began to practise gotra exogamy. No marriage could take place
between persons belonging to the same gotra or having the same
ancestor.
Ashrama System: • Ashramas or four stages of life were not well established in early Vedic
times.
• In the post-Vedic texts, we hear of four ashramas: that of brahmachari
or student, grihastha or householder, vanaprastha or partial retirement
and sanyasa or complete retirement from the world.
• But only three are mentioned in the later Vedic texts. The last or the
fourth stage had not been well established in later Vedic times.
Religion in Later Vedic • The two outstanding Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their former
Period importance. On the other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to occupy
the supreme position in the later Vedic pantheon.
• Rudra, the god of animals, became important in later Vedic times and
Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the
people.
• In addition, some symbolic objects began to be worshipped, and we
notice signs of idolatry. Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle,
came to be regarded as the god to the sudras.
• Important female deities during the Later Vedic Age were: Usha
(goddess of Dawn), Aditi (Mother of Gods), Prithvi (Earth Goddess),
Aryani (Forest Goddess) and Saraswati (River deity).
• The mode of worship changed considerably. Prayers continued to be
recited, but they ceased to be the dominant mode of placating the
gods. Sacrifices became far more important, and they assumed both
public and domestic character.
• The guest was known as goghna or one who was fed on cattle.
Important Vedic Rituals • Rajasuya: The king's influence was strengthened by rituals. He
performed this sacrifice, which was supposed to confer supreme
power on him.
• Asvamedha: A king performed the Asvamedha, which meant
unquestioned control over the area in which the royal horse ran
uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which
horse sacrifice was performed.
• Vajapeya: A king performed the Vajpeya or the chariot race, in which
the royal chariot was made to win the race against his kinsmen. The
ritual lasted for seventeen days and was believed not only to restore
the strength of the middle-aged king but also to elevate him from the
position of raja to that of samrat.
• Garbhadhana: A ceremony which is performed to promote conception
in women.
• Pumsayam: This ritual is performed to procure a male child.
• Semontonayan: It is a ritual performed to ensure the safety of the child
in the womb.
• Jatkarma: It is a birth ceremony performed before the cutting of the
umbilical cord.
• Culakarma: It is a ritual, also known as tonsure, performed for boys in
their third year.
• Upanayana: It is an initiation ceremony to confor dvija (twice-horn)
status to boys of the higher varnas in their eighth year.
Origin of Hindu Philosophy
By the end of the later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of

Hindu Philosophy had been established. They are as
follows:
1. Sankhya of Kapila: According to Sankhya

philosophy, the world was created and it has
evolved more by prakriti (nature) than by God.
2. Yoga of Patanjali: This school says a person can
attain salvation through mediation and physical
application.
3. Nyaya of Gautama: Nyaya, the school of analysis,
says that salvation is attainable through the
acquisition of knowledge.
4. Vaisheshika of Kanada: According to this school,
earth, water, fire, air and ether (sky), when combined
together, give rise to new objects.
5. Mimamsa of Jaimini: According to Mimamsa
philosophy, the Vedas contain the eternal truth. It
recommends the performance of Vedic sacrifices to
attain salvation.
6. Vedanta of Badarayan: It says, Brahma is the reality
and everything else is unreal (Maya). The self (soul)
is identical with brahma.
5. Mahajanpadas & Rise of Magadh
In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed

its identity and gradually shifted to the territorial identity,
and the area of settlement were now regarded as
janapadas or states. In transition from tribe to monarchy,
they lost the essential democratic pattern of the tribe but
retained the idea of government through an assembly
representing the tribes.
These states consisted of either a single tribe such as the

Shakyas, Kolias, Mallas etc. or a confederacy of tribes such
as the Vrijis, Yadavas, Panchala etc. The people in the
lower Ganges Valley and Delta, which were outside the
Aryan pale, were regarded as Mlecchas. There was,
therefore, a strong consciousness of the pure land of the
Aryans called Aryavarta.
According to Anguttara Nikaya, there were about sixteen Mahajanapadas in the sixth century BC. Their
capitals and locations are given in a table on the 16 Mahajanapadas.
Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations

1. Gandhara Taxila Covering the region between Kabul and Rawalpindi in
North Western Province.
2. Kamboja Rajpur Covering the area around the Punch area in Kashmir
3. Asmaka Potana Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank

of River Godavari
4. Vatsa Kaushambi Covering the modern districts of Allahabad and
Mirzapur
5. Avanti Ujjain Covering modern Malwa (Ujjain) region of Madhya
Pradesh
6. Surasena Mathura Located in the Mathura region at the junction of the
Uttarapath & Dakshinapath
7. Chedi Shuktimati Covering the modern Bundelkhand area
8. Malla Kushinara, Pawa Modern districts of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhapur in eastern
Uttar Pradesh
9. Kurus Hastinapur Traprastha Covering the modern Haryana and Delhi
area to the west of River Yamuna
10. Matsya Virat Nagari Covering the area of Alwar, Bharatpur and Jaipur in
Rajasthan
11. Vajjis Vaishali Located to the north of the River Ganga in Bihar
12. Anga Champa Covering the modern districts of Munger and Bhagalpur
in Bihar
13. Kashi Banaras Located in and around present day Varanasi in Uttar
Pradesh
14. Kosala Shravasti Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda,

Bahraich, etc
15. Magadha Girivraja Covering modern districts of Patna, Gaya and parts of
Shahabad
16. Panchala Ahichhatra (West Present day Rohilkhand and part of Central Doab in
Uttar Pradesh
Panchala)
Kampilya (South
Panchala)
Differences between • In republics, every tribal oligarch claimed share in revenues from
Republics and peasants. In the monarchies, the king claimed to be the sole recipient
Monarchies of such revenues.
• In a tribal oligarchy or republic, each raja (tribal oligarch) was free to
maintain his own little army under his senapati. In a monarchy, the king
maintained his regular standing army. He did not permit any other
armed forces within his boundaries.
• Republics functioned under the leadership of the oligarchic assemblies,
while a monarchy functioned under the individual leadership of the
king.
• The Brahmanas had a considerable influence on the monarchical
administration, while they were relegated to the background in the
republics.
RISE OF MAGADHA • The Haryankas:
1. Magadha came into prominence under the leadership of Bimbisara
(542-493 BC), who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. He
strengthened his position by marriage alliances.
2. He took three wives. His first wife was the daughter of the king of
Kosala and the sister of Prasenajit His second wife Chellana was a
Lichchhavi Princess from Vaishali, and his third wife was the
daughter of the chief of the Madra clan of Punjab.
3. Bimbisar was succeeded by his son Ajatshatru (492- 460 BC).
Ajatshatru killed his father and seized the throne for himself.
Throughout his reign, he pursued an aggressive policy of
expansion.
4. Ajatshatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BC). His reign is
important because he built the fort upon the confluence of the
Ganga and Son at Patna. This was done because Patna lay in the
centre of the Magadhan kingdom.
• The Sisunagas:
1. Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Sisunagas, who
temporarily shifted the capital to Vaishali.
2. Their greatest achievement was the destruction of the power of
Avanti with its capital at Ujjain.
3. This brought to an end the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha
and Avanti.
• The Nandas:
1. The Sisunagas were succeeded by the Nandas, who proved to be
the most powerful rulers of Magadha. So great was their power that
Alexander, who invaded Punjab at that time, did not dare to move
towards the east.
2. The Nandas added to the Magadhan power by conquering Kalinga
from where they brought an image of the Jina as a victory trophy.
3. All this took place in the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He claimed to
be ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling
princes.
4. The Nandas were the first non-kshatriya rulers. The last Nanda ruler
was defeated by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the Maurya
Empire
Causes for the Rise of 1. Advantageous geographical location with both Rajgir and Pataliputra
Magadha situated at strategic locations.
2. Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled
Magadhan rulers to equip with effective weapons. 3. The alluvial soil of the
Gangetic plains and sufficient rainfall were very conducive for agriculture
produces.
4. Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce. The
princes could levy tolls and accumulate wealth to pay and maintain their army.
5. Use of elephants on a large scale in wars. 6. Unorthodox character of

Magadhan society.
7. Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious

rulers
Iranian Invasion • In 516 B.C. Darius sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of the
river Indus.
• The province of Indus Valley was annexed by him by about 519 B.C. as
is mentioned in his inscriptions.
• He divided the province in 20th Straphy, which was considered to be
the richest and the most populous province of the Persian empire.
• Its annual tribute amounted to 360 Euboic talents of gold-dust.
• The Kharosthi script was used on the north-western frontier since then
uptil about 4th century A.D.
Alexander Invasion • Alexander marched to India through the Khyber Pass in 326 B.C.
• He was bravely checked by the local chieftains despite the fact that
they had no chance of success.
• He was even checked by the queens of the vanquished and dead
chiefs.
• His advance was checked on the bank of the Beas because of the
mutiny of his soldiers.
• In 325 B.C., he began his homeward journey.
• In 324 B.C., he reached Susa in Persia and died the next year.
• The Greek invasion of India opened the trade route between north-west
India and Western Asia.
• Eastwards trade went through the Ganga delta to the coast of Northern
Burma and south along the east coast.

• Guilds (Shreni) came into existence.
• Money was introduced. Punch-marked coins in gold and silver and of
copper cast have been discovered. Introduction of money facilitated
the trade
Effects of Alexander's • Establishment of direct contact between India and Greece in different
Invasion fields.
• Opening up of four distinct routes between India & Greek by land and
sea paving way for increased trade and cultural contacts between the
two regions.
• Establishment of more Greek settlements in north- western region
• Establishment of the coast and search for harbours from the mouth of
the Indus to that of the Euphrates.
• Promotion to expansion of the Mauryan empire in north-west India due
to destruction of local powers by Alexander.
6. Rise of Heterodox Sects
Causes of Rise of Religious Movements
1. Reaction to Vedic Brahmanism: Buddhism and

Jainism emerged as alternative spiritual and
philosophical paths to challenge and reform the
existing religious and social order of Vedic
Brahmanism in ancient India. They critiqued the
dominance of the priestly class and rituals,
emphasizing personal spiritual growth and ethical
conduct.
2. Dissatisfaction with Ritualism and Caste System:
Both Buddhism and Jainism rejected the complex
rituals and rigid caste system of Brahmanism. They
offered an inclusive and egalitarian approach,
emphasizing the potential for spiritual attainment
and liberation for all individuals, regardless of caste
or social status.
3. Quest for Enlightenment and Liberation: Gautama
Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and Mahavira, the
founder of Jainism, sought solutions to the
existential questions of suffering, human existence,
and the pursuit of liberation.
4. Social and Economic Factors: The rise of Buddhism
and Jainism coincided with an era of social and
economic changes in ancient India. The emergence
of urban centers, the growth of trade and commerce,
and the increasing urbanization of society led to a
breakdown of traditional social structures and
paradigms.
Jainism
The Founder: • Rishabha, who was the father of king Bharata, the first chakravarti king
of India, founded Jainism.
• The Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana describe Rishabha as an
incarnation of Narayana.
• Risabha was succeeded by 23 other Tirthankaras. Parsvanatha (850 BC)
was the 23 Tirthankara. Jainism became a major religion under
Vardhamana Mahavira, ie 24th Tirthankara.
Jainism in the Past  The name of Jaina Tirthankaras Rishabha is found in the Rig Veda.
 The Vishnu Purana and the Bhagavat Purana describe Rishaba as an
incarnation of Narayana.
 The male nude torso discovered from the Indus Valley culture has
something to do with the tirthankaras.
 There were twenty-four tirthankaras, all kshatriyas and belonging to the
royal family. Parsavanath was the 23rd tirthankara
Vardhamana  Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 BC in a village (Kundagrama)

Mahavira: near Vaishali His father was the head of a famous kshatriya clan
(Inatrika). and his mother a Lichachhavi princess.
 They were also connected with the royal family of Magadha. In the
beginning Mahavira led the life of a householder, but in the search for
truth, he abandoned the world at the age of thirty and became an
ascetic.
 He kept on wandering for twelve years from place to place. During the
course of his long journey, it is said, he never changed his clothes for
twelve years, and abandoned them altogether when he attained perfect
knowledge or kaivalya at the age of 42.
 Through kaivalya, he conquered misery and happiness. Because of this
conquest, he is known as Mahavira or the great hero or jina, ie., the
conqueror, and his followers are known as Jainas.
 He propagated his religion for thirty years, and his mission took him to
Kosala, Magadha, Mithila, Champa, etc. He passed away at the age of 72
in 468 BC at a place called Pavapuri near modern Rajgir in Bihar.
Teachings  Jainism taught ﬁve doctrines:
(i) do not commit violence,
(ii) do not speak a lie,
(iii) do not steal,
(iv) do not acquire property, and
(v) observe continence (brahmacharya). It is said that only the ﬁfth

doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other four being taken over by him
from Parswanath.
 Jainism recognized the existence of the gods but placed them lower
than the jina. It did not condemn the varna system. According to
Mahavira, a person is born in a high or in a lower varna in consequence
of the sins or the virtues acquired by him in the previous birth.
 Jainism rejected the authority of the Vedas and Vedic retrials. Jainism
believes in the existence of God, but it believed in Karma and the
transmigration of soul (Nirvana).
Three Gems or Ratnas of Jainism
According to Jainism, attainment of Moksha or Nirvana was the most important

human desire. It says that Moksha can be attained through practising the
following three ratnas or gems:
I. Right Faith (Samyak Vishwas) in the omniscient Lord Mahavira
II. Right Knowledge (Samyak Jnan) of the doctrines of Jainism
III. Right Conduct (Samyak Karma), i.e, fulfillment of the great five vows of
Jainism (a) ahimsa (b) truthfulness (c) no stealing (d) no attachment of property
and (e) Chastity or Brahmacharya
Sects: • Although Parswa, the predecessor of Mahavira, had asked his followers
to cover the upper and lower portions of their body, Mahavira asked
them to discard clothes completely.
• On account of this, in later times, Jainism was divided into two sects:
Svetambaras or those who put on white dress, and Digambaras or those
who keep themselves naked.
• Some More Jaina Sects
1. Yapaniyan: Karnataka, impact of Tantricism
- Came out of Svetambara
- Finds mention in inscription of Vikramaditya VI
2. Pujiramat:
- Came out of Svetambara

-Supported Idol Worship
3. Terapainthi: Came out of Svetambara

4. Sammiya: Came out of Digambara
5. Bispanthi: Came out of Digambara; Supported idol worship
Sacred Literature: • According to Svetambaras, the original doctrine taught by Mahavira was
contained in 14 old texts called Purvas, which were passed orally and
were compiled later as twelve Angas.
• The sacred literature of the Svetambaras is written in a form of Prakrit
called Ardhamagadhi and may be classified as follows:
(i) The twelve Angas,
(ii) The twelve Upangas,
(iii) The ten Parikaranas,
(iv) The six Chhedasmras, and
(v) The four Mulasutras. Niryuktis and Churini are the Comments on 14
Purvas.
Twelve Angas of Jainism:
1. Acharanga
3. Sthananga
5. Vakyaprainapti
4. Somavayanga
6. Dharma-Kathanga
7. Upaska Adhyananga
9. Anuttarapada Kanga
8. Anthakrudasanga
10. Prashnavyakaranaka
11. Vipakasutranga
12. Drustipravadanga
Jaina Philosophy: Syadvada: All our judgements are necessarily relative, conditional and limited.
According to Syadvada (the theory of may be, seven modes of predication
The Jaina philosophy (saptabhangi) are possible. Absolute affirmation and absolute negation both are
may be studied under wrong. All judgements are conditional.
the following heads:
Anekantavada: The Jaina metaphysics is a realistic and relativistic pluralism. It
is called Anekantavada or the doctrine of the 'manyness of reality'. Matter
(Pudgala) and Spirit (Jiva) are regarded as separate and independent realities.
Jaina Councils First Council was held at Pataliputra by Sthulabahu in the beginning of the third
century BC and resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace the lost 14
Purvas.
Second Council was held at Valabhi in the 5th century AD under the leadership
of Devaradhi Kshamasramana and resulted in final compilation of 12 Angas and
12 Upangas. Spread of Jainism
Buddhism
Gautama Buddha:
Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a contemporary of

Mahavira. He was born in 563 BC in a Shakya (kshatriya)
family in Lumbini near Kapilavastu, which is situated on the
foothills of Nepal.
Gautama's father (Shudhodana) seems to have been the

elected ruler of Kapila- vastu, and headed the republican
clan of the Shakyas. His mother (Mahamaya) was a
princess from the Kosalan dynasty.
From his early childhood, Gautama showed a meditative

bent of mind. Alara Kama was his teacher of meditation.
His charioteer was Channa, while his horse's name was
Kanthaks. He was married early, but married life did not
interest him.
At the age of 29, he left home. He kept on. wandering for

about seven years and then attained knowledge at the age
of 35 at Bodh Gaya under a pipal tree.
From this time onwards, he began to be called the Buddha

or The Enlightened. Gautama Buddha delivered his first
sermons at Sarnath in Banaras. Gautama Buddha passed
away at the age of 80 in 483 BC at a place called Kusinagar,
identical with the village called Kasia in the district of Deoria
in eastern Uttar Pradesh.
Five Great Events in Buddha’s Life and their Symbol

Birth Lotus and Bull
Great Renunciation Horse
Nirvana Bodhi tree
First Sermon Wheel
Parinirvana/ Death Stupa
Teachings • Buddha said that the world is full of sorrows and people suffer on account
of desires
• If desires are conquered, nirvana will be attained. He recommended an
eight-fold path (astangika marga) for the elimination of human misery. It
comprised: Right Observation, Right Determination, Right Speech, Right
Action, Right Livelihood, Right Exercise, Right Memory and Right
Meditation.
• Buddha also laid down a code of conduct for his followers. The main
items in this social conduct are:
(1) do not covet the property of others,
(2) do not commit violence,
(3) do not use intoxicants,
(4) do not tell a lie, and
(5) do not indulge in corrupt practice

• Buddha (The Enlightened), Dhamma (The Doctrine) and Sangha (The
order) are three jewels of Buddhism.
• Buddhism does not recognize the existence of god and soul (atman). It
particularly won the support of the lower orders as it attacked the varna
system.
• Women also were admitted to the sangha and thus, brought at a par with
men. Dissention in Buddhism: Like Jainism, Buddhism also faced
dissention.
Bodhisattva • Bodhisattva means one whose essence is bodhi (enlightenment). In
Buddhism, the term refers to the historical Gautama Buddha, prior to his
Enlightenment.
• Bodhisattva also refers to other individuals who are destined to become
Buddhas in this or in another life. The number of possible Bodhisattva in
the world is theoretically limitless.
• Bodhisattvas postpone their own final entrance into Nirvana in order to
alleviate the suffering of others.
• The aspirant Bodhisattva must be a male, but may live the life of a
householder and need not be a monk. The title has been frequently
applied to Buddhist kings, scholars and teachers in South-East Asia.
• The celestial Bodhisattvas are considered to be manifestations of the
eternal Buddhas. Foremost among the celestial Bodhisattvas is
Avalokitesvara.
• In China, the most widely worshipped Bodhisattvas are Manjusri
(representing wisdom). Ksitigarbh (the saviour of the dead,
Samantabhadra (representing happiness) and Kuan-yin (Chinese name of
Avalokitesvara). In Tibet, Avalokitesvara, Manjusri and Vajrapani form a
popular trinity. Maitreya is represented both as a future Buddha and as a
Bodhisattva.
Hinayana or Lesser • Its followers believed in the original teachings of Buddha.
Vehicle: • They sought individual salvation through self-discipline and meditation.
• They did not believe in idol-worship
• Hinayana is a religion without God, Karma taking the place of God.
• Nirvana is regarded as the extinction of all.
• The oldest school of Hinayana Buddhism is the Sthaviravada (Theravada
in Pali) or the 'Doctrine of the Elders'.
• Its Sanskrit counterpart, which is more philosophical, is known as
Sarvastivada or the doctrine which maintains the existence of all things,
physical as well as mental.
• From Sarvastivada or Vaibhasika branched off another school called
Sautantrika, which was more critical in outlook.
Mahayana or • Its followers believed in the heavenliness of Buddha and sought the
Greater Vehicle: salvation of all through the grace and help of Buddha and Bodhisattavas.
• It believes in idol-worship.
• It believes that Nirvana is not a negative cessation of misery but a positive
state of bliss.
• Mahayana had two chief philosophical schools: the Madhyamika and the
Yogachara
• The former took a line midway between the uncompromising realism of
Hinayanism and the idealism of Yogachara.
• The Yogachara school, founded by Maitreyanatha, completely rejected the
realism of Hinayana and maintained absolute idealism.
Vajrayana or Vehicle • Its followers believed that salvation could be best attained by acquiring
of Thunder Bolt: the magical power, which they called Vajra.
• The chief divinities of this new sect were the Taras.
• It became popular in Eastern India, particularly Bengal and Bihar.
• It was a form of Buddhism, which appeared in eastern India in the 8th
century and was finally established in Tibet in 11th century, as a result of
mission sent from the great Vajrayana monastery of Vikramshila
Buddhist Scriptures: • Buddhist Scriptures include the following:
The Vinaya Pitaka: (i) It mainly deals with rules and regulations, which the
Buddha promulgated. (ii) It describes in detail the gradual development of
the Sangha. (iii) An account of the life and teaching of the Buddha is also
given.
The Sutta Pitaka: (i) It consists chiefly of discourses delivered by Buddha

himself on different occasions. (ii) Few discourses delivered by Sariputta,
Ananda, Moggalana and others are also included in it.
The Abhidhamma Pitaka: (i) It contains the profound philosophy of the

Buddha's teachings. (ii) It investigates mind and matter, to help the
understanding of things as they truly are.
The Khandhakas: (i) They contain regulations on the course or life in the
monastic crder and have two sections-the Mahavagga and the
Cullavagga. The third part, the Parivara, is an insignificant composition by
a Ceylonese monk.
Among the non-canonical literature, Milindapanho, Dipavamsa and

Mahavamsa are important. The later two are the great chronicles of
Ceylon
The Important • Asvaghosha: Contemporary of Kanishia. He was poet, dramatist,

Buddhist Writers musician, scholar and debator.
• Nagarjuna: He was a friend and contemporary of Satavahana king Yajnasri
Gautamiputra of Andhra. He propounded the Madhyamika School of
Buddhist philosophy, popularly known as Sunyavala.
• Asanga and Vasubandhu: Two brothers who flourished in the Punjab
region in fourth century A.D. Asanga was the most important teacher of
the Yogachara or Vijnanavada School founded by his guru, Maitreyanatha.
Vasubandhu's greatest work, Abhidharmakosa is still considered an
important encyclopaedia of Buddhism.
• Buddhaghosha: Who lived in the fifth century AD was a great Pali scholar.
The commentaries and the Visuddhimaga written by him are a great
achievement in the Post-Tripitaka literature.
• Dinnaga: The last mighty intellectual of the fifth century, is well known as
the founder of the Buddhist logic.
• Dharmakirti: Lived in the seventh century AD, was another great Buddhist
logician; a subtle philosophical thinker and dialectician.
Buddhist Councils
Number Venue Priest King Major outcomes
First Rajgriha Mahakassapa Ajatashatru Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka which
(483BC) contains the rules of the Buddhist
order; Anand, the other disciple of the
Buddha, recited Suttapitaka, containing
the great collection of Buddha's
sermons on matters of doctrine and
ethical beliefs.
Second Vaishali Sabakami Kalasoka Split of the Buddhist order into

(383BC) Sthaviravadins or Theravadins and
Mahasanghikas over small points of
monastic discipline.
Third Pataliputra Mogaliputta Ashoka Establishment of the Sthaviravada

(250BC) Tissa school as an orthodox school;
Codification of Abhidhamma Pitaka,
which deals with philosophy of
Buddhism, in Pali
Fourth Kundalvana. Vasumitra and Kanishka Division of Buddhism into the

Kashmir Asvaghosa Mahayana and Hinayana sects.
(72AD)
Ajivikas
It was an ascetic sect that emerged in Indian about the
same time as Buddhism and Jainism. It was founded by
Gosala Maskariputra, who was a contemporary and
early friend of Mahavira, the founder of Jainism.
Maskariputra died shortly before the Buddha (probably
about 484 BC) after a quarrel with Mahavira. The Ajivika
sect professed a total deter- minism in the
transmigration of soul, or series of rebirths. It held that
the affairs of the entire universe were ordered by a
cosmic force called niyati (which in Sanskrit means rule,
destiny"), which determined all events and thus man's
fate to the last detail. Unlike other contemporary sects,
it did not believe that man himself could better his lot in
the course of his transmigration. The Ajivikas went
about naked and claimed special strictness in their rules
as to means of livelihood.
7. Mauryan Period
Source Materials • There are two main literary sources for the Mauryan period. One is the
'Arthashastra", written by Kautilya or Chanakya, the Prime Minister of
Chandragupta Maurya, which explains how a good government should be
organised.
• The other source is 'Indica', written in Greek by Megasthenes, the
ambassador of Seleucus Nicator at the court of Chandragupta.
• Megasthenes wrote not only about the capital city of Pataliputra but also
about the Maurya empire as a whole and about the society. The history of
Ashoka's reign can be constructed mainly on the basis of his edicts.
Arthashastra • Written by Chankaya/Vishnugupta/Kautilya.
• Divided in 15 Adhikarnas and 180 Prakarnas.
• Related to money and politics.
• Divided into fifteen parts and six thousand shlokas
• Manuscript discovered by Arya Sharma Shastri in 1905
Mudrarakshasa • written by Vishakhadatta in 5th century AD, gives an interesting account of

how Chandragupta with the help of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas.
• Jain and Buddhist traditions also throw sidelight on the history of the
Mauryas.
• Jain scriptures refer to Chandragupta's death and the Buddhist work,
'Mahavamsa', relates an account of the life and work of the king Ashoka.
• Malvikagnimitram, written by Kalidasa, throws enough light on the last
years of the Mauryan rule and the ascendance of Pushyamitra Sunga.
• Apart from the above literary sources, inscriptions of Junagarh and other
inscriptions of Ashoka on rocks and pillars help us much in building the
story of this age.
Different Views on • Buddhist Sources: They connect them with the tribe of sakyas whose
the Origin of the region was full of peacocks i.e. Moriyas and they mention Chandragupta
Mauryas as a Kshatriya.
• Jain Sources: They link Chandragupta to Moriya tribe of peacock tamers.
• Brahmanical Sources: They describe Mauryas as Shudra.
• Greek Sources: They mention that Sandrokottas (Chandragupta) was born
of humble origin.
Chandragupta • The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandragupta Maurya. He took

Maurya (321-293 advantage of the growing weakness and unpopularity of the Nandas in the
BC) last days of their rule. With the help of Chanakya, who is known as
Kautilya, he overthrew the Nandas and established the rule of the Maurya
dynasty.
• Chandragupta built up a vast empire which included not only Bihar and
good portions of Bengal, but also western and north-western India, and the
Deccan. Leaving Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of north-eastern India, the
Mauryas ruled over the whole of the subcontinent.
• In the north-west, they held sway over certain areas which were not
included even in the British empire.
• Chandragupta, according to the Jaina literature, in his last days converted
into Jainism and abdicating his throne in favour of his son Bindusara
became a monk.
Bindusara (293-273 • He was son of Chandragupta and was known as Amitraghata (slayer of
BC) foes) by the Greek writers.
• He continued his friendly links with the Syrian King Antiochus I and is
stated to have requested him for a present of figs and wine together with
a sophist.
• Antiochus sent figs and wine but replied that Greek philosophers were not
for export.
• He received a Greek ambassador, Daimachos, from Antiochus 1. Pliny
tells that Polemy II Philadelphus of Egypt sent an envoy. Dionysios, to
Bindusara's court.
Ashoka (273-232 • Ashoka was the third and the greatest of the Mauryan rulers. He occupies
BC) a high position not only in the history of India but in the world history also.
• He was coronated four years after the death of his father, Bindusara
(273BC). The gap is interpreted differently by different historians.
• We have scanty and unreliable sources to know the early life of Ashoka.
From the Buddhist traditions we learn that he was originally called
'Chandasoka' or the fierce Ashoka owing to his many evil deeds, but
afterwards he became Dharmasoka i.e., pious Ashoka.
• Scholars regard it a fabrication by the Buddhists as they were eager to
emphasize the effects of one's conversion to their faith which they called
the True Religion."
• From Rock Edict No. XIII, we learn that after Kalinga War (261BC) Ashoka
was a thoroughly changed man. He discarded Digvijay and followed
Dharmavijay. Due to this policy, his name shines with unique brilliance.
• Like his predecessors, Ashoka assumed the title of Priyadarshi (pleasing
to look at) and Devanampriya (beloved of Gods). In the Sarnath inscription,
he adopted the third title ie, Dharmasoka.
Ashoka's Dhamma: • There was a great difference between Ashoka's personal religion and the
religion he preached. His personal religion was, of course, Buddhism as he
frankly admitted in the Bhabru Edict that he believed in the principles of
Buddhism.
• He undertook journeys to the holy places of Buddhism and also called a
Buddhist Council to meet in his time. However, the greatness of the
Ashoka lies in the fact that he never thrusted his own religion upon anyone
else.
• The Dhamma he placed before the world to follow was not pure Buddhism
but it was the essence of all religions. He appointed a new class of
officers called dharmayuktas, dharma-mahamatras and stri-adhyaksha for
the moral and spiritual uplift of the subjects.
• According to Ashoka, the true spirit of religion does not lie in or is not
fulfilled by keeping fasts or singing hymns or reciting prayers. He was, on
the contrary, quite sure that true religion consisted in leading a pure and
pious life.
• Ashoka's dhamma comprised all the good qualities of the religions of the
world, which he was convinced, were not exclusively the monopoly of
Buddhism alone.
Later Imperial • Ashoka, according to Buddhist texts, ruled for twenty-seven years. The
Mauryas disintegration of the Mauryan empire seemed to have set in immediately
after Ashoka's death.
• So long he lived, he maintained his effective hold over the entire empire,
extending in the north from the foot of the Hindukush to the border of the
Tamil country in the south.
• The tenth and the last of the Mauryas was Brihadratha, who, according to
the testimony of Banabhatta, was murdered by his general Pushyamitra
Sunga who ascended the throne in 187 BC.
• The empire founded by Pushyamitra is known as Sunga Dynasty. With
Brihadratha's death (185 BC), the historic rule of the Mauryas came to an
end within less than half a century of Ashoka's death and 137 years since
its foundation by Chandragupta Maurya.
Causes of The • Following factors are held responsible for the decline of the Mauryan
Decline of The empire:
Mauryans. (1) Weak successors of Ashoka
(2) Militant Brahmanical reactions to Ashoka's religious policy
which was closer to Buddhism.
(3) Ashoka's pacifist policy aiming at Dharamvijay instead of
Digvijay
(4) Financial crisis owing to the enormous expenditure on the
army and large bureaucracy.
(5) Highly centralised character of the Mauryan government
(6) Greek invasion on the north-west.
Mauryan administration
Central • The Mauryan rule was vast and highly centralized bureaucratic rule with the
Administration: king as the fountain head of all powers.
• The king claimed no divine nile; rather it was paternal despotism. Kautilys
called the king "dharmapravartaka" or promulgator of social order.
Mauryan Mantrin Chief Minister

Mantriparishad Purohita High Priest
Senapati Commander-in-charge
Yuvaraj Crowned Prince
Samaharta Collector of Revenue
Yukta Subordinate Officer-in-Charge of Revenue of the
King Head of Prisons
Prashasti Head of prisons
Sannidata Head of Treasury
Nayaka Head of City Security
Paur City Police
Vyabharika Chief Judge
Karmantika Head of Industries and Factories
Dandapala Head of Police
Durgapala Head of Royal Fort
Annapala Head of the Food Grains Department
Provincial • Except the capital Pataliputra, the whole empire was divided into four
Administration: provinces controlled by a viceroy-either a prince or a member of royal
family.
• District Administration: Each district had three main officers-Pradeshikas,
Rajukas and Yuktas.
• Sub-district Administration: Sub-districts were administered by Gopa
(account) and Sthanika (tax collector). The villages were administered by
village headmen.
• City Administration: The administration of capital
Judicial • Justice was provided by the king, Pradeshika and Rajukas. At lowest level,
Administration: the justice was administered by the village headman.
• There were two types of courts: (i) Dharmasthas: The civil courts redressing
cases of marriage, contracts etc. and (ii) Kantakasodhana: the criminal
courts which tried criminal cases and tax evasion.
Army • Mauryas had a big army. According to Pliny. Chandragupta maintained

600,000 foot soliders, 30,000 cavalary and 900 elephants.
• According to Meghasthenese, the army was administered by six
committees consisting of five members each, taken from a board of 30
officers.
Espionage: • It was integral to the Mauryan administration; Speis were of two types:
Santha and Sanchar; the former worked by remaining stationed at a public
place and the latter by moving from place to place. The spies were the ears
and eyes of the king. They were also called "Gudhapurshas."
Revenue • There were different sources of state revenues: cities (durga), rural areas
Administration: (rashtra), mines (khan), road and traffic (vanikpatha), pastures (Vraja),
Plantations (setu) and forests (vana).
• Land Taxes: Different types of taxes were levied upon the rural areas
(rashtras) for the extraction of land revenue. Kautilya gives a detailed
account of these taxes. These were as follows:
1. Bhaga: The chief source of revenue levied at the rate of 1/4th or 1/6th.
2. Pindakara: Assessed on group of villages and paid by husbandsmen.
3. Kara: Taxes levied on fruits and flower garden
4. Hiranya: taxes levied in cash on special class of crops.

5. Pranaya: Imposed by the state during emergency periods. It amounted to
1/3rd or 1/4th of the produce according to the nature of the soil.
6. Bali: A tax known since the Vedic period continued under the Mauryans.
• Import Duties: Prabeshya or import duties were fixed at 20 per cent of the
cost price. Panyadhyaksha and Pattanadhyaksha were responsible to verify
every import to the state. They were also responsible for the export of each
article from the state and collected the revenue known as nishkramya.
Ashokan Inscriptions/Edicts
The Minor Rock Edicts include the following:
A brief description of Ashokan inscriptions is given as under:
(i) The Major Rock Edicts: They are a set of 14 inscriptions found at eight places:
Dhauli, Girnar, Jauguda, Kalsi, Mansehra, Shahbazgarhi, Sopara and Yerragudi. The
Major Rock Edicts also include two separates edicts found at Kalinga. The Major
Rock Edicts deal with administration and ethics
(ii) (ii) The Minor Rock Edicts: The Minor Rock Edicts are spread on 13 places: Bairat,
Brahmagiri, Gavimath, Gujarra, Jatinga-Rameshwar, Maski, Palkigundu, Rajula-
Mandagiri, Rupanath, Sasaram, Siddapur, Survrnagiri and Yerragudi.
(a) The Queen's Edict: It was located at Allahabad-

Kosam.
(b) Barabar Cave Inscriptions: Located in Bihar,
these inscriptions speak of Ashoka's donation of
the cave to the Ajivikas.
(c) Kandhar Inscriptions: They are located at Shar-

i-Quna in southern Afghanistan.
(d) Bhabru Inscriptions: It has been found at

Bairat in Rajasthan. It deals with Ashoka's
conversion to Buddhism.
(iii) The Major Pillar Edicts: They are a set up of

seven edicts found at Allahabad-Kosam, Merrut (now in Delhi), Topran (now in Delhi), Lauriya Areraj,
Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva (all three in Bihar).These edicts are engraved on monolithic
pillars.
(iv) Minor Pillar Edicts: These include:
(a) Rummindei Pillar Inscription: It mentions the exemption of Lumbini, birth place of Lord Buddha,
from tax.
(b) Nigalisagar Pillar Inscription: Originally located year Kapilvastu, now near Rummindei or Lumbini.
It says the Ashoka increased the stupa of Buddha Konakamana to double its former size
(c) Schism Edict: Found at Kausambi, Sanchi and Sarnath, this edict appeals for maintaining unity in
the Buddhist order.
Language of Inscriptions:
Ashokan inscriptions use three different languages -Prakrit, Greek and Aramaic-and four scripts-
Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Greek and Aramaic.
Prakrit inscriptions are written in Brahmi and Kharoshthi. Rest inscriptions are written in Greek
and Aramaic scripts. The Kandhar Rock inscription is bilingual, using Greek and Aramaic
languages. Inscriptions in Kharoshthi are all clustered in the north-west
8. Post Mauryan Period

.
There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan
empire such as weak successors, partition of empire and
administrative abuses after Ashoka's reign. After the death of
Ashoka, his successors were not able to keep the vast Mauryan
Empire intact.
Kalinga declared its independence and in the farther south, the

Satavahanas established their independent rule. The Mauryan
rule was confined to the Gangetic valley and it was soon
replaced by the Sunga dynasty.
Sungas and Kanvas • The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, who was the
commander-in-chief under the Mauryas. He ascended the throne of
Magadha in 185 B.C. Pushyamitra was a staunch follower of Brahmanism.
• He performed two asvamedha sacrifices. After the death of Pushyamitra,
his son Agnimitra became the ruler. Agnimitra was a great conqueror.
• He was also the hero of the play Malavikagnimitram written by Kalidasa.
During their rule there was a revival of Brahminical influence.
• The Bhagavata religion became important. Patanjali, author of the
'Mahabhasya', was born at Gonarda in Central India.
• Patanjali was the priest of 2 Asvamedha Yajnas, performed by Pushymitra.
In arts, the Bharhut Stupa is the most famous monument of the Sunga
period.
• The fine gateway railing which surrounds the Sanchi stupa, built by Ashoka,
constructed during the Sunga period.
• The last Sunga ruler was Devabhuti, who was murdered by his minister
Vasudeva Kanva, the founder of the Kanva dynasty. The Kanva dynasty
ruled for 45 years.
• After the fall of the Kanvas, the history of Magadha was a blank until the
establishment of the Gupta dynasty.
Satavahanas • The most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan
and in central India were the Satavahanas.
• The Satavahanas are considered to be identical with the Andhras who are
mentioned in the Puranas.
• According to some Puranas altogether the Andhras ruled for 300 years and
this period is assigned to the rule of the Satavahana dynasty.
• The earliest inscriptions of the Satavahanas belong to the first century B.C.,
when they defeated the Kanvas and established their power in parts of
central India.
• The early Satavahana kings appeared not in Andhra, in the upper but in
Maharashtra where most of their early inscriptions have been found.
• They set up their power Godavari valley, which at present produces rich and
diverse crops in Maharashtra. The fortunes of the family were restored by
Gautamiputra Satakarni (A.D. 106-130).
• He called himself the only brahmana, defeated the Sakas and destroyed
many kshatriya rulers. He claims to have destroyed the Kshaharata lineage
to which his adversary Nahapana belonged.
• He also occupied Malwa and Kathiawar which lay under the control of the
Sakas.
• The successors of Gautamiputra ruled till A.D 220. The coins and
inscriptions of his immediate successor Vasisthiputra Pulumavi (A.D 130-
154) are found in Andhra, and show that by the middle of the second
century this area had become a part of the Satavahana kingdom.
• He set up his capital at Paithan or Pratisthan on the Godavari in
Aurangabad district.
Chedi • The information derived from Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela the
greatest ruler of Kalinga of this dynasty. He constructed caves on the
Udaygiri hill near Bhuvaneshwar.
• Around 1st century BC, Kingdom of Chedis or Chetis was founded in
Kalinga.
• The politics of this period is known for the 3rd Chedi king of kalinga known
as Kharvela.
• Hathgumpha inscription of Udaigiri hills of Orissa describe him as great
conqueror who Magadh, Satvahanas and Pandyas of Madurai.
• Chedis are also referred to as Cheta or Chetavamsa, and
Mahameghavahana
Central Asian Contacts and Their Results
The Indo-Greeks • A series of invasions took place from about 200 B.C. The first to cross the
Hindukush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, lying south of the Oxus river
in the area covered by north Afghanistan.
• Two Greek dynasties ruled north-western India on parallel lines at one and
the same time.
• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-145 B.C.). He is
also known by the name Milinda.
• He had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab, and he invaded the
Ganga-Yamuna doab. He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, who is
also known as Nagarjuna.
• The Indo-Bactrian rule is important in the history of India because of the
large number of coins which the Greeks issued.
• The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be
definitely attributed to the kings.
• The Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased
in number under the Kushanas.
• The Greek rule is also memorable on account of the introduction of
Hellonistic art features in the north-west frontier of India, giving rise to the
Gandhara art.
The Sakas • The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled a much larger part
of India than the Greeks did.
• There were five branches of the Sakas with their seats of power in different
parts of India and Afghanistan. Although the Sakas established their rule in
different parts of the country, only those who ruled in western India held
power for any considerable length of time, for about four centuries or so.
• The most famous Saka ruler in India was Rudradaman- I (AD 130-150). He
ruled not only over Sindh, Kutch and Gujarat, but had also recovered from
the Satavahanas Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar.
• He is famous in history because of the repairs he undertook to improve the
Sudarsana lake in the semi-arid zone of Kathiawar.
• Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit. Although a foreigner settled in
India, he issued the first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.
The Parthians • The Saka domination in north-western India was followed by that of the
Parthians, and in 'many ancient' Indian Sanskrit texts the two peoples are
together mentioned as Saka- Pahlavas.
• In fact they ruled over this country on parallel lines for some time. Originally
the Parthians lived in Iran, from where they moved to India.
• In comparison with the Greeks and the Sakas they occupied only a small
portion of north-western India in the first century.
• The most famous Parthian king was Gondophernes, in whose reign St.
Thomas is said to have come to India for the propagation of Christianity.
The Kushanas • The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, who are also called Yuechis
or Tocharians. The Kushanas were one of the five clans into which the
Yuechi tribe was divided.
• A nomadic people from the steppes of north, Central Asia living in the
neighbourhood of China, the Kushanas first occupied Bactria or north
Afghanistan where they displaced the Sakas.
• Finally they set up their authority over the lower Indus basin and the greater
part of the Gangetic basin.
• The first dynasty was founded by a house of chiefs who were called
Kadphises and who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50. It had two kings.
• The first was Kadphises I. who issued coins south of the Hindukush. He
minted coppers in imitation of Roman coins.
• The second king was Kadphises II, who issued a large number of gold
money and spread his kingdom east of the Indus. The house of Kadphises
was succeeded by that of Kanishka. Its kings extended the Kushana power
over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
• The early Kushana kings issued numerous gold coins with higher gold
content than is found in the Gupta coins. Although the gold coins of the
Kushanas are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscriptions are
distributed not only in north-western India and Sindh but also in Mathura,
Sravasti, Kausambi and Varanasi.
• Kushana coins, inscriptions, sculptures and structures found in Mathura
show that it was their second capital in India, the first being Purushapura or
Peshawar. The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka.
• He started an era in AD 78, which is now known as the Saka era and is used
by the Government of India.
• Kanishka extended his whole-hearted patronage to Buddhism. He held a
Buddhist council in Kashmir, where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of
Buddhism were finalized.
• Kanishka was also a great patron of art and Sanskrit literature. The
successors of Kanishka contimied to rule in north-western India till abour
A.D. 230, and some of them bore typical Indian names such as Vasudeva.
9 . Gupta Period
It was, perhaps, sometimes late in the obscure period of the third century AD that the Gupta dynasty
emerged. One Sri Gupta, who brought Magadha under his control, was the founder of the Gupta
dynasty. Sri Gupta was succeeded by Ghototkacha Gupta. The first two kings of the dynasty were
described as Maharajas. It is generally believed that first two rulers of the dynasty ruled before 320 AD.
They were followd by some of the mighty rulers of ancient Indian history.
Chandragupta I (320 • Chandragupta I, grandson of Sri Gupta and son of Ghatotkacha Gupta, was
AD-335 AD) the first great ruler of the line. He increased power and prestige of the
empire to a great extent by matrimonial alliance and conquests. He married
Kumaradevi, the Lichchavi princess.
• His empire included modern Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Tirhut, in addition to
Magadha. He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. He started the Gupta Era
in AD 320, which marked the date of his accession.
Samudragupta (335 • Samudragupta ascended the throne in 335 AD. The basic information about
AD-375 AD) his reign is provided by an inscription Prayaga Prasasti composed by
Harisena, the poet at his court, and engraved on an Ashokan pillar at
Allahabad.
• The places and the countries conquered by Samudragupta can be divided
into five groups
• Group one includes princes of the Ganga-Yamuna doab who were defeated.
Group two includes the rulers of eastern Himalayan states and some
frontier states, such as princes of Nepal, Assam and Bengal.
• It also covers some republics of Punjab. Group three includes the forest
kingdoms situated in the Vindhya region and known as 'atavika rajyas'.
• Group four includes twelve rulers of the eastern Deccan and South India,
who were conquered and liberated. Group five includes the names of the
Sakas and Kushanas.
• Samudragupta embarked upon a policy of conquest. In fact, Digvijaya
became the ultimate goal of his life.
• For his military achievements, he has been aptly complimented by the
historian V.A. Smith as the Indian Napoleon. He has described Samudra
Gupta as the 'Hero of a Hundred Battles'.
Chandragupta II (380 • The reign of Chandragupta II saw the highest watermark of the Gupta
AD-412 AD) empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and
conquests.
• Chandragupta, I married his daughter Prabhavati with a Vakataka prince
who belonged to the Brahmana caste and ruled in central India. The prince
died and was succeeded by his young son. So, Prabhavati became the
virtual ruler.
• Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vakataka Kingdom. This
afforded a great advantage to him. With his great influence in this area,
Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat.
• which had been under the rule of the Saka Kshatrapas for about four
centuries. The conquest gave Chandragupta the eastern sea coast, famous
for trade and commerce.
• This also contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain.
Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital by Chandragupta II.
• The exploits of the king called Chandra are glorified in an iron pillar
inscription fixed near Qutub Minar in Delhi. But the epigraphic eulogy
seems to be exaggerated.
• Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used
by an Ujjain ruler in 57 BC as a mark of his victory over the Saka Kshatrapas
of western India.
• The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by numerous scholars
such as Kalidasa and Amarasimha.
• It was in Chandragupta's reign that the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414)
visited India and wrote an elaborate account of the life of its people.
Chandragupta II Nine Gems:
Person Famous Works

Amarsimha (Lexicography) Amarkosha
Dhanvantri (Medicine) Ayurveda
Harisena (Poetry) Allahabad Inscription
Kalidasa (Drama and Poetry) Abhijnanashakuntalam, Meghdoot etc.
Kahapanaka (Astrology) Jyotisysahastra
Sanku (Architecture) Shilpashastra
Vrahamihira (Astrology) Brihadsamhita
Vararuchi (Grammar) Vyakarana
Vetalabhatta (Magic) Mantrashastra
Kumaragupta I, • Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son, Kumaragupta I. Nothing is
Mahendraditya (415- known about his political career, but numismatic and epigraphic evidence
455 AD) indicates that the strength, unity, and prestige of the empire remained
unshaken in his reign.
• Towards the close of his reign, the Gupta power was seriously menaced by
the new invaders called the Hunas. Kumaragupta died during the war with
the Hunas.
Skandagupta • Skandagupta, the last great ruler of the Gupta dynasty, probably came to
Vikramaditya (455- the throne when the war with Pushyamitra was still going on. His victory
467 AD) saved the Gupta empire.
• He succeeded in defeating the Hunas and in maintaining the integrity of his
ancestral empire. Success in repelling the Hunas seems to have been
celebrated by the assumption of the title Vikramaditya.
• The decline of the empire began soon after his death. The Hunas later
became the rulers of Punjab and Kashmir
Decline of the Gupta • Though Gupta rule lingered till the middle of the sixth century AD, the
Empire imperial glory had ended a century earlier. The reasons were:
(i) invasion by the Hunas,
(ii) rise of feudalism,
(iii) weak successors,
(iv) financial difficulties,
(v) decline of foreign trade, and
(vi) absence of large professional army to maintain vast empire.
Gupta Administration • In contrast to the Mauryas, the Gupta kings adopted pompous titles such
as parameshvara, maharajadhiraja and paramabhattaraka which signify
that they ruled over lesser kings in their empire.
• Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by absence of a firm
practice of primogeniture.
• The Gupta bureaucracy was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The
most important officers in the Gupta empire were the kumaramatyas.
• They were appointed by the king in the home provinces and possibly paid in
cash. The Guptas organized a system of provincial and local
administration.
• In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which again were
divided into villages. The village headman became more important in Gupta
times.
Important Gupta
Officials at the Mahabaladhikrita Commander-in-Chief.
Central Level Mahadandanayak Chief justice
Mahapratihar An official to maintain the royal palace.
Mahasandhivigrahak or An official for post-war conciliation.
Sandhivigrahak
Dandapashika Head of the police department.
Bhandagaradhikreta Head of the education department.
Mahapaksha Patali Head of the account department.
Vinaysthitisansathapak Head of the education department.
Sarvadhyaksha Inspector for the all central
departments.
Mahashwapati Controller of cavalry.
Mahamahipilapati Controller and executor of elephantry.
Vinaypura Official to present different guests at
king's court.
Yuktapurusha Office to keep account of war booty.
Khadyatpakika Inspector of royal kitchen.
Ranabhandagarika Officer-in-charge of army stores.
Mahanarpati Head of foot soldiers (infantry).
Economic and Social Developments

Revenue and Trade • A study of the inscriptions of the Gupta period reveals that eighteen
different taxes were levied at that time. Land revenue was the chief source
of income.
• Land tax was between 1/4 to 1/6 of the produce. It is known from the
inscriptions of Pallavas and Vakatakas that taxes were enforced on buffalo
milk, curd and also on fruits and flowers.
• The forests, meadows and salt mines, added to the income of the state.
• Land taxes increased while those on trade and commerce decreased; Visthi
(forced labour) prevailed. Religious functionaries were granted land called
Agrahara.
• Trade through rivers proved quite cheap and comfortable. During this
period, the ship-building industry greatly flourished.
• Tamralipti, a port in Bengal, was an important trade centre and from there
trade was carried on with the eastern countries like China, Ceylon, Java and
Sumatra.
• In Andhra, there were many ports on the banks of the rivers, Godavari and
Krishna; Tondai was a famous port of Chola state. Kalyana, Chol, Broach
and Cambay were the important ports of the South.
• The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins, which were called
dinaras in their inscriptions.
Emergence of • The striking development of the Gupta period, especially in Madhya
Priestly Landlords: Pradesh, was the emergence of priestly landlords at the cost of local
peasants.
• Land grants made to the priests certainly brought many virgin areas under
cultivation. But these beneficiaries were imposed from above on the local
tribal peasants, who were reduced to a lower status.
• In central and western India, the peasants were also subjected to forced
labor (Visthi).
Types of Taxes
Kalpita/Upkalpita Sales Tax and Purchase Tax

Halivakar/Halidanda Tax on Ploughing
Bali An additional oppressive tax on
people
Prataya Toll tax
Bhoga General Tribute
Bhag Bhagkar Combination of Bhog and Bhaga
Bhatta Police tax
Chat Security tax
Charasana Grazing tax
Hiranya Tax on special produce taken in
cash
Udakabhag water tax
Sarvarishti Forced tax
Religion: The Revival of Hinduism
Bhagavatism centred around the worship of Vishnu or

Bhagavat, and originated in post-Mauryan times. Vishnu
was a minor god in Vedic times. He represented the sun
and also the fertility cult.
By the second century BC he was merged with a god

called Narayana. He was also called Bhagavat. and his
worshippers were called Bhagavatas.
Narayana was supposed to bestow shares or good

fortune (bhagya) on his bhakta or worshippers, In return,
the worshippers or bhaktas offered their loving devotion
or bhakti to him.
The worshippers of Vishnu and those of Naranyana were

brought under one umbrella by merging Vishnu with
Narayana. The former was a Vedic god and the latter
was of Dravidian origin. But the two cultures, the two
types of peoples and the two gods mingled with each
other.
The great epic Mahabharata was recast to show that

Krishna was identical with Vishnu. So by 200 BC the
three streams of worshippers and their gods merged
into one.
This resulted in the creation of Bhagavatism or

Vaishnavism. Several religious recitations, including the
Vishnusahastranama, were composed for the benefit of
the Vishnu worshippers.
By the sixth century, Vishnu became a member of the

trinity of gods along with Shiva and Brahma
Gupta Art • In art, architecture, sculpture, painting and terracotta figurines. the Gupta
period witnessed unprecedented activities and development all over India.
That is why the period is also referred to as the 'Golden Age of Ancient
India'.
• In architectural types, it ushered in a new age which is particularly noticed
in the architectural style of the temples. In fact, it initiated a creative and
formative period for the foundation of a typical Indian temple architecture.
Architecture • In the rock-cut architecture, the conventional types reached their

culmination. The rock-cut caves, mostly Buddhist, but also Hindu and
Jaina, had the conventional two parts:
(i) the proper shrine called the Chaitya and

(ii) the monastery, i.e., the Vihara or Sangharama. The most notable
of these are to be found in Ajanta, Ellora, Aurangabad and Bagh.
• Brahmanical rock- cut shrines, although lesser in number than those of

the Buddhists, were not rare either. Reference may be made in this
connection to the Udaygiri series of shrines, near Bhopal. The shrines are
also to be found at Badami in the Bijapur district. Jaina caves are to be
found at Badami as also at Aihole.
• Structural buildings in altogether new style were initiated. Contemporary
epigraphic evidence refers to the building of numerous temples and cities
with lofty edifices with the new materials.
• Flat-roofed temples, temples with Sikhars, rectangular temples, circular
and square temple survive today as specimens of the new architectural
style and system. Sanchi temple, Parvati temple, Meguti temple and
Baigram temples may be mentioned in this connection.
• The temples at Sanchi, Tigawa, and Eran are the best preserved among
the structural temples of the period. The most well known Sikhara temple
is that of Dasavatara at Deogarh.
• Brick temple of Bhitargao in Kanpur may be referred to as one of the new
cultural temples built with the new material- bricks.
Famous Temples of Tigawa (Jabalpur) Vishnu Temple

the Gupta Age Shiva Temple Bhumara (Nagaud)
Parvati Temple. Nachna Kuthara
Dasavtar Temple Deogarh (Jhansi)
Shiva Temple Koh (Nagaud)
Bhitragaon Temple Bhitragaon
Lakshman Temple Kanpur (Brick made)
Sculpture • It may be mentioned that the Gupta plastic conception had its birth at
Mathura and spread to Sarnath, Shravasti, Prayag, and other places.
• At Sarnath, the plastic conception of Mathura school with all its elegance
reached perfection in figure of seated Buddha in Dharma-Chakra-
Pravarthana attitudes.
• The perfection is also noticed in a few specimens found in the figures of
Siva, Kartikeya, etc., at Malwa, and partly noticed in the
Durgamahishamardini and bust of Siva at Bhumara.
Painting The art of painting, including terracotta and clay modelling, assumed a secular
character during this period and became more popular than stone sculpture.
Vatsyayana's work Kamasutra includes painting as one of the sixty-four kalas i.e.,
arts. Yasodhara, commentator of Vatsyayana refers to Shadanga i.e., six limbs of
art distinction type
(i) (rupabheda),
(ii) ideal proportions (pramanas),
(iii) expression of mood (bhava),
(iv) embodiment of charm (lavany-yojana),
(v) points of view (sadrisya), and
(vi) preparation of colours (varnakabhanga).
Ajanta Paintings
The greatest specimen of Buddhist art in Gupta times is

provided by Ajanta paintings. They depict the various
events in the life of Gautama Buddha and previous
Buddhas, of Jataka stories.
Bagh caves had the folk culture as the basic theme.
The paintings in the cave no. 9 and 10 belong to the first

and second century B.C.
Cave no.10 belongs to the early Gupta Age, approximately

350 A.D.
Paintings in the cave no. 16, 17 and 19 belong to the later

period approx to 650 A.D.
Painting of the Cave no.1 and 2 belong to the post- Gupta

period.
The finest examples of paintings of this period are found

in the rock-cut cave number 1, 16 and 19 at Ajanta.
The wall painting of the Bodhisattava in cave 1 is the finest

example of Gupta art.
10. Sangam Age
Ancient South India
• The beginning of the historical period is marked by the settlements of large-scale rural
communities which practised agriculture with the help of iron implements, the formation
of the state system, the rise of social classes, use of writing, beginnings of written
literature, use of metal money and so on.
• However, all these phenomena did not emerge in a linear fashion in southern India,
especially at the tip of the peninsula with the Kaveri delta as the nuclear zone, until about
the 2nd century BCE.
• The Neolithic phase of south India which was marked by the use of polished stone axe
and blade tools was succeeded by the Megalithic phase (around 1200 BCE – 300 BCE).
• The upper portions of the peninsula were inhabited by people who were called the Megalith
builders.
• The megaliths were burials or Graves covered with a huge stone hence the name.
• These burials have yielded the first iron objects from South India and they give evidence of
black and red ware pottery.
• They contain not only skeletons of the people who were buried but also pottery, iron
objects and grains.
• The first iron objects from south India which include arrowheads, spearheads,
tridents (associated with Shiva), hoes, sickles, etc. have been excavated from these
megaliths.
• The number of agricultural tools found at megalithic sites is lesser in comparison to tools meant
for hunting and fighting implying that the megalithic people did not practise an advanced type of
agriculture.
• The megalithic people produced paddy and ragi, and it seems that the cultivated land was very
limited and generally they did not settle on the plains or lowlands.
• The megaliths are found in all upland areas of the peninsula but their concentration is more in
eastern Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
• The Cholas, Pandyas and the Keralaputras (Cheras) mentioned in the Ashokan inscriptions
probably belonged to the last phase of Megalithic culture.
Sangam Age • Sangam Age is the period from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD in south
India.
• There were 3 Sangams conducted in ancient South India called Muchchangam.
• Three dynasties ruled during the Sangam Age – the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas,
together also known as Tamilakam
• The key source of evidence about these kingdoms is outlined from the literary
references of the Sangam Period.
• It refers to the period when large number of poems in Tamil were composed by a
number of authors
Cheras • The Cheras ruled over large parts of modern-day Kerala.

• Vanji was the capital of the Cheras.
• Musiri and Tondi were the important seaports in this period.
• The emblem of Cheras is the ‘bow and arrow’.
• The first-century Pugalur inscriptions references to 3 generations of Chera kings.
Senguttuvan (2nd century CE) was the prominent ruler of the Chera dynasty.
• The military achievements of Senguttuvan have been recorded in the epic
Silapathikaram, which talks about his Himalayan expedition where he
vanquished many rulers from northern India.
• Senguttuvan introduced in Tamil Nadu the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi
as the ideal wife.
• He was the first to send an ambassador to China from South India.
Cholas
Cholas • The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period stretched across the modern-day
Tiruchirapalli District, Tiruvarur District, Nagapattinam District, Ariyalur District,
Perambalur district, Pudukkottai district, Thanjavur District in Tamil Nadu and
Karaikal District.
• Initially, the capital of the Cholas was Uraiyur. Later it was shifted to Puhar (also
called Poompuhar).
• King Karikala was a prominent king of the Sangam Chola dynasty.
• The insignia/emblem of the Cholas was ‘tiger’.
• Pattinappalai written by Kadiyalur Uruttirangannanar depicts his life as well as
military achievements.
• Various Sangam poems mention the Battle of Venni where he defeated an
alliance of the Cheras, Pandyas and 11 smaller chieftains.
• Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by Karikala.
• Trade and commerce prospered during his rule.
• He also constructed irrigation tanks near river Kaveri to make available water for
reclaimed land from the forest for farming
Pandyas • The Pandyas reigned over the Southern region of modern-day Tamil Nadu.
• Madurai was the capital of Pandyas.
• Their emblem was the ‘Carp’.
• King Neduncheliyan was also called Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan.
• According to mythology, the curse of the Kannagi, wife of Kovalan, burnt and
destroyed Madurai.
• The socio-economic condition of the seaport of Korkai was mentioned in
Maduraikkanji which was written by Mangudi Maruthanar.
Sangam Kingdom Place Chairman Literary works
First or Head Pandya Madurai Agasthya or Shiva No books have survived. Used
Agattiyam as grammar
Second or middle Pandya Kapadapuram Initially, it was Around 2000 poems were
sangam Agasthya and collected and compiled into
then his disciple Tolkappiyum.
Tholkapiyar took
over.
Third Pandya Maduraii Nakkirar Most of the existing corpus of
sangam literature was written.
Sangam Literature
Famous works included in Sangam literature are Tholkappiyum, Ettutogai, Pattupattu, Pathinenkil
kanakku, Thirukkural, and two epics called Silapathigaram and Manimeghalai.
• Tolkkappiyum:-Tolkkapiyum was written by Tholkkappiyar and is considered the earliest

Tamil literary work. It is a work on Tamil grammar and it also provides information about the
socio-economic condition of that time.
• Ettutogai:Eight Anthologies consist of eight works, includes Aingurunooru, Narrinai,
Aganaooru, Purananooru, Kuruntogai, Kalittogai, Paripadal and Padirruppatu.
• The Pattuppattu:-Ten Idylls consists of ten works – Thirumurugarruppadai, Porunararruppadai,

Sirupanarruppadai, Perumpanarruppadai, Mullaippattu, Nedunalvadai, Maduraikkanji,
Kurinjippatttu,Pattinappalai and Malaipadukadam.
• Pathinenkilkanakku: contains eighteen works dealing with ethics and morals.
• Thirukkural:Written by Thiruvalluvar.It is one of the greatest works of morality. This book is
famous for its universality and secular nature.
• There are two epics called Silappathikaram and Manimeghalai written by Elango Adigal and
Sittalai Sattanar. They also provide important information about the Sangam society and
polity.
11. Post-Gupta Age
HARSHAVARDHANA • Harsha was the second son of Prabhakara Vardhana, the first important
king of Pushyabhuti dynasty with its capital at Thanesvar.
• Pushyabhutis were the feudataries of the Guptas, but had assumed
independence after the Huna invasions.
• Harsha was favoured to his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, by both his father
and the nobles. But Harsha expressed his reluctance to supercede his
brother. Rajyavardhana who became the ruler had to face problems from
the day of his succession to the throne.
• Grahavarman, the Maukhari ruler of Kanauj and husband of Rajyasri
(daughter of Prabhakar), was murdered by Deva Gupta (the ruler of Malwa),
who in alliance with Sasanka (ruler of Gauda or Bengal) now occupiesan
Kanauj and imprisoned Rajyasri.
• Rajyavardhana, therefore, undertook a campaign against Deva Gupta and
killed him but he was deceived and killed by Sasanka. In the meanwhile,
Rajyasri escaped into the forests of central India.
• Harsha now succeeded his brother at Thanesvar. His first act as the ruler
was naturally to rescue his sister and avenge the deaths of his brother and
brother-in-law, and was quite successful in both.
• He drove out Sasanka and Gupta from Kanauj. Between 606 and 612 he
brought most of northern India (Punjab, Kanauj, parts of Gauda, Orissa and
Mithila) under his control and assumed the title of 'Siladitya'.
Harsha's Military • Occupation of Kanauj: In his first expedition, Harsha drove away Sasanka
Conquests from Kanauj who had occupied it after murdering Harsha's brother. After
this, he not only unified Kanauj with Thanesvar but also made it his new
capital, which made him the most powerful king of north India.
• Conquest of Valabhi: His early relations with the rulers of Valabhi were
cordial because he was engaged in consolidating his position against the
Gutaguda axis in the east. But soon Malwa became the bone of contention
between the two and so he had to turn his attention to western India.
Nausasi Copper Plate Inscription gives information about his expedition
against Valabhi. It resulted in the defeat of the Valabhi ruler, Dhruvasena-II
and his acceptance of the position of a feudatory vassal.
• War with Pulkesin-II: The above success, however, he proved to be the
immediate cause of conflict between Harsha and Pulakesin-II. Further, the
question of overlordship over the Latas, Malwas and Gurjarats seems to
have been the long-standing cause of conflict between the two.
• Hiuen Tsang gives an elaborate description of Harsha's preparations for

this war, but does not talk about its result. However, he gives the
impression that Harsha was the aggressor but did not succeed fully in the
war. Chalukyan records of Pulakesin's successors mention the defeat of
Harsha by Pulakesin.
• Ravikirti (the court poet of Pulakesin-II and the. author of the Aihole
Inscription) also hints vaguely at Pulakesin's victory. But Ravikirti's account
as well as the records of Pulakesin's successors cannot be taken as
impartial as none of the contemporary records refer to Pulakesin's victory
over Harsha's attack was not a complete success, and it resulted in the
conclusion of an honourable treaty.
• His Other Conquests: According to some scholars Harsha defeated the

Pallava ruler, Mahendravarman-I, and also some other southern rulers. But
in the absence of direct evidence, we cannot say anything conclusively. But
Orissa or the kingdom of Kaling seems to have been subjugated by Harsha.
• Harsha established his hold practically over the whole of north India.
Rajasthan, Punjab, UP, Bihar and Orissa were under his direct control but
his sphere of influence spread over a much wider area since peripheral
states such as Kashmir, Sind, Valabhi and Kamarupa acknowledged his
sovereignty.
Harsha's Government • Harsha governed his empire on the same lines as the Guptas did, except
that his administration had become more feudal and decentralised. It is
stated that Harsha had standing army numbering over one lakh and 60,000
cavalry and 9,000 elephants.
• Harsha could mobilise the support of all his feudatories at the time of war.
Evidently every feudatory contributed his quota of foot soldiers and horses,
and thus made the army vast in numbers.
• Land grants continued to be made to priests for special services rendered
to the state. In addition, Harsha is credited with the grant of land to the
officers by charters.
• These grants allowed more concessions to priests and officers than those
by the Carlier grants. Thus, the feudal practice of rewarding and paying
officers with grants of land on a large scale seems to have begun under
Harsha.
Chalukyas
Pulakesin-I (543-66 • Founder of the Chalukya Dyanasty, established a small kingdom with
A.D.): Badami-I (Vatapi) as its capital.
Kirtivarman-I (560- • The son and successor of Pulakesin-I, expanded the kingdom by wars
597 A.D.): against the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Nalas of Bastar.
Mangalesa (597-609 • On the death of Kirtivarman, his brother became the regent, since his son,
A.D.) Pulakesin-II was a minor. Mangalesa plundered the territories of Gujarat,
Khandesh and Malwa.
Pulakesin-II (609-42 • Considered the greatest of the Chalukya rulers of Badami not only because
A.D.): of the problems he had to face while coming to the throne, but also
because of his subsequent military as well as diplomatic achievements.
• He had to wage a civil war against his uncle, Mangalesa, who refused to
hand over the power
• Though, Pulakesin succeeded in defeating and killing his uncle, this civil
war shook the young kingdom and rebellions began to appear on all sides.
But he was quite successful in the suppression of these rebellions.
• He defeated the rebel feudatory, Appayika, and pardoned his confederate,
Govinda, when the latter offered his submission.
• Establishment of his suzerainty over the neighbours such as Kadambas of
Banavasi, the Alupas of south Kanara, the Gangas of Mysore, and the
Mauryas of north Konkan.
• Apart from the above rulers, the Latas, Malwas and Gurjaras also offered
their submission to him because of their fear of Harshavardhana of Kanauj.
• Conquests in the eastern Deccan-southern Kosala, Kalinga, Pistapura and
the Banas of Rayalaseema offered their submission after their defeat at the
hands of Pulakesin.
Visit of Hiuen-Tsang: • The description given by this Chinese pilgrim of the kingdom of Pulakesin
is quite useful in knowing the social and economic conditions under the
Chalukya rulers of Badami.
Vikramaditya-I (644- • After an occupation of about 12 years, he not only drove out the Pallava
681 A.D.): forces, but also consolidated the kingdom and plundered the Pallava
capital, Kanchi, thus avenging his father's defeat and death at the hands of
Pallavas.
Vinayaditya (681-693 • His reign was generally peaceful and prosperous.
A.D.):
Vijayaditya (693-733 • It was the longest and also the most prosperous and peaceful reign. It was
A.D.): marked by great increase in temple building.
Vikramaditya-II (733- • His reign is significant for the successful invasion of the Pallava kingdom
744 A.D.): three times, and the repelling of the Arab invasion of south Gujarat.
Kirtivarman-II (744- • This last Chalukyan ruler of Badami was defeated by Dantidurga, the
755 A.D.): founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, and thus came to an end the Chalukya
dynasty of Badami.
Pallavas
Controversy about • Parthian Connection: According to one school, they were a branch of
Origin Parthians. But there is no evidence for the migration of the Parthians into
the south.
• Vakataka Connection: Another school opines that the Pallavas were a
branch of the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas at the Deccan. But
here again, there is no direct evidence of any connection between the
Vakatakas and the Pallavas.
• Indigenous Origin: The third school maintains that it was as indigenous
dynasty and rose to power after the dismemberment of the Ikshvaku
kingdom. In other words, they were the indigenous Nagas.
Political History • Simhavishnu (560-590 A.D.): He is considered the first important Pallava
ruler, though Pallavas existed even during the time of Samudra Gupta's
invasion of south India. He is credited with capturing the territory of the
Cholas and humiliating his other southern neighbour including Ceylon. He
followed Vaishnavism, as is evident from archaeological evidence.
• Mahendravarman-I (590-630 A.D.): During his reign began the long-

drawn-out struggle between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. He was
defeated by Pulakesin-II and a part of his kingdom was occupied.
• Narasimhavarman-I (630-668AD): He is considered the greatest of the

Pallava rulers. He is credited with repelling the second invasion of
Pulakesin-II, killing him and capturing the Chalukyan capital, Badami.
Hence, he assumed the title of "Vatapikonda' (Conqueror of Vatapi).
He is also said to have defeated the Cholas, the Cheras and the Pandyas
thus becoming supreme in south India. Besides, he sent two naval
expeditions to Ceylon and helped his ally, a Ceylon's prince, to capture the
throne of Ceylon.
• Mahendravarman-11 (668-670 A.D.): He ruled for a very short period,
since he was killed by Chalukya king. Vikramaditya-1 (Son of Pulakesin-II).
• Narasimhavarman-II (700-728 A.D.): His rule. however, is marked by

peace and prosperity, literary activity, and the construction of large and
beautiful temples like the Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi. He is also said to have sent embassies to
China, and maritime trade flourished during his reign.
• Paramesvaravarman-II (728-731 A.D.): The Pallavas kingdom again had

to face defeat and humiliation during his reign. The Chalukya,
Vikramaditya-11 attacked the Pallava capital. Paramesvaravarman had to
conclude a humiliating treaty with him. When the Pallava ruler tried to
retaliate, he was killed by the Ganga ally of the Chalukyas.
RASHTRAKUTAS
Origin • The term Rashtrakutas denotes officers in charge of territorial divisions

called rashtras.
• In the Deccan charters of the 7th and 8th centuries A.D., Rashtrakutas
were exhorted not to disturb the peaceful enjoyment of the land grants.
• The Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura, modern Latur of
Maharashtra. They were of Kannada origin and Kannada was their mother
tongue.
Dantidurga • The term Rashtrakutas denotes officers in charge of territorial divisions

called rashtras. In the Deccan charters of the 7th and 8th centuries A.D.
• Rashtrakutas were exhorted not to disturb the peaceful enjoyment of the
land grants.
• The Rashtrakutas originally belonged to Lattalura, modern Latur of
Maharashtra. They were of Kannada origin and Kannada was their mother
tongue.
Dantidurga: • He began his career as a feudatory of the Chalukyas. He laid the

foundations of Rashtrakutas.
• The victorious career of Dantidurga is known from the two records of this
reign-the Samangad Plates and the Dasavatara Cave Inscription of Ellora.
• Dantiduraga's plan of expansion was directed towards the east and west
without disturbing Karnataka, the stronghold of Chalukya power. He
invaded Malwa, which was under the rule of the Gurjara Pratiharas, and
brought it within his sphere of influence.
• He signalised his victory over Malwa by performing the hiranyagarbha-
dana ceremony at Ujjain. After a short while, he marched to Mahakosla or
Chhattisgarh district of Madhya Pradesh.
• Thus, by A.D. 75, he had become the master of the whole of Madhya
Pradesh and central and southern Gujarat. He, then attacked and
overthrew his suzerain. Kirtivarman-II, the Chalukya emperor and
proclaimed himself the paramount ruler of the Deccan. He did not live
long after this victory.
Krishna-I: • Dantidurga died childless and was succeeded by his uncle Krishna-I. After
securing his position in Maharashtra and Karnataka, Krishna-I advanced
southwards and invaded Gangawadi (modern Mysore), which was then
under the sway of its Ganga ruler Sripurusha.
• He returned home after permitting Sripurusha to rule as a feudatory. In the
east, Krishna-I came to grips with the Chalukyas of Vengi.
• He sent the crown prince Govinda to Vengi and its ruler Vijayaditya-I,
made his submission without a fight. Great as a conqueror, Krishna was
equally great as a builder.
• He constructed the magnificent rock-cut monolithic temple at Ellora, now
known as Kailasa.
Govinda-II: • Krishna-I was succeeded by his eldest son Govinda-II. He practically left
the whole administration to the care of his younger brother. Dhruva. But,
Dhruva was ambitious and seized the throne for himself.
Dhruva: • Shortly after his accession, Dhruva proceeded to punish the kings who
had supported his brother. Dhruva then made a bold bid to control north
Indian politics, a feat in which no Deccan power had succeeded since the
days of the Satavahanas.
• At that time, northern India was convulsed by the struggle for supremacy
between Vatsaraja Pratihara and Dhannapal, the Pala ruler of Bengal.
Govinda-III: • Though the accession of Govinda took place peacefully, soon he had to
face the hostility of his eldest brother, Stambha, who had been chafing
owing to his supersession. After defeating Stambha and securing his
position in the Deccan, Govinda turned his attention to the ever-tempting
politics of northern India.
• Govinda marched into northern India and defeated Nagabhatta I who fled
into Rajputana, leaving the Doab at the mercy of the invader.
• Chakrayudha, the puppet emperor of Kanauj, offered uncoditional
surrender and so did Dharmapala. Besides the powerful Gurjara Pratihara
and Pala kings, other rulers of northern India were also defeated by
Govinda-III.
Amoghavarsha-I: • Govinda-III was succeeded by his son Sarva, better known as

Amonghavarsha. Amoghavarsha was not destined to enjoy peace during
his long reign of 64 years.
• He had to encounter frequent rebellions of his feudatories and to wage
constant wars against his powerful hostile neighbours. Amoghavarsha's
reign lacked brilliance and vigour of his father and grandfather.
Gangawadi and Malava were lost to the empire.
CHOLAS
Vijayalaya: • The capture of Tanjore from Muttarayar, an ally of the Pandyas, around
A.D. 850 by Vijayalaya and his founding of the temple of Nishumhasudini
(Durga)-these were the first steps in the rise of the Cholas, who were at
that time feudatories of the Pallavas.
Aditya: • He was responsible for murdering his Pallava overlord Aparajita after
defeating him in battle and occupying the entire Tondaimandalam. Aditya
next conquered the Kongu country also. He is said to have built Siva
temples on both banks of the Kaveri
Parantaka-1 • At the start of his reign, he invaded the Pandya territory and assumed the
title of 'Maduraikaonda (Conqueror of Madurai). When the Chola country
was invaded in 916 A. D. by the Rashtrakuta Krishna-II, a decisive battle
was fought at Vallaha (North Arcot District).
• Parantaka began to experience increasing difficulty in defending his

empire from 940 A. D. Krishna-III, one of the greatest Rashtrakuta rulers,
defeated Parantaka in the famous battle of Takkolam (near Arkonam) in
949 and succeeded in occupying a large part of the northern half of the
Chola empire.
Rajaraja-1: • Known originally by the name of Arumolivarman, he was the son of

Parantaka-II. The real greatness of the Cholas began with him. He
defeated a confederation of the three kingdoms of Pandya, Kerala and
Ceylon and occupied their territories.
• Destruction of Anuradhapura (capital of Ceylon) after defeating Mahindra-

V led to the establishment of a Chola province in north Ceylon with
Polonnarava as its capital.
• He invaded the Chalukyas kingdom in order to force the Chalukyas to

retreat from Vengi, whose ruler was a Cholas ally. He also annexed the
Maldives probably for securing the trade routes of the Indian Ocean.
• He constructed the magnificent Siva or Brihadeesvara (also known as

Rajarajesvara) temple at Tanjore. Rajaraja- I encouraged Sri Mara
Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya (South-East Asia), to
build a Buddhist vihara at Nagapattinam. The vihara was called
'Chudaman Vihara' after the father of Sri Mara Rajaraja initiated the
system of prefacing the stone inscriptions of the reign with an account in
set terms of its chief events kept up to date by additions from time to
time.
Rajendra-I: • He raised the Chola empire to the position of being the most extensive
and respected state of his time. He invaded and completed the conquest
of Ceylon by defeating and imprisoning Mahindra-V.
• He led a triumphant march through the territories of the Pandyas and
Kerala, and made one of his sons, the viceroy of both, with Madurai as
capital.
• He defeated the Western Chalukyas who were trying to meddle in the
succession dispute of Vengi, and throne. He also punished
Madhukamarnava, the Eastern Ganga ruler of Kalinga who sided with the
Western Chalukyas.
• Rajendra-I led a military expedition to the Ganga valley, which seems to
have been a success and constructed a new capital, Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and a temple in celebration of the expedition.
• The naval expedition to Sri Vijaya either to win glory or to teach a lession
to its rulers who could have obstructed Chola intercourse with China met
with success and the kingdom was restored back to its ruler, Sangrama
Vijayottunga (son of Sri Mara). He sent two diplomatic missions to China
for political as well as commercial purposes.
Later Cholas:
Kulottunga-I was succeeded by Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga-

II, Rajaraja-II. Rajadhiraja-II. Kulottunga- III and the others.
The growing independence of the feudatories noticed in the
reign of Rajaraja-II became more pronounced under
Rajadhiraja-II. Kulottunga-Ill delayed the disruption of the
Chola empire for about a generation, and his reign marks
the last great epoch in the history of Chola architecture and
art as he himself is the last of the great Chola monarchs.
Cholas, however, continued to be there even afterwards as
local chieftains.
Administration
The most striking feature of the administrative system of

the Cholas was their autonomous village and town
administration, there being no significant difference
between the central and provincial administration of the
Cholas and that of any other dynasty of early medieval
India. But, the administration of Cholas was more
centralised than that of the Rashtrakutas or the
Chalukyas.
Central Administration:
The emperor or king was at the apex of the

administration. He had an udankurttum immediate
attendants, a group of ministers representing all the chief
departments of administration to advise him on the
disposal of business, besides a a chancery (olai). Worship
at deceased rulers, and construction of temples as
aributes to dead kings was a special feature of the Chola
period.
Provincial Administration:
The empire was divided into principalities (under vassal

chiefs) and mandalams (provinces under viceroys who
were mostly royal princes) with further division of the
provinces into valanadus (divisions), nadus (districts) and
Kurrams (villages).
Town and Village Administration:
There was autonomous administration for town and

townships, known as tankurrams. Town autonomy was
quite similar to village autonomy and both were
administered by assemblies.
Revenue Administrations:
A well organised department of land revenue, known as the

Puravuvaritinaik- kalam, was in existence. All cultivable
land was held in one of the three broad classes of tenure
which may be distinguished as peasant proprietorship
(vellanvagai), service tenure, and tenure resulting from
charitable gifts.
The first. type was the ordinary ryotwari village of modern

times, having direct relations with the government and
paying a land tax liable to revision from time to time.
All land was carefully surveyed and classified into tax-

paying and non-taxable lands. In every village and town.
the residential part of the village (or nattam), temples,
tanks. channels, passing through the village, the outcastes
hamlet (paracheri), artisans' quarters (Kummanachcheri)
and the burning ground (Sudugadu) were exempt from all
taxes. In its turn, taxable land was classified into different
grades according to its natural fertility and the crops raised
on it.
Military Administration:
The soliders of the Cholas generally consisted of two

types-the Kaikkolar who were royal troops receiving regular
pay from the treasury; and the nattuppadai who were the
militia men employed only for local defence.
The Kaikkolar comprised infantry, cavalry, elephant corps

and navy. The Cholas paid special attention to their navy.
Within the Kaikkolar, the Velaikkarars were the most
dependable troops in the royal service ready to defend the
king and his cause with their lives.
1. Early Medieval India
The intermediate period of transition has been referred to as

ancient and the medieval that are known as the “early medieval”.
The period of early medieval India refers to the formation of the

various states and the regional level of the period included the C
600 to 1200 CE. It has been divided into two phases that have
been introduced in north and south India.
The period of north India is the age of the regional configuration

that presents in the period of 600 – 1200 CE.
The empire Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar and the Makhairas of

Kannauj have been ruled in this period. Phase 1 (C 750-1000 CE)
is the age of the northern that includes the three phases that are
eastern India and the Rashtrakuthas in Deccan. Phase II
presents the age of conflict.
The setting of the splitting and the power of the tripartite vary
presents as the smaller kingdom. The Parihar of Gurjar Empire
presents the empire in northern India that has been controlled in
the various disintegration of Rajputs That conflict with the
control of Rajput Dynasties
The Tripartite Struggle

The Tripartite Struggle, also known as the Kannauj Triangle Wars, took
place in the 8th and 9th centuries, between the three great Indian
dynasties, the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas, for control
over the Kannauj area of northern India.
The Palas ruled India's eastern regions (Bengal region), while the
Pratiharas oversaw India's western regions (Avanti-Jalaor region) and the
Deccan area of India was dominated by the Rastrakutas. This war lasted
for two centuries and was finally won by the Rajput Pratihara emperor
Nagabhata II, who established the city as the capital of the Pratihara state,
which ruled for nearly three centuries.
Causes of Tripartite Struggle • During the early medieval period, Kannauj was seen as a sign of
status and authority.
• Kannauj was the former capital of Harshvardhana's empire and
control of it represented the political domination over northern
India.
• Control of Kannauj also meant control of the Central Gangetic
valley, which was rich in resources and hence strategically and
commercially significant.
• Because it was connected to the silk road, this location was ideal
for trade and commerce.
• Between the end of the eighth century and the first quarter of
the ninth century, three kings ruled over Kannauj: Indrayudha,
Vijrayudha, and Chakrayudha.
• These kings were very weak and could be easily defeated.
• The desire to plunder through warfare attracted
the Rashtrakutas to Kannauj.
Tripartite Struggle - Phase I • A tripartite struggle occurred between the Pala, Prathihara, and
Rashtrakuta dynasties for control of Kanauj.
• The first phase of the tripartite struggle began around 790 AD
with a clash between Dharmapala and Vatsaraja.
• The battle between Dharmapala and the Pratihara king Vatsaraja
at Prayag resulted in the defeat of Dharmapala.
• After some time Vatsaraja was defeated by Rashtrakuta king
Dhruva. Dharmapala took control of Kannauj after Vatsaraja's fall,
but he was again defeated by Dhruva.
• Dhruva, on the other hand, was unable to consolidate his victory
because he needed to return to the south to save his own
kingdom.
• Rashtrakutas were devastated by a succession struggle after
Dhruva's death in 793 CE.
• By quickly withdrawing from Northern India, the Rashtrakutas
not only decimated the Palas' adversaries, the Pratiharas but also
provided the Palas with a good opportunity to add to their might.
• Dharmapala took advantage of the situation and recovered
Kannauj, putting Chakrayudha on the throne.
• Dharmapala, via a series of successful expeditions, established
himself as the lord of virtually all of Northern India.
Tripartite Struggle - Phase II • Pratihara ruler Nagabhatta II, the successor of Vatsaraja, invaded
Kanauj and expelled its ruler Chakrayudha and established
control there.
• As Chakrayudha was Dharmapala's protege, a battle between
Nagabhatta II and Dharmapala was inevitable.
• Nagabhatta II defeated Dharmapala in a battle near Munger.
• After Nagabhata II took possession of Kannauj, the battle for the
city intensified.
• His victory was short-lived, as he was soon overthrown by
Govinda III (Rashtrakuta king), the successor of Dhruva.
• Govinda III left for the Deccan soon after this victory.
• By the end of the 9th century, the Rastrakutas' power had begun
to wane alongside that of the Palas.

• The Pratiharas emerged victoriously and established themselves
as the rulers of central India by the end of the tripartite struggle.
Maitrakas of Vallabhi • The rise of the Maitrakas dynasty was coeval with that of the Maukharis and
the later Guptas. It is believed that the original name of Maitrakas was Mihir.
Vallabhi, modern Vala in Kathiawar, was the capital of Maitrakas.
• Bhatarka who was the commander of Skandagupta, went on to establish his
own kingdom. He founded the city of Vallabhi and asserted his supremacy over
Kachachha, Lata and Malava.
• He continued to use the title of Senapati. Dharasen I succeeded Bhatarka and
he was succeeded by Dronashimha, who was first to assume royal title although
the imperial power of the Guptas was still acknowledged.
• The successor of Dronashimha was Mahasamta Maharaja Dhruvasena I. He
himself called Parambhagavata. During this rule, Jain Council at Vallabhi was
held.
Religion and Administration
• The Maitrakas were follower of the Shiva except Dhruvasena I who was
Vaishnava and Dharapatta who was Sun-worshipper. They all used title of
Paramamaheshwara before the names of king except those two.
• It is evident from the use of symbols like Nandi, the Bull and Trishula, the
trident in their coins and inscriptions.
• There were presence of Vaishnavism and Goddess worship under their rule.
There were large number of Buddhist Viharas in the Maitraka kingdom.
• Jains held their important Vallabhi council here. The Maitrakas were tolerant to
all religions and made donations and grants to all of them without partiality.
• There were administrative divisions managed by head of the division and
helped by his subordinates.
• The highest division Vishaya were headed by Rashtrapati or Amatya and the
lowest division Grama (equivalent to village) was headed by Gramakuta.
• Maitrakas set up a Vallabhi University which came to be known far and wide for
its scholastic pursuits and was compared with the Nalanda University.
The Chahamanas • There were several branches of the Chahamanas better known as the Chauhan
Rajputs. The most important of them ruled in Sakambhari (Sambhar) in
Rajasthan.
• The Chahamana rulers were feudatories of the Pratiharas till Vigraharaja II who
declared the independence of the dynasty in the last quarter of the tenth
century. One of his successors, Ajayraja founded the city of Ajaymeru or Ajmer.
• Vigraharaja IV extended his kingdom up to the Punjab, conquered Delhi from
the Tomaras and in the South he plundered the Chalukya dominion of
Kumarapala. Vigraharaja IV was also an accomplished poet and a patron of
letters.
• The Harikeli Nataka, portions of which were recovered from an inscribed stone
slabs on the wall of Adhai-din-ka Jhopra, a mosque built by Qutubuddin Aibak
at Ajmer, is supposed to be composition of Vigraharaja IV.
• The next important king Prithviraja III began his reign in AD 1177. He is said to
have carried away the daughter of Jayachandra Gahadvala, Samyogita, and
married her against Jayachandra's wishes.
• He invaded the Chandella kingdom, defeated its king Paramardi Dev and
occupied Mahoba and other fortresses in Bundelkhand.

• Prithviraja III also invaded the Chalukya kingdom of Gujarat and forced the
Ehalukyari king Bhima II to conclude a treaty. His greatest victory was in the
battle of Tarain over Muhammad Ghori in AD 1191.
• The riot constantly troubled the Sultan and the very next year, in AD 1192, he
returned to Hindustan with a reorganised army to avenge it.
• Muhammad Ghori defeated Prithviraja who was taken to prison and executed.
His achievements are narrated by two great epics, viz Prithviraj Raso written by
his court poet Chand Bardai and Prithvirajavijaya by Jayanaka.
• The Chahamana dynasty ruled from Ranthambhor till its capture by Alauddin
Khilji in AD 1301.
Kalachuri-Chedis • Kalachuri empire is the name used by two kingdoms, who had a succession of
dynasties from the 10th-12th centuries, one ruling over areas in Central India
(West Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan) and were called Chedi or Haihaya and the
other-Southern Kalachuri, who ruled over parts of Kamataka.
• The Chedis ruled in Central India with its base at the ancient city of Tripuri
(Tewar), it originated in the 8th century, expanded significantly in the 11th
century and declined by 12th-13th centuries. Kokalla I was the founder of the
dynasty.
• One of the most important rulers of Kalachuri dynasty was Gangeyadeva. He
tried to make the Chedis, the paramount power of Northern India. He was
succeeded by his son Karandeva.
• The Kalachuri dynasty declined in AD 1181.
• Gangeyadeva issued coins of different metals, sizes, weights, which were in
gold, base gold, silver gold, silver, silver coper (billon) and copper.
• An important factor contributing to his success was the fact, that his kingdom
escaped the devastating raids of Sultan Mahmud, which affected most of the
other great powers to its North and North-West.
• He assumed the title of Trikalingadhipati. (Lord of Trikalinga), Gangeyadeva
assumed the title of Vikramaditya.
• Gangeyadeva died at Prayag (Allahabad) in AD 1040. His successor and son
Karandeva is said to have defeated a number of people in the South such as the
Pallavas, Kungas, Muralas, Pandyas and Kuntalas.
Paramaras • The Paramara dynasty was ruled over the Malwa region in Central India from
9th to 14th century CE. The dynasty was founded by Upendra in AD 800.
• The Paramara dynasty was ruled over the Malwa region in Central India from
9th to 14th century CE. The dynasty was founded by Upendra in AD 800.
• The most significant ruler was Bhoja I. He was the greatest scholar king who is
called Kaviraja in an inscription.
• He founded the college Bhojastala at Dhara. The last Paramara king was
Mahlak Deo who was defeated by Alauddin Khilji.
• The seat of the Paramara kingdom was Dharanagara, the present day Dhar city
in Madhya Pradesh.
• The religion followed by Paramaras was Shaivism and the language used was
Sanskrit and Prakrit.
• The main sources for the history of the Paramara dynasty are the Navsahsank-
Charita of Padmagupta and a series of inscriptions, most notably Udayapur
Prasasti founded in Udaypur in Vidisha district, Madhya Pradesh.
• They were formerly known as kings of Avanti. Bhoja, the ruler of Paramara
dynasty gave his commentary on Yogsutras of Patanjali and 'A Yurveda Sarvarya'
and 'Samarangana Sutradhara'.
The Chandellas • The Chandellas were regarded as a clan of aboriginal chiefs who were
promoted to the rank of Kshatriyas. They ruled over the region of Bundelkhand
between 9th to 13th century AD.
• The area was called Jejakabhukti. The founder of the dynasty was Nannuka.
• First politically independent ruler of Chandelas was Yashovarman (925-950 CE)
in 10th century. He built the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.
• Dhanga, (AD 954-1002) the son and successor of Yasovarman proved to be the
greatest king of the Chandelas. He built some grand temples at Khajuraho.
• His kingdom extended from Yamuna to Chedi and from Gwalior to Kalinjar. The
next important ruler of the dynasty was Vidyadhara.
• Sultan Mahmud twice invaded his kingdom in AD 1019 and AD 1022 Vidyadhara
killed Pratihara king Rajyapala for fleeing from his capital, when Ghaznavi
attacked on Kannauj.
• The last king Paramardideva was defeated by Prithviraj III in AD 1182. The
famous legends Alha and Udal were the generals of Parmardi Dev.
• The basis of the Rajput society was the clan. Every clan traced its descent from
a common ancestor, real or imaginary. The clans generally dominated particular
territories.
• Attachment to land, family and honour was the characteristic of the Rajputs.
• The Chandela art and architecture reached its height during 10th and 11th
centuries.
• The Vishvanath Temple (Khajuraho) and Kandariya Mahadev Temple
(Khajuraho) were built at that time. These temples are representative of
Nagara-style of temple architecture.
2. Sultanate Period
Delhi first evolved as the capital under the Tomara Rajputs. They were
defeated by the Chauhans of Ajmer. The changeover of Delhi into a
capital that controlled vast regions of the subcontinent started with the
foundation of the Delhi Sultanate at the beginning of 1206 A.D. The Delhi
Sultans built many cities in Delhi. Delhi sultanate, leading Muslim
dynasties in north India from the 13th century to the 16th century. The
creation of the Delhi Sultanate gave importance to the campaigns of
Muizz al-Din Muhammad and his lieutenant Quṭb al-Dīn Aibak between
1175 and 1206 A.D. to the victories, especially the battle of Taraori.
The Delhi Sultanate (1206 A.D–1555 A.D.), also known as Sultanate-Hind,

defines Afghan dynasties and Turco-Persian antecedent to Mughal rule in
India. The Delhi sultanates, which ruled from Delhi, were the successors
to the Ghaznavid (977–1040) and the Ghurid dynasties (1186–1206A.D).
Slavery was an integral part of the political system. It supplied the well-
trained Turkish men who were specialists in warfare and government and
loyal to their masters.
The defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain in 1192 by Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori
inaugurated an era of Muslim rule in India.
The sudden death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 and his failure to specify succession procedures pitted his three
slaves Tajuddin Yalduz, Nasiruddin Qubacha, and Qutubuddin Aibak against each other.
The internal dissension and strife led many Ghurid possessions in India to revolt and proclaim independence.
Meanwhile, Qutub-ud-din Aibek succeeded both in capturing the throne of Delhi and to retain over Indian territories.
The period between 1206 and 1526 in the Indian history is known as the 'Period of the Sultan Rulers. During this
period, rulers belonging to five different dynasties the Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs, the Sayyids and the Lodhis-
ruled over India.
The Slave Dynasty (1206-1290 AD)
All the Muslim rulers that ascended the throne of Delhi after the death of Muhammad Ghori in 1206 till 1290 were
either themselves slaves or the descendants of these slave rulers.
That is why the rulers belonging to this dynasty are generally known as the 'Slave Rulers' or the 'Mameluk Sultans'
and the dynasty is called the 'Slave Dynasty'.
Muhammad Ghori had left his Indian possessions in the care of his former slave, Qutub-ud-din Aibak, who on the
death of his master, severed his links with Ghazni and asserted his independence.
Qutub-ud-Din Aibak (1206- • Qutub-ud-din had played a vital role under his chief in extending the
1210 AD) authority of the Ghoris. Qutub's achievements as monarch were,
however, a mere shadow of his achievements as Viceroy.
• Within the brief span of four years he was destined to reign and live, his
work was naturally concerned with retention of what he had acquired
rather than with expansion.
• His devotion to Islam is attested by two mosques built by him at Delhi
and Ajmer.
• The fact that Ajbak could not sufficiently consolidate his position is
borne out by the fact that his nominee and adopted son, Aram Shah,
was driven out from the throne by the Turkish nobles of Delhi who
replaced Aram by their own nominee Shamsuddin Iltutmish.
• In 1210, Aibak died from the effects of a fall from his horse while
playing polo.
Iltutmish (1210-1236 AD) • Iltutmish was the son-in-law of Aibak. He rendered great service to the
Islamic empire in India.
• He secured a letter of investiture from the Caliph of Baghdad in 1229
which bestowed him the title of Sultan of Hindustan.
• He not only suppressed the rebellious chiefs and nobles but also his
powerful rivals like Yaldoz and Qubacha and the Khiljis of Bengal to
protect the Muslim Empire in India from various challenges.
• He not only suppressed the rebellious chiefs and nobles but also his
powerful rivals like Yaldoz and Qubacha and the Khiljis of Bengal to
protect the Muslim Empire in India from various challenges.
• He destroyed the power of Rajput princes and brought the whole of
North India under his control. Instead of Lahore, he made Delhi the
capital and centre of the Muslim Empire.
• Iltutmish organised the iqtas (administrative units), the army and the
currency. The iqta was the grant of revenue from the territory in lieu of
salary. The larger iqtas carried administrative responsibilities.
• The iqta system linked the farthest part of the empire to the Centre.
Iltutmish introduced the silver tanka and the copper jital-the two basic
coins of the Sultanate period, with a standard weight of 175 grains.
• Introduction of the silver coins called tanka and copper coins called
jitals.
• Introduction of Iqtadari system: division of empire into Iqtas, which
were assigned to the nobles and officers in lieu of salary.
• Completion of the construction of Qutub Minar in Delhi.
Raziya Sultan (1236-1239 • Razia, the daughter of Iltutmish, assumed the reigns of the government
AD) in 1236. She was the first and last woman among the Muslim rulers
who sat on the throne of Delhi.
• However, the Pathan nobles regarded it below their dignity to pay
obedience to a woman. On the other hand, the traditional Muslims
resented her public appearances without covering her face with 'burqa'
or a veil.
• The appointment of an Abyssinian slave named Jamat-ud-din Yakut as
superintendent of the stables was resented by the Chahalgani Turks or
Chalisa, a group of nobles.
• Raziya was murdered near Kaithal in 1240. She was succeeded by
several of her kins till 1266 when Balban emerged as a powerful sultan.
• Though Balban formally become the ruler in 1266, the period 1246-
1287 is known in history as the age of Balban due to the dominant role
he played at Delhi at the time.
Balban (1266-1285 AD) • Ghiyasuddin Balban ascended the throne in February 1266. He first
executed the survivors of the Chalisa and relieved himself of the
dangers of rivalry.
• He suppressed with an iron hand the hillmen whose forays were a
terror in the suburbs of Delhi.
• He cleared the forests around Delhi and 'at a sacrifice of 100,000 men
turned a haunt of bush-rangers into a peaceable agricultural district.'
• He freed the roads from brigands by killing and burning without mercy.
He built forts and established Afghan garrisons to guard
communications with Bengal.
• The titles of Turkish Khans for vast estates were strictly examined and
he took back the lands from which no adequate military service was
received and, thus, reduced the power of the nobles. He maintained
pomp and dignity at his court.
• He ensured security by an efficient system of espionage and severely
punished spies for their defaults. Balban died in 1286, after nominating
Kai Khusroo, the son of Muhammad, as his successor.
• The nobles, however, raised his grandson Kaikubad, the seventeen-
year-old son of Bughra Khan, to the throne.
More Details about Balban:

1. Declaration that the Sultan was the representative of God on
earth-forwarding the Iranian Divine Right Theory' of Kingship.
2. Introduction of the practice of sijda (under this practice, people
would kneel and touch the ground with their head to greet the
Sultan) and pabos.
3. End of the influence of Chalisa.
4. Creation of the department of military affairs (Diwan-i-arz)
5. Abolition of the post of naik.
THE KHILJIS (1290-1320 • The Khiljis, wrongly believed to be Afghans, were actually Turks who
AD) had for a long time settled in the region of Afghanistan, called Khalji
and adopted Afghan manners and customs.
• The Ghaznavi's and Ghori's invasions, and Mongol pressure from
Central Asia had pushed them into India.
Jalal-ud-Din Khilji (1290- • Jalal-ud-Din was the founder and the first king of the Khilji dynasty. He
1296 AD) followed mild and generous policies.
• This generous policy of the Sultan affected his foreign policy well. In
1290, he invaded the fort of Ranthambhor.
• In 1294, Ala-ud-Din Khilji, a nephew of Jalal-ud-Din, invaded
Ramchandra, the ruler of Devagiri in the South Ramchandra was
defeated and Ala-ud-Din returned with an immense booty.
• Jalal-ud-Din himself advanced to Kara to give warm welcome to his
nephew who got him treacherously murdered and himself usurped the
throne in 1296.
Ala-ud-Din Khilji (1296-1316 • The history of Ala-ud-din's reign had three features of permanent
AD) interest. Firstly, he was the first Muslim ruler of Delhi to create an
empire embracing the larger portion of India; political unity was
restored after many centuries of disintegration.
• Secondly, he gave some sort of administrative cohesion to the Sultanate
which had so long been little more than a collection of military fiefs.
• Thirdly, he was a bold, innovator in respect of the relation between the
state and the Shariat or Islamic law.
• The most important experiment undertaken by the Ala-ud-din was the
attempt to control the markets.
• Ala-ud-din sought to control the prices of all commodities, from
foodgrains to horses, and from cattle and slaves to costly imported
cloth.
• He was the first monarch in the Sultanate to establish direct relations
with the peasants to know the actual amount they paid by way of land
revenue. He also built up an efficient espionage system.
His Conquests
(i) Ranthambor (1301),
(ii) Mewar (1303),
(iii) Jalor (1311),
(iv) Conquest of the Deccan (1305),
(vi) Devagiri (1307), Telengana (1310),
(vii) Dwarasamudra (1311),
(viii) Pandya Kingdom (1311),
(ix) Devagiri
Economic Reforms
1. Introduction of Dagh or branding of horses and Chehra (descriptive role

of soldier).
2. Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands.
3. Creation of a new department, viz. Diwan-i- Mustakhraj to enquire into
the revenue arears and to Ho collect them.
4. Establishment of separate markets for foodgrains cloth, horses, fruits
etc.
5. The check on markets was kept by two officers- diwan-i-Riyasat and

shahna-i-Mandi.
Administrative Reforms
• Reorganised the Spy system
• Prohibition on use of wine
• Nobles should not intermarry without his permission.
Military Reforms
• Abolition of Iqtas of royal troppers and the payment of their salaries in

cash.
• Regular muster of the army.
THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320-1399 AD)

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq • Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq was the founder of the Tughlaq dynasty. From an
(1320-1325 AD) ordinary person, he rose to the position of provincial governor of
Dinapur under Ala-ud-Din Khilji.
• He repelled the Mongol invaders several times. He killed Khusro Khan,
the usurper, and became the Sultan. He was a wise and generous ruler.
Achievements of Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq

• Reintroduced the food laws of Ala-ud-Din.
• Suppressed the rebellions in the distant provinces with strong hand and
restored the peace and order.
• Organized better postal systems.
• Encouraged agriculture.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq • Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq is best remembered as a ruler who undertook

(1325-1351 AD) a number of bold experiments, and showed a keen interest in
agriculture.
• He was deeply read in religion and philosophy and had a critical and
open mind.
• He had deep interest in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics.
• He conversed not only with the Muslim mystics, but also with the Hindu
yogis and Jain saints such as Jinaprabha Suri.
• He was also prepared to give high offices to people on the basis of
merit, irrespective of whether they belonged to noble families or not.
• Transfer of the capital from Delhi to Devagiri.
• Introduction of token copper currency to replace gold and silver coins.
• Unsuccessful expedition to subjugate Quarajal-the region identified as
the modern Kulu in Kangra district of Himachal Pradesh.
• Futile plan to conquer Khurasan and Iraq.
• Creation of Diwan-i-Kohi (department of agriculture).
• Formulation of the 'Famine code' for relief to the famine-affected
people.
• Independence of Deccan and Bengal.
• Introduction of dinar (a gold coin) and adl (a silver coin).
• Establishment of the city of Jahanpanah
• Appointment of Ibn Batutah, a Moroccon, as the head qazi of Delhi.
• Arrival of an envoy from the Chinese ruler, Toghan Timur (1341).
Mongol Invasions during the Delhi Sultanate
Sultan Events
1. Iltutmish In 1221, Genghis Khan came up to the bank of river Indus. But he did not enter
India.
2. Balban Prince Muhammad of Multan, Bughra Khan from Samana, and Malik Mubarak
joined hands to defeat the Mongols.
3. Jalal-ud-din Khilji In 1292, Mongols under Abdullah invaded India, but they were repulsed.
4. Ala-ud-din Khilji In 1299, Ala-ud-din personally marched against the Mongol leader, Qutlugh
Khwaja, and defeated him. He also defeated the Mongol leader Ali Beg in 1304.
5. Muhammad- bin- In 1329, Tazmashirin Khan reached near Delhi, but was defeated by Sultan
Tughlaq Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq.
Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1351- • The nobles and theologians at the court selected Muhammad's cousin
1388 AD) Firoz Shah as the next Sultan.
• He gave a number of important concessions to the theologians. He tried
to ban practices with the orthodox theologians considered un-Islamic.
Thus, he prohibited the practice of Muslim women going out to worship
at the graves of saints.
• He persecuted a number of Muslim sects which were considered
heretical by the theologians. He refused to exempt the brahmanas from
the payment of Jaziya since this was not provided for in the shariat.
• Worse, he publicly burnt a brahmana for preaching to the Muslims, on
the ground that it was against the shariat.
• Establishment of Diwan-i-Khairat (department for poor and needy
people) and Diwan-i-Bundagan (department of slaves).
• Making Iqtadari system hereditary.
• Construction of canals for irrigation: (i) from Yamuna to the city of
Hissar; (ii) from the Sutlej to the Ghaggar: (i) from the Ghaggar to
Firuzabad; and (iv) from Mandvi and Sirmour Hills to Hansi in Haryana.
• Established four new towns; Firuzabad, Fatehabad, Jaunpur and Hissar.
• Imposition of jaziya on the Brahmanas for the first time.
• Arrival of the two Ashokan pillar edicts/inscriptions from Khizrabad and
Meerut to Delhi.
• Establishment in Delhi a hospital described variously as Dar-ul-Shifa,
Bimaristan or Shifa Khana.
Successors of Firoz Shah: • Firoz Shah died in 1388. His successors were weak and incompetent.
They were merely kings in name and acted as puppets in the hands of
their ministers.
• Consequently, the Tughlaq empire went rapidly down the path of decay.
Firoz Shah was followed by Tughlaq Shah, Abu-Bakar and Nasir-ud-din
Mahmud Shah.
• It was during the reign of Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah that Timur invaded
India in 1398.
Invasion of Timur • Conqueror of Persia, Afghanistan and Mesopotamia, Amir Timur or

Timurlane invaded India in 1398.
• He had intention of annexing India to his empire in Samarqand, but no to
loot its rich booty. Following his invasion, there was disorder and
confusion in the country.
• Delhi was ruined and depopulated. His invasion widened the gulf
between the Hindus and the Muslim. Indian art found its way Asia as he
took a large number of skilled artisans as captives Timur's invasion paved
the way for Mughal conquest.
• Babur was a descedant of Timur and he claimed the throne of Delhi
partly on that account.
SAYYID DYNASTY (1414- • Khizr-Khan, a lieutenant of Timur, was a Sayyid and so his dynasty is
1450 AD) called the Sayyid Dynasty. Khizr Khan ruled till 1421, but his whole reign
was marked by utter chaos and disorder.
• He was succeeded, after his death, by his son Mubarak Shah (1421-
1434). During his reign the subedars of Punjab, Bhatinda and Doab broke
out in revolt and the whole of his period was spent in trying to suppress
them. He died in 1434 and was succeeded by his son Mohammad Shah
(1434-1445).
• During his reign, the ruler of Malwa invaded Delhi, which was however,
saved by the valiant Subedar of Lahore, Bahlol Lodhi. After Mohammad
Shah's death, his son Ala- ud-Din Alam, Shah (1445-1451) proved
incompetent.
• He himself handed over the reigns of his kingdom to Bahlol Lodhi and
retired to Badaun.
LODHI SULTANS (1451-1526 AD)

Bahlol Lodhi (1451-1488 AD) • Lodhi Sultans were the members of the first Pathan dynasty in India.
Sher Shah Suri founded the next.
• Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of the Lodhi dynasty. He founded the rule
of the Lodhi dynasty by usurping the throne from the last of the Sayyid
rulers, Ala-ud-Din Alam Shah He was a strong and brave ruler.
• He tried to restore the glory of Delhi by conquering territories around
Delhi and after continuous wars for 26 years, he succeeded in extending
his authority over Jaunpur, Rewail, Itawah, Mewar, Sambhal, Gwalior etc.
• He was a kind and generous ruler. He was always prepared to help his
subjects. Though he was himself illiterate, he extended his patronage to
art and learning. He died in 1488.
Sikander Lodhi (1488-1517 • Bahlol Lodhi was succeeded by his son Nizam Khan who ascended the
AD) throne in 1488 as Sikander Lodhi. Like his father, he was a brave and able
ruler.
• He extended his empire by conquering Dholpur, Chanderi and Jaunpur.
He shifted his capital to Agra.
• He kept strict vigilance on his nobles and jagirdars whom he strictly
suppressed. He introduced several reforms and provided an efficient
administration.
• He kept strict vigilance on his nobles and jagirdars whom he strictly
suppressed. He introduced several reforms and provided an efficient
administration.
• He was a staunch Sunni and a Muslim fanatic. He lacked religious
tolerance. In the name of religion, he perpetuated untold cruelties on
the Hindus.
• He was a great lover of art and learning. He was just and believed in the
well-being of his subjects. During his reign, prices were low and people
were happy.
• Establishment of a new city called Agra.
• Transfer of capital from Delhi to Agra.
• Demolition of the famous Jwalamukhi temple at Nagarkot.
• Imposition of Jaziya and pilgrim's tax on the Hindus.
• Introduction of Gaz-i-Sikanderi (Sikander's yard) of 32 digits for
measuring cultivated land.
Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526 • Sikander Lodhi was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodhi who ascended
AD) the throne in 1517. He was obdurate and haughty. His ill-treatment
turned the loyal Afghan noble against him.
• They hatched a conspiracy to declare his uncle, Jalal Khan, as the ruler of
Delhi, but they failed. Thereafter, Ibrahim crushed his nobles very
cruelty.
• Tired of his continuous ill-treatment, Daulat Khan Lodhi, the governor of
Punjab, invited Babur to invade India. Babur took advantage of the
opportunity and defeated Ibrahim Lodhi in 1526 in the Battle of Panipat.
• Ibrahim Lodhi was killed in the battle-field and Babur founded the
famous Mughal Dynasty. Ibrahim was unique in chivalry, courage and
determination. In the words of Niamatullah: "No Sultan of India except
Sultan Ibrahim had been killed on the battle field."
General Administration of the • The Turkish Sultans in India declared themselves Lieutenant of the
Sultanate faithful i.e. of the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad and included his name
in Khutba, it did not mean that the Caliph became the legal ruler. The
Caliph had only a moral position.
• Political, legal and military authorities were vested in the Sultan. He was
responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of
the military forces.
• He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice.
• No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. Thus,
military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.
• When the Turks conquered the country, they divided it into a number of
tracts called Iqtas, which were assigned among the leading Turkish
nobles.
• The holders of the office were called Muqti or Walis. It was these tracts,
which later became province or Subah.
• Below the province were the Shiqs and below them the Paragana. We
are told that the villages were grouped into units of 100 or 84
traditionally called Chaurasi.
• The Paragana was headed by Amil. The most important people in villages
were the Khuts (Landowners) or Muqaddam or headman. The village
accountant was called Patwari.
Important Central Department

Department Function
Diwan-i-Risalat Department of appeals
Diwan-i-Ariz Military department
Diwan-i-Bandagan Department of slaves
Diwan-i-Qaza-i-Mamalik Department of justice
Diwan-i-Isthiaq Department of pensions
Diwan-i-Mustakhraj Department of arrears
Diwan-i-Khairat Department of charity
Diwan-i-Kohi Department of agriculture
Diwan-i-Insha Department of correspondence
Important Central Officials: Important central government officials under

the Sultanate system were as follows:
(i) Wazir-The chief minister of the State-in charge of revenue and finances,
controlled by other departments.
(ii) Ariz-i-Mamalik-Head of Military department
(iii) Qazi - Legal officer (dispensed civil law based on Muslim law Shariat)
(iv) Wakil-i-dar-Controller of the royal house hold.
(v) Barid-i-mumalik-Head of the state news agency.
(vi) Amir-i-majlis-Officer-in-charge of royal feasts, conferences and

festivals.
(vii) Majlis-i-am-Council of friends and officers consulted on important

affairs of the state.
(viii) Dahir-i-mumalik-Head of the royal correspondence.
(ix) Sadr-us-sudur-Dealt with the religious matters and endowments.
(x) Sadr-i-jahan-Officers-in-charge of religious and charitable endowment.
(xi) Amir-i-dad-Public prosecutors.
(xii) Naib wazir-Deputy minister.
(xiii) Mushrif-i-mumalik-Accountant general.
(xiv) Mustauf-i-mumalik-Auditor general.

Provincial Administration • The provinces were under governors called Amirs. Control from
the centre was lax especially over distant provinces.
• The local officials were mostly Hindus who played an important
part in the rural life of the period. The Hindu rulers held tributary
status in different parts of the realm.
• The unit of administration continued to be the village with its
headman and accountant. Peace was maintained by garrisoning
strategic centre and by improving communications.
• The peasant's ownership of land was recognized and large loans
were advanced to the peasants. It may be mentioned that Firuz
Shah wrote off all loans given by Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq as they

could not be easily collected.
Revenue Administration • The sources of revenue were two-fold: religious, and secular. The
former, called zakat, was due only from the Muslims. the latter
included land tax and Jaziya which the non-Muslims had to pay.
One fifth of the spoils of war, known as Khams or Ghamnish,
belonged to the State.
• The heirless property was taken over by the state. In effect, non-
Muslims had to pay much more than the Muslims.
Socio-Economic Life During Sultanate Administration
Social Life • Caste System: The Hindu society was divided four castes. The
coming of Muslims and constant condemnation of the caste-
system the system more rigid. The Hindu society to strengthen
itself recasted the Smritis and tried to bring back from the Islamic
fold those Muslims who were converts from Hinduism.
• Position of Women: The Hindu women were inferior position in
society and their educational development was prevented since
the Gupta age. Her condition deteriorated and she became a victim
of many social evils such as sati, Jauhar. The Devadasi system
had become prevalent and widow-remarriage illegal. The
introduction of dowry system in the name of stridhana further
depreciated her position in the household.
• Slave System: It was a common practice among the Sultans and
the nobles to maintain a large contingency of slaves-both males
and females. The prisoners of wars were generally the main
constituent of this system.
• Dress, Food and Manners: Achakan and Salwar were introduced in
the Northern India under the Muslim influence. The high-class
women's dress was copied by almost all in the society. The food
and social manners and ceremonies were copied. The vices of
gambling and drinking, which were prevalent among the Muslims
of the age, were also adopted by the Hindus.
• Relation between the Hindus and the Muslims: The rulers
generally kept themselves aloof from the general masses. The
masses-whether Hindu or Muslim-were subjected to similar
exploitation. The common people lived a harmonious life and
influenced each other in different fields of life
Causes For the Disintegration The causes for the decline of the Sultanate, which lasted for 320 years,
of the Sultanate were as follows:
• Inherent weakness of the system of government: As the governance

depended on the ability and personal character of the king, it was bound
to disintegrate under weak rulers.
. Thoughtless actions of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and the appeasement

policies of Firoz Tughlaq.
• Invasion of Timur.
• Degeneration in the general character of the nobility.
. Lack of a clear-cut succession policy.

3. Vijayanagar and Bahamani Kingdom
The origin of the kingdom of Vijayanagar is still a matter

of controversy. According to tradition, the kingdom was
founded by the five sons of Sangama of whom the two
most prominent were Harihara and Bukka who reverted
to Hinduism after having been converted to Islam.
They were encouraged in their enterprise by two

scholars, Madhava Vidyaratna and his brother Sayana.
According to Father Heras, this kingdom was founded by
the Hoysala King, Vira Bailala III.
However, it seems certain that the kingdom owed its

origin to a reaction to the devastating Muslim raids
which threatened to overwhelm the Hindu civilization in
southern India. The capital of the kingdom was
Hastinavati (Hampi).
Reasons for Growth of • Growth in agriculture and trade in the territories of Karnataka.
Vijayanagar Empire • Chola state was finished. The re-emergence of powerful chieftainships
over portions of Tamil country outside of cholamandalam firmly
established independent bases of competitive power.
• Early Vijayanagar expansion came at the expense of great Hindu kingdoms
such as the Hoysala states of Karnataka and the Reddi kingdom of
Kondavidu in Andhra.
• These northern warriors drew resources from the newly overrun areas by
way of tributes.
• Small warriors of nayakas were the leading political figures in the
Vijayanagar states and European/ sources refer to the acquisition and
shifting of some part of the resources commanded by them to the capital
city in the form of tribute.
Vijayanagar Dynasties
Dynasty Founder Period
Sangama Harihara and Bukka 1336-1485
Saluva Saluva Narsimha 1485-1505
Tuvalu Veer Narsimha 1505- 1570
Aravidu Trumala 1570-mid 17th
The Sangama Dynasty • Harihara-1 (1336-1356): He laid the Foundations of Vidyanagar.

• Bukka-1 (1356-1379): Bukka strengthened the city of Vidyanagar and
renamed it Vijayanagar. He restored harmony between the warring
Vaishnavs and the Jains. The Rais of Malabar. Ceylon and other countries
kept ambassadors at his court.
• Harihara-II (1379-1404): Bukka-I died in 1379, and was succeeded by his
son Harihara II. Harihara's reign saw the conquest of the whole of South
India including Mysore, Kanara, Tiruchirapalli and Kanchi. After his death
the kingdom was involved in a civil war after which one of his sons,
Devaraya-I became the king in 1406.
• Devaraya-I (1406-22): His greatest achievement was his irrigation works,
where a dam was built across the Tungabhadra, with Canals leading to the
city. Nicolo Conti, the Italian traveller, visited Vijayanagar during his reign.
• Devaraya-II (1423-46): He was the grandson of Devaraya-1. Ahmed Shab-1
Bahmani invaded Vijayanagar and exacted a war indemnity.
• Devaraya II began the practice of employing Muslim Cavalryman and
archers in the army. He allotted them jagirs, constructed a mosque in
Vijayanagar and ordered that a copy of the Quran be placed before his
throne for the benefit of the Muslims.
• He was called Immadi Devaraya. In his inscriptions, he has the little of
'Gajabetekara' (the elephant hunter). Ceylon paid a regular tribute to him.
He had leanings for Vira Saivism, yet he tolerated other religions and had
members of other sects as his ministers.
• He admitted a Christian into his council. Muslims in his services were given
facilities for the observance of their religious tenets.
• Abdur Razzak, the envoy of Shahrukh visited Vijayanagar during his reign.
He was the author of two Sanskrit works-Mahanataka Sudhanidhi and a
commentary on the Brahmasutras of Badrayana.
• Dindima was his court poet, whereas Srinatha was given the title of Kavi-
Sarvabhauma. Thirty-four poets received his patronage.
The Saluva Dynasty • After 1465 there was a period of disorder as the rulers were weak. The
Bahmanis, the king of Orissa, and the Pandyas renewed their aggression.
The situation was saved by Narasimha Saluva, governor of Chandragiri,
who seized the throne in about 1486.
• This event is known as the "First usurpation". Narsimha succeeded in
restoring the lost prestige of the empire. However, the dynasty was
shortlived, and power passed into the hands of Narsa Nayak.
The Tuluva Dynasty • Narsa Nayak died in 1505, and was succeeded by his son Vira Narasimha
as the regent. He very soon deposed the Suluva ruler and laid the
foundation of the Tuluva dynasty; this event is known as the "Second
Usurpation".
• Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529): He was the greatest ruler of the Tuluva
dynasty and the Vijayanagar empire. His most notable military
achievement was the recovery of the Raichur Doab from Bijapur.
• Under him the Kingdom of Vijayanagar reached the height of its prestige
and prosperity. Krishnadevaraya was noted for his religious zeal, tolerance,
hospitality to foreigners, love of literature and purity of life.
• He maintained friendly relations with the Portugese governor
Albuquerque and gave him permission to build a fort at Bhatkal.
Main Features of • He maintained friendly relations with Albuquerque, the Portugese
Krishnadevaraya's Reign governor, whose ambassador Triar Luis resided in Vijayanagar.
• He built the Vijaya Mahal (House of victory) and expanded the Hazara
Rama temple and the Vithal Swami Temple. He took the titles of
Yavanaraja Sthapanacharya (restorer of Yavana Kingdom, i.e., Bahmani)
and Abhinava Bhoja. He is also known as Andhra-Pitamaha and Andhra
Bhoja.
• He was a gifted scholar in both Telugu and Sanskrit of which only two
works are extant the Telugu work on polity Amuktamalyada and the
Sanskrit drama Jambavati Kalyanam.
• His court was adorned by the eight celebrated poets
(Ashtha-diggajas), which are as follows:
1. Peddana: He wrote Manucharitam and Harikathasaransamu.
2. Timma: He wrote Parijatapaharavam.
3. Madaya/Madhava: He wrote Raja Shekar-charitam.
4. Dhurjate: He wrote Kalahasti Mahatyam.
5. Surona: He wrote Raghava Pandaviyam and Prabhavati Pradyuman.
6. Tneali Ramalingam: He wrote Ponduranga Mahatyam.
7. Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra: He wrote Shakalamatasara Sangraharr.
8. Ramaraja Bhusan was the eight.
Sadasivaraya (1543-1576): Real power was exercised by Rama Raja and his brother
Tirumala and Venkatadri. Sadasiva remained a titular sovereign.
Rama Raja (Populary Called Aliya Rama Raja): He was a grandson of Araviti Bukka,
who is described as 'the establisher of the Kingdom of Saluva Narasimha'. Rama
Raja began his military career as a trusted officer of Sultan Quli Qutub Shah of
Golconda.
Tirumalaraya: The brother of Rama Raja, ruled in the name of Sadasivraya. On his
failure to repopulate Vijayanagar, he shifted the capital to Penugonda. The Nayaks
became independents.
Tirumala then divided his empire into three practically linguistic sections and
placed them under his sons: Sri Ranga at Penugonda looked after the Telugu area;
Rama administered the Kanarese area from Srirangapatnam and Venkatapati
administered the Tamil region from Chandragiri.
Administration, Society and • The Vijayanagar empire had an autocratic system of administration. There
Economy was an elaborate arrangement of administration at Central, provincial and
village levels.
• The chief source of administration was the king who adopted the title of
"Raya'. It is emphasised that the principle of strict adherence to Dharma
was the distinguishing feature of the Vijayanagar empire. However, it is
disputed by many historians.
• Many administrative organs of the Central administration were
constituted. There is a mention of Rajparishad and its chief officer
Mahapradhani.
• There was also a council of ministers (mantriparishad) consisting of great
scholars of the state. Sabhanayak was the head of the Mantriparishad.
Other important officials included Koshadhyaksha, Mudrakarta,
Vyaparnirikshaka, Senapati and Nyayadhisha.
• The entire kingdom was divided into Pranta, Mandal, Kottam or Valnadu,
Nadu, Melagram and Gram.
• There were six prantas (provinces). Each province had a governor
appointed by the centre. The provincial governors were called
Mahamandaleshwar, Nadaprabhusa, Nayak or Mandaleshwar.
• Their responsibilities included maintaining law and order, appointing
subordinate officials, making military arrangement and imposing new
taxes.
• In rural administration, the rulers of Vijayanagar accepted the local-self-
government policy of the Chola rulers. However, the village autonomy
witnessed a decline during this period due to imposition of a 12 member
Ayanger System (involving appointment of 12 officials by the centre) to
keep a vigil on the rural administration. Mahanayakacharya appointed by
the centre also looked after the local self-government.
Land Tenures
There were three broad categories of land tenures during the Vijayanagar rule-
Amara, Bhandaravada and Manya.
Amara: The villages granted to the Amaranayaks by the Vijayanagar rulers were
the largest category of land tenure. The Amaranayak lacked propriety rights in land
and enjoyed privileges over its income only 75% of the all the villages came under
his category.
Bhandaravada: The village was a crown village. It was the smallest category of
land tenure. A part of its income was used to maintain the forts of the empire.
Manya: The villages were tax-free villages and whose income was used to maintain
Brahmans, Temples and Mathas. The period witnessed a great increase in
Devadana grants, conferred on temple, made by the state as compared to other
grants.
Coins • Numismatically, there was a fare amount of sophistication in their coinage

which comprised of both gold and silver and was embedded with symbols
of different gods and animals.
• The Vijayanagar rulers issued gold coins called Varahas or Pagodas.
(Varaha because the most common symbol was the Varaha the boar
incarnation of Vishnu).
• These help us to know that they were Vishnu worshippers. Impressions
found on Vijayanagar coins include the bull, elephant and various Hindu
beauties and the Gandabherunda (A double headed eagle holding an
elephant in its beaks and claw).
• On the reverse they contain the King's name in nagari or Kannada script.
Harihara-1 and Bukka-I employed the Hanuman symbol, while Krishnadeva
Raya had Venkatesh and Balkrishna. Achutya Raya used Garuda, while
Tirumala maintained the original Varaha.
• The Varaha was the main coin, of gold with slight copper content. The
perta was half a Varaha.
• The Fanam was one tenth a perta. All were of gold mixed with alloy, with
the Fanam as the most useful. Tar was a silver coin which was a sixth of
the Fanam. The Jital was a copper coin worth a third of the Tar.
Architecture • The Vijayanagar rulers produced a new style of architecture called as

provid a style. The large number and prominence of pillary and peirs are
some of the distinct features. Horse was the most common animal on the
pillars.
• Another important feature was the Mandaqa or open pavillion a raised
platform meant for seating deities.
• The famous Hazara Rama Swami temple, built during Krishnadevaraya's
reign, is described as "a perfect specimen of Hindu temple and
architecture".
• This is equally corroborated by Abdur Razzaq and the Portuguese
travellers, who held the artisans and their work in high veneration.
Famous Travellers To • Abu Abdullah/Ibn Batuta: A Moroccan traveller, left account of Harihara
Vijayanagar Kingdom I's reign in his book Rehla also called Tuhifat-un-Nuzzar fi Gharaib-ul-Amsar
Wa Ajaib-ul-assar
• Nicolo de Conti: An Italian traveller who visited during the time of
Devaraya I. Left an account in Travels of Nicolo Conti.
• Abdur Razzak: Ambassador of Shah Rukh of Samarqand at the Court of
the Zamorin of Calicut. He gives an account of the reign of Devaraya II, in
his Matla-us- Sadain Wa Majma-ul-Bahrain.
• Athanasius Nikitin: A Russian merchant who described the conditions of
the Bahmani kingdom under Muhammad III in his Voyage to India.
• Ludvico de Vorthema: An Italian merchant who visited India in 1502-1508
and left his memoirs in Travels in Egypt, India, Syria etc.
• Duarte Barbosa (1500-1516): A Portugese, who has given a vivid account
of the vijayanagar government under Krishnadevaraya in his famous book-
An Account of Countries bordering the Indian Ocean and their Inhabitants.
• Dominigos Paes: Portugese who spent a number of years at
Krishanadeva's court has given a glowing account of his personality.
• Fernao Nuniz: A Portugese writer of 16th century spent three years in
Vijayanagar. (1535-37)
THE BAHMANI KINGDOM • The Bahmani kingdom was founded in 1347 by Hasan Gangu who revolted
(1347-1526) and proclaimed his independence, from the Sultanate.
• He assumed the title of Ala-ud-din Bahmani (Also Bahman Shah).
Gulbarga was his capital. He divided his kingdom into four Tarafs
(provinces) and placed each one under a Tarafdar (Governor).
• He was succeeded by Muhammad Shah I (1358-73) whose reign was
chiefly occupied in waging savage wars against Vijayanagar and Warangal.
• Some of the other notable rulers of the dynasty were Firoz Shah (1397-
1422) who twice defeated Vijayanagar but was ultimately defeated at
Pangul; Ahmed Shah (1422-33) who conquered Warangal and shifted the
capital to Bidar and who was also known as Wali on account of his
association with a sufi, Gesu Daraz; Humayun (1451- 61) famous for his
minister, Khwaja Mahmud Gawan: Muhammad Shah III (1463-82) whose
reign saw Mahmud Gawan expand the Kingdom as never before.
• In his campaign against Vijaynagar in 1481 he even reached and plundered
Kanchi. He over-ran Dabhol and Goa on the western coast. However,
Gawan was a Persian by birth and hence disliked by the 'Deccani' chiefs
who were native. The Deccani party conspired against him and got him
executed in 1481.
4. Bhakti Movement and Sufism
The exchange of ideas between Hindus and Muslims resulted in the development of two popular
movements. The Bhakti movement in the Hindus and the sufi movement/sufism in the Islam.
THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT • The term Bhakti means single minded devotion to one god. The god may
have a form (Saguna) or may be even formless (Nirguna).
• The Saguna Bhakti worshipped their gods in the various incarnations of god.
• The followers of Nirguna Bhakti do not believe in idol worship. To them God
is omnipresent.
• Yet, both believed in the Upanishadic philosophy of Advaita (Non-duality of
God).
• The concept of the Bhakti was nothing new to Indians. It is as old as the
Hindu religion which offers three paths for attaining salvation-The Gyan
Marg (the path of knowledge), The Dharma Marg (the path of law), and The
Bhakti Marg (the path of devotion to a personal god).
• There is evidence of this path in holy scriptures like the Upanishads,
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Gita etc. These scriptures distinctly refer to the
two chief principles of unity of God and devotion to personal god. But it was
in the 11th and 12th centuries that the Bhakti Movement rose and grew
stronger.
• The rise and growth of the Bhakti Movement is a significant feature of the
Middle Age in India. It was an all-pervading movement which was not
restricted to any region or period, though it was at its zenith in the 15th,
16th and 17th centuries,
• The basic principles of Bhakti Movement was the loving relationship
between the devotee and his personal god.
• The Bhakti Saints discarded rituals and sacrifices as modes of worship.
Instead, they emphasized on the purity of heart and mind as also kindness
and love to all as the simple way to the realisation of God.
• They also discarded the castes, creed and gender-based discrimination in
the society.
Nirguna Bhakti and their (i) Kabir: Kabir, a Muslim weaver, was one of the greatest pupils of Ramananda.
Exponents According to tradition, he was the abandoned child of a Brahmin widow. He grew up
as the foster-child of the weaver Niru and his wife. He flourished, most probably, in
the end of the fourteenth and early fifteenth century. He composed beautiful verses
in Hindi which are still familiar in Northern India. His followers are called
Kabirpanthis meaning, 'the travellers in the path of Kabir' and Kabir himself was
claimed to be 'at once the child of Allah and of Ram'. When he died both Muslims
and Hindus claimed his corpse. The story goes that when they raised the shroud
covering the corpse, they found nothing but a heap of flowers. The Hindus took half
and cremated it at Varanasi; the Muslim buried the other half near Gorkhpur.
(ii) Guru Nanak: Nanak was born in a Khatri family on 1469 at Talwandi in the
Lahore district. He spent his life preaching the gospel of tolerance. In order to put an
end to the religious conflicts he laid stress on moral virtues. "Religious consisteth
not in mere words" said Nanak; he who looks on all men as equal is religious.
Religion consisteth not in wandering to tombs or places of cremation, or sitting in
attitudes of contemplation. Religion consisteth not in wandering in foreign
countries, or in bathing at places of pilgrimage. Abide pure amidst the impurities of
the world, thus shalt thou find the way to religion."
On his teachings, his followers founded a new religion known as Sikhism. Sikh
means disciple. Sikhism conceive god as nirakara (formless) and recognizes god by
various names-Rama, Rahim, Rab, Hari, Govinda and Murari. Nanak preached his
ideals through kirtans, which are collected in the form of a book called Adi Granth.
He asked his followers to wear five K's-(a) Kesh (Long hair), (b) Kangha (comb), (c)
Kaccha (a pair of shorts), (d) Kara (iron bracelet), and (e) Kirpan (sword or dagger).
His follower Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa Panth. Guru Gobind's
writings were compiled into the Dasam Granth. Sikhism attracted several Muslims
to its side.
Ten Sikh Gurus
1. Guru Nanak (1496-1539)
2. Guru Angad (1539-1552)
3. Guru Amardas (1552-1574)
4. Guru Ram Das (1574-1581)
5. Guru Arjun Dev (1581-1606)
6. Guru Har Gobind (1606-1644)
7. Guru Har Rai (1645-1661)
8. Guru Har Kishan (1661-1664)
9. Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-1675)
10. Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708)
(iii) Namdeva: Namdeva was born in 1270, he was a Nirguna Upasaka. Some of his
abhangas are included in Guru Granth Sahib.
(iv) Ramananda: Ramananda was a Bhakti saint in the North, who was a great
devotee of Sri Rama. He opened his doors to all-upper castes, untouchables,
Muslims etc. Kabir thereby, come across him and was greatly influenced.
Characteristics of the (1) Belief in one supreme God.

Nirguna Bhakti Movement
(ii) Self-surrender to God.
(iii) Faith in Guru (master)
(iv) Non-belief on caste-system, idol worship, ritualism.
(v) No attachment to any particular language.

Saguna Bhakti and their (i) Ramanuja: In 11th century Ramanuja tried to assimilate Bhakti to the tradition of
Exponents Vedas. He argued that grace of God was more important than knowledge about him
in order to attain salvation. The tradition established by Ramanuja was followed by
number of thinkers such as Madhvacharya, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and others.
(ii) Jnandeva (1275-96): He was progenitor of Bhakti movement in Maharashtra.
(iii) Ekanath: He was opposed to caste distinction and evinced greatest sympathy for
men of low caste.
(iv) Tukaram: He was a farmer's son and a great devotee of Vitthal. (v) Ramdas: He
established ashramas all over India. It was from him that Shivaji received the
inspiration to overthrow Muslim authority and found the kingdom.
(vi) Surdasa (1483-1513): He belongs to Saguna School. He was a disciple of famous

religious teacher Vallabhacharya. He sang the glory of Krishna's childhood and youth
in his Sursagar.
(vii) Tulsi Das (1532-1623): He belongs to Saguna school of Hindu Mystics. He

composed the famous Ramacharitamanas.
Characteristics of the (i) Belief in a particular form of God.

Saguna Bhakti Movement
(ii) Non-belief in caste system and rituals.
(iii) Idol worship got a new dimension.
(iv) Popularisation of local language.
(v) Dohas, Bhajans, Kirtans and other forms of literary works were popularised.
SUFISM OR THE SUFI • Sufism represents the spiritual and mystical dimensions of Islam. The term
MOVEMENT Sufi probably came from the Arabic word Sof (wool).
• This was perhaps due to the result of the old ascetic practice of wearing
only a coarse woollen garment.
• This movement was first born in Iran when some of the religious scholars
and liberal thinkers in that country realised that there was little difference
among the various beliefs like the Shia and the Sunni sects.
• In the realm of ideas, it marks the end of the domination of the Mutazila or
rationalist philosophy, and the rise of orthodox schools base on the Quran
and Hadis (Traditions of the Prophet and his companions) and of the Sufi
mystic orders.
• Mystics, who later came to be called sufis, had risen in Islam at a very early
stage. Most of them were persons of deep devotion who were disgusted by
the vulgar display of wealth and degeneration of morals following the
establishment of the Islamic empire.
• The first sufi saints or free thinkers were those who migrated to India from
Persia. Foremost among them was the name of Khwaja Moin-u-Din Chishti
who was born in 1142. But later on he settled in India where he preached
his independent ideas till 1236 at Ajmer.
Sufism • Sufism spring from the doctrine of Wahadat-ul-wajud or unity of being. This
doctrine was propounded by Ibn-ul-Arabi (1165-1240).
• One of the earliest Sufis was a woman saint Rabia of Basra who laid great
emphasis on love as bond between god and individual soul. The Sufi were
organized in 12 orders or Silsilas.
• The silsilas were generally led by a prominent mystic who live in Khanqah
along with his disciples.
• The link between the teacher or Pir and his disciple or Murid was a vital part
of Sufi system. Every Pir nominated a successor or Wali to carry out work.
• The Sufi orders are widely divided into two-Ba- sahara that is those who
followed the Islamic law and Be-sahara that is those, who were not bound
by it.
• Of the Be-Sahara movement only two acquired significant influence. These
were the Chishti and Suharwardi Silsilas.
• These Sufis were organised in various Silsilas (religious doctrines or orders).
But almost all of them laid great stress on the principles of tauba
(repentance) and tawakkul (trust in God).
• Their ideals were based upon Christianity. Zoroastrianism and Hinduism
stressing upon "Unity of Being".
• They thought of achieving union with the Absolute through ten different
stages, namely repentance, abstinence, piety, poverty, patience, gratitude,
fear, hope, contentment and submission to the divine will.
• The Sufi silsilas were named after the name or surname of the founder of
the particular order. Such as Chishti, Suhrawardi, Naqshbandi etc.
Chishti Silsila • The Chishti order was founded by Khwaja Abdal Chisti in Herat, it was
brought to India by Khwaja Moin-ud-din Chisti (1142-1236). He arrived at
Lahore in 1161 AD and settled at Ajmer in about 1206.
• However, the most famous of Chishti saints were Nizamuddin Auliya and
Nasiruddin Chirag-i-Delhi. Auliya was generally known as Mahbub-i- Ilahi
(beloved of God). They made themselves popular by adopting musical
recitation called Saint to create mood of nearness to god.
Suhrawardi Silsila • It was founded by Sheikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. The credit of organising
it goes to Shaikh Bahauddin Zakariya. Its main centre was Multan. Saints of
this order had big jagirs and had closed contact with the state.
Firdausi Silsila • Sheikh Badruddin of Samark first moved to Bihar and became the most
influential mystic order. Its most distinguished saints was Sheikh
Shamasuddin Yahya Munair who believed in pantheistic monoism.
Shattari Silsila • It was founded in India by Shah Abdullah Shattan. However, it gained in
popularity under Sheikh Muhammad Ghauth of Gwalior. Among his
disciples were the famous musician Tansen. The shattari saints sought to
synthesize Hindu and mystical Muslim thoughts to practice.
Qadiri Silsila • Shah Niamatullah Qadri was probably the first notable saint of this order to
enter India but it was Syed Muhammad Jilani who organised it on effective
basis. Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shahjahan was follower of this order.
Naqshbandi Silsila • This Silsila was introduced in India by Khwaja Bagi Billah during the later
years, of Akbar's reign. It attained a position of great importance in India
under the leadership of Sheikh Ahmed Sirhindi. He was opposed to
pantheistic philosophy Wahadat-ul-Wajud and propounded the theory of
wahadat- ul-shudud.
Mahadawi Movement • It was initiated by Syed Muhammad Mahadi of Jaunpur. He concentrated his
energies on regeneration of people.
Raushaniyah Movement • The movement owed its origin to Miyan Bayazid Ansari, a native of
Jalandhar. He emphasised inter-organisation of religious rites and inspired
his followers with the ideal of ascetic self-denial
5 . Mughal Period
The Mughal era, which began with the Babur's victory over
Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526) is often
perceived as marking a new beginning in the history of
Muslim rule in India. Unlike the fractious Sultanate period
when the state resembled a theatre of war, the Mughal rule
is regarded as a time when contentious issues of religion
and politics were placed on the backburner and the
splendour of monarchy took centre stage.
Babur (1526-1530) • Babur was the first Mughal emperor of India. He was born in the
Ferghana, Central Asia, in the princely family of mixed Mongol and
Turkish blood.
• Failure to recover his father's land caused him to turn reluctantly to
south-east. After defeating Ibrahim Lodhi with the support of Punjab's
governor, Daulat Khan Lodhi, Babur turned his attention to the Rajput
confederacy and defeated Mewar ruler Rana Sanga in the Battle of
Khanwa in 1527.
• This victory secured Babur's position in the Delhi-Agra region. Babur's
reign ended in 1530 and he was succeeded by his son Humayun.
Reasons of Babur's Indian Expeditions

1. There were various reasons for Babur's Indian expedition.

2. The Ottomans defeated the Safavids and the Uzbegs controlled
Transoxiana forcing Babur's imperial impulses towards India.
3. Meagre income of Kabul
4. Desire to emulate Timur
5. Punjab was part of the Timurid province and hence was
considered a legal patrimony of the Timurids.
6. Apprehension of Uzbeg attacks at Dik Khat, Babur had heard an
eye witness account of Timur's invasion of India from a 111 year
old woman.
Babur's Five Expeditions Babur's five famous expeditions were as follows
First Expedition: In 1519, he stormed Bajaur which fell after a spirited struggle in
which Babur's artillery played a decisive part. Babur occupied Bhira where
gunpowder was used for the first time. Babur quit India, leaving Bhira in the charge
of Hindu Beg; but the latter was soon (1519) expelled by the natives.
Second Expedition: The same year, in September. Babur again marched through the
Khyber, in order to subdue the Yusufzai and make Peshawar fort as a base for future
operations in Hindustan but he was recalled by disturbing news from Badakhshan,
which came into Babur's possession in 1520.
Third Expedition: For the third time Babur marched in 1520, through Bajaur
towards Bhira. Subduing the recalcitrant Afghan tribes on the way, he proceeded to
Sialkot, which submitted without striking a blow. The people of Saiyidpur defied
Babur, but were easily subdued. However, Babur had to hastily retrace his steps
again to fight Shah Beg Arghun, ruler of Kandhar.
After two unsuccessful efforts, Babur finally acquired Kandhar, in 1522, through the
treachery of its Governor, Maulana Abdul Bagi. Shah Beg established himself in
Sindh, and Kamran (Babur's second son) was put in charge of Kandhar.
Fourth Expedition: Thus, thoroughly secure at home, Babur for the fourth time
invaded India, in 1524. Daulat Khan, Governor of the Punjab, was growing very
powerful. Sultan Ibrahim had summoned him to Delhi. But Daulat Khan offended
him by not appearing in person. To protect himself from the Sultan's wrath, Daulat
Khan sent his son Dilawar Khan, to invite Babur to dethrone Ibrahim Lodi in favour
of his uncle Alam Khan (or, Ala-ud-din).
Babur readily fell in with this invitation, and marched once more into the valleys of
the Jhelum and the Chenab. Lahore and Dipalpur soon fell into his hands. Daulat
Khan was defeated by the Delhi forces and driven into exile.
Fifth Expedition: Babur now crossed the frontier for the last time (Nov., 1525), with
the largest army he had ever led into Hindustan. Humayun was with him with a
contingent from Badakhshan. Crossing the Jhelum, the Lahore army also joined him.
All told, his followers numbered not more than 12,000 of whom perhaps only 8,000
were effectives.
Important Battles Faught Battle of Panipat (1526): He defeated Ibrahim Lodhi. This was his fifth expedition in
by Babur India in which he was successful.
Battle of Khanwa (1527): He defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar.
Battle of Chanderi (1528): Babur defeated Medini Rai. He was the first to entitle
himself as the 'Padshah. After the Kushanas, he was the first to bring Kabul and
Kandhar into the Indian empire.
Battle of Ghaghra (1529): He fought against the allied forces of Afghans in

Bihar and Bengal. Sultan Nusrat Shah of Bengal faced crushing defeat.
Humayun (1530-1556) • Humayun succeeded Babur at the young age of 23. When he occupied the
throne, he found himself surrounded by enemies on all sides.
• In the east were Mahmud Lodhi and other Afghans under Sher Khan. In the
south was Sultan Bahadur Shah, the ruler of Gujarat, and in the North-West,
Kamran, the younger brother of Humayun.
• Humayun's early expeditions were against Kalinjar, Jaunpur and Chunar.
• He waged a war with Bahadur Shah of Gujarat in 1533-1536, and conquered
the provinces of Sarangpur, Mandesar, Mandu, Champaner and Diu. About
the same time he built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
Humayun's Expeditions • Humayun's famous expeditions may be listed as follows: Expedition of

Kalinjar (1531): Humayun besieged the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand.
Humayun was forced to make peace and accept a huge indemnity from the
Raja.
• Battle of Daurah (1532): Humayun defeated Mahmood Lodi, the Afghan of
Bihar.
• Siege of Chunar (1532): Humayun besieged the fort of Chunar under Sher
Shah, who offered nominal submission. It proved to be mistake on the part
of Humayun to accept it.
Wars with Bahadur Shah (1535-1536):
Bahadur Shah annexed Malwa in 1531, Captured the fort of Raisin and
defeated the chief of Chittor in 1533. No wonder Humayun marched against
him.
Bahadur Shah has seiged Chittor. Rani Karnawati appealed to Humayun for
help by sending him a Rakhi.
Humayun did not attack Bahadur Shah as long as siege of Chittor lasted. It
was only after the fall of Chittor that Humayun started his operations
against Bahadur Shah, who had escaped to Mandi.
Humayun captured the Fort of Mandu, Champaner and Mandsor. With the
conquest of Gujarat in 1535. Humayun completed his conquest in Central
India. But due to mismanagement of Askari, Bahadur Shah recaptured large
part of Gujarat.
Battle of Chausa (1539): Humayun's return to Agra was blocked by Sher Khan. Both
armies delayed the attack and rains started, leaving the Mughal encampment
flooded. Humayun was defeated.
Battle of Kanauj, (1540): After reaching Agra, Humayun and his brother Kamran
decided to fight Sher Shah but due to the differences between the brothers,
Humayun fought the Battle of Kanauj alone and lost. Humayun became a fugitive
and Sher Shah became the ruler of Agra and Delhi.
Restoration of Humayun
During his exile in Persia, Humayun was given military help by King Shah Tahmasp to
conquer Kabul and Kandhar from his brother Kamran, After that he turned to India
to regain his lost throne.
With the help of an able officer, Bairam Khan, Humayun defeated the weak rulers of
the Suri dynasty and took control over Agra and Delhi in 1556.
He died from the effects of an accidental fall from the staircase of his library at Delhi
in AD 1556.
His reign is significant mainly because of the introduction of Persian influences into
India when he returned from exile accompanied by Persian scholars and artists.
Persian became the court language and pockets of Shiite religious influence grew up
in India.
Akbar conquered Gujarat (1572-1573) and Bengal (1574-1576). In 1591, Akbar sent
four missions to the rulers of Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda, calling
upon them to recognize his suzerainty and pay him tribute.
Khandesh ruler offered his submission. Ahmednagar was captured in 1600. By 1595,
Akbar's armies had conquered Kashmir, Sindh, Orissa, Central India and Kandhar.
Akbar's Nine Jewels or 1. Abdul Rahim: A celebrated Hindi and Turki scholar; remembered for a collection
Nav-Ratnas of dohas, Rahim Satsai and translation of Baburnama into Turki; conferred the title
of Khan-e-Khana by Akbar.
2. Abul Fazal: Known for Akbarnama and Ain-i- Akbari.
3. Birbal: Known for his humour and wits; original name Mahesh Dass; died while
fighting with the Yousufzai tribe in the north-west.
4. Faizi: Credited with the translation of Leelawati into Persian.
5. Hamim Humam: A close friend of Akbar, chief of royal school or pathasala. 6. Raja
Man Singh: A great Rajput general; helped the emperor in the Battle of Haldighati
and in the battle against the Afghans,
7. Shaikh Mubarak: A sufi: brain behind Akbar's Mahzar. 8. Tansen: Court singer of
Akbar, known as sangeel samrat.
9. Todar Mal: Known for his expertise in land revenue matters; his revenue policy
was adopted by Sher Shah and Akbar.
Jehangir (1605-16) • Jehangir was not without the imperial ambition of his father and early years
of his reign saw some important military successes.
• Bengal had never been reconciled to the vassalage of Delhi and the
frequent change of governors gave the local Afghans opportunity to rebel.
• Most noteworthy military success of Jehangir was his triumph over the
Rajputs of Mewar.
• In 1613. Jehangir personally proceeded to Ajmer to guide the expedition,
the supreme command of which was given to Prince Khurram Though the
Rajputs displayed dauntless heroism, they suffered heavy losses.
• The treaty that was signed between the Rana and the Emperor (1615)
recognized Jehangir as the suzerain of Mewar.
• At the end of his reign, his son, Shahjahan, rebelled against him. Another
crucial event of his reign was that when he fell ill, his queen. Nur Jahan,
took active interest in the matters of state. Even the coins were issued
jointly in the names of Jehangir and Nur Jahan.
Shahjahan (1628-1658) • After putting an end of the short reign of his nephew, Dawar Bakshi, the son
of Khusru, Shahjahan found himself in undisputed possession of the throne
in 1628 when he was at the age of thirty-six. After he became emperor, he
exhibited geniality and moderation as a ruler.
• He had to face two revolts, at Bundelkhand and Deccan Jujhar Singh, the
son of Bir Singh Bundela, revolted in Bundelkhand, a difficult region to the
south of the Yamuna.
• Unable to stand against the imperial forces, he made his submission to
Mahabat Khan.
• The Gond Raja's son appealed to Shahjahan who sent Prince Aurangzeb to
suppress the new revolt (1634). The Bundela strongholds were captured
one by one.
• During his reign, the authority of the emperor was not seriously challenged
and there was no foreign invasion. In the history of Indian art, it was a
golden age.
• In religion, Shahjahan's intolerance destroyed the political solidarity of the
empire in Aurangzeb's reign. Administration as also economic conditions
were deteriorating.
• Although the imperial system looked imposing, there was laxity in central
supervision and control. Foreign trade was prosperous, but its profits were
enjoyed by a very small class.
Aurangzeb (1658-1707) • Aurangzeb ruled for almost fifty years. His empire stretched from Kashmir in
the north to Jinji in the south, and from the Hindukush in the west to
Chittagong in the east.
• Within the empire, he had to deal with a number of difficult problems, such
as the problems of the Marathas in the Deccan, the Jats, and Satnamis and
Rajputs in north India, and that of the Afghans and Sikhs in the north-west.
• Aurangzeb's direct attention was concentrated on the affairs of North India.
During 1681, the affairs of the South centred around the rise of the Maratha
power under Shivaji.
• For about 25 years (1682-1707), he made desperate efforts to crush the
Marathas, exhausting himself and his empire in the process.
Highlights of Aurangzeb's Reign
1. The second coronation of Aurangzeb took place when he

defeated Dara (1659).
2. He took the title of 'Alamgir' in 1659
3. He was also called as Zinda Pir, the living saint.
4. In 1662, Mir Jumla, Aurangzeb's ablest general, led the

expedition against Ahoms
5. He forbade inscription of Kalma on the coins.
6. He ended the celebration of Navroz festival.
7. Muhtasibs (regulators of moral conduct) were appointed by
him.
8. He forbade music in the court.
9. He ended Jarokha Darshan, use of almanacs and weighing of
the emperor.
10. Aurangzeb compiled Fatwa-i-Alamgir.
11. Jaziya was re-introduced. However, the Hindu mansabdars
maintained their high proportion during his rule.
12. The Mughal conquests reached a climax during his reign, as
Bijapur and Golkonda were annexed in 1686 and 1687
respectively.
Mughal Administrative • The centre of the whole structure of government was the sovereign. Before
Structure the sovereign, all important matters relating to appointments, increments,
jagirs, mansabs, government grants, orders of payment, petitions of princes,
governors, bakhshis, diwans, faujdars, and private petitions sent through
nobles were submitted.
• Even when the sovereign was on the move, the daily routine was observed
Central Administration
Wazir was the most important functionary. The unrestricted use of the
powers of a Wazir by Bairam Khan was a warning against the appointment
of an all-powerful Wazir.
The office of the Vakil was retained, but none of the Vakils after Bairam
Khan exercised the powers and influence of a prime minister.
Mughal empire was divided into subak or province which was further
subdivided into sarkars, parganas and villages. However, it also had other
territorial units as Khalisa, (royal land), Jagira (autonomous rajas) and Inams
(gifted lands, mainly waste lands).
There were 12 territorial units (subah) during Akbar's reign, which increased
to 21 under Aurangzeb's reign.
The administrative agency in the provinces under the Mughal was an exact
miniature of that of the central government. The provincial administration
was based on the principles of "uniformity" and "Check and Balance".
Provincial Administration • Mughal empire was divided into subak or province which was further
subdivided into sarkars, parganas and villages. However, it also had other
territorial units as Khalisa, (royal land), Jagira (autonomous rajas) and Inams
(gifted lands, mainly waste lands).
• There were 12 territorial units (subah) during Akbar's reign, which increased
to 21 under Aurangzeb's reign.
• The administrative agency in the provinces under the Mughal was an exact
miniature of that of the central government. The provincial administration
was based on the principles of "uniformity" and "Check and Balance".
Mughal Officials A. CENTRE
1. Wazir: Akbar abolished the post of all- powerful Wazir, became the head of
the revenue department; also known as Diwan-i-ala.
2. Diwan: Responsible for all income and expenditure and had control over
Khalisa and Jagir land.
3. Mir Bakshi: Headed military department, nobility, information and
intelligence.
4. Mir Saman: Incharge of imperial household and Karkhanas.
5. Diwan-i-Bayutat: Maintained roads, government buildings etc. and worked
under Mir Saman.
6. Mir Munshi: Incharge of royal correspondence. Sadr-us-Sadr Incharge of
charitable and religious endowments.
7. Qazi-ul-Quzat: Headed the judiciary department.
8. Mushrif-i-Mumalik: Accountant-general
9. Mustauf-i-Mumalik: Auditor-general
10. Daroga-i-Dak-Chauki: Officer in charge of imperial post, equivalent to
today's post master- general.
B. PROVINCE
1. Sipahsalar: The head executive (known as Sipahsalar under Akbar and later
known as Nizam or Subedar).
2. Diwan: Incharge of revenue department.
3. Bakshi: Incharge of military department.
4. Sadr: Incharge of judicial department.
Mansabdari System Mansabdari system, introduced by Akbar in 1595-96, was the steel-frame of the
emperor's military policy. The term mansab means an officer or rank. The
Mansabdur, ie, the holder of the mansab, was an official who, out of his pay. was
expected to furnish a certain number of cavalry to the imperial army
Salient features of the Mansabdari system were as follow:
• Mansabdars were graded into 39 classes, ranging from commanders of 10

to 10,000.
• Twin ranks-Zat and Sawar-were allotted. The former indicated a noble's
personal status, while the latter, the number of troops he had to maintain.
• Twin ranks-Zat and Sawar-were allotted. The former indicated a noble's
personal status, while the latter, the number of troops he had to maintain.
• Mansab was not an hereditary system. Mansabdars were paid through
revenue assignments (jagirs).
Reforms in Mansabdari: An important change in Mansabdari in Jehangir's reign was

the introduction of the du-aspa-sih-aspa rank. This was made part of the sawar
rank. The mansabdari sawar obligations and the payment made for them were both
doubled.
Book Author
Tuzuk-i-Baburi Babur
Humayun Nama Khwand Amair
Danun-i-Himayun Gulbadan Begum
Akbar Nama Sheikh Abul Fazal
Tabaqat-i-Akbari Khwajah Nizamuddin, Ahmed Baksh
Muntakhabut-ul-Tawarikh Abdul Qadir Badauni
Tuzuk-i-Jehangiri Jehangir
Tarikh-i-Alfi Mulla Daud
Masnavi Nala-i-Daman Faizi
Iqbalnama-i-Jehangiri Muhammad Khan

ShortNotes Ancient and Medieval History VyasIAS KING R QUEEN P

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ShortNotes Ancient and Medieval History VyasIAS KING R QUEEN P

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

ShortNotes Ancient and Medieval History VyasIAS KING R QUEEN P

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ancient and medieval history notes by Vyasa IAS

1. SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

SOURCES EVIDENCES INFORMATION

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

Epigraphy is the study of

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

Secular Literature Ptolemy – Geography

2. Ganitanuyog It deals with mathematics, geography, astronomy, etc.

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

4. Dharamakathanauyog It contains stories, informations, tables, arts, literature,

Accounts of Greeks, Romans or • Alexander’sinvasionis solely reconstructed based on

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

Stone Age is classified primarily into three types:

1. Old stone Age, Paleolithic Age (5,00,000−10,000 BCE)

1. Soan valley (in present Pakistan)

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

Neolithic Age It introduced a lot of innovations such as:

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

Chalcolithic Age / Copper-Stone Age (c. 3000−500 BCE)

Vyasa IAS | Call/whatsApp 8851628134

3 . INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION

Name of Sites Year of Excavators Region/ River Features

Mohen jo Daro 1922 R.D Banerjee Larkana District in • Prepared Garments.

Kalibangan 1953 A Ghosh Situated in • Shows both Pre- Harappan and

Lothal 1953 SR Rao Situated in • A tilled floor which bears

Surkotada 1964 JP Joshi Situated in Kutch • Bones of horses

Sutkagendor 1927 Stein RL Situated in • Trade point between Harappa

Amri 1935 NG Majumdar Situated in Sindh • Evidence of Antelope

Dholavira 1985-90 RS Bisht Situated in • Seven cultural stages

Rangpur 1953 MS Vats, BB Lal Situated on the • Rice was cultivated

To the west of each was a citadel built on a high platform. It was

Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed,

On the whole, Harappan pottery was highly utilitarian in character, though

Major Imports by the Harappans

Decline of Indus Valley civilization

Origin of The Aryans

Some scholars, such as Max Muller and Dr. Thapar,

By that time, they came to be known as Aryans.

This is proved by some Aryan names mentioned in the

Aryans' Arrival in India • The Aryans came to India in several waves

Socio-Economic Life in Rig Vedic Period

Rig Vedic Name New Name

Later Vedic Phase

Currency • A gold piece of specific weight called Satamana is mentioned in

Important Officials About

Later Vedic Society

1. Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the same

Origin of Hindu Philosophy

By the end of the later Vedic Age, six prominent schools of

1. Sankhya of Kapila: According to Sankhya

5. Mahajanpadas & Rise of Magadh

In the later Vedic period, the tribal organisations changed

These states consisted of either a single tribe such as the

Mahajanapadas Capitals Locations

3. Asmaka Potana Covering modern Paithan in Maharashtra; on the bank

14. Kosala Shravasti Covering the present districts of Faizabad, Gonda,

2. Abundance of natural resources, such as iron, enabled

5. Use of elephants on a large scale in wars. 6. Unorthodox character of

7. Contribution of several enterprising and ambitious