SAI VIDYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi, Affiliated to VTU, Recognized by Govt. of Karnataka)

Accredited by NBA(CSE,ISE,CEC,CIVIL.MECH)
Department of Civil Engineering
RAJANUKUNTE, BANGALORE 560 064, KARNATAKA
Phone: 080-28468191/96/97/98 * E-mail: [email protected] * URL www.saividya.ac.in Learn to lead

Department of Civil Engineering

‘Introduction to Civil Engineering’
(22ESC141/241)
M-2
Societal and Global Impact of Infrastructure

By
Dr. M B Ananthayya
Professor & Head
Infrastructure:
Infrastructure is the set of facilities required for the societal and economic
functioning of a country, city, or an area. Infrastructure includes structures such
as roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and
telecommunications Internet connectivity etc.

Sustainable development goals:

On 1 January 2016, the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030
came in to force. This is taken on the basis of historic UN summit of different
countries held in September 2015. These new Goals apply to all nations who
are supposed to achieve in the coming 15 years.
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The following are the sustainable development goals:
• No Poverty: No poverty means that everybody has enough money for their basic
needs

• No Hunger: Every one should get the food and there is no hunger

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• Good Health and Well-Being: It aims to prevent suffering from preventable diseases
and premature death by focusing on key targets that boost the health of a country's
overall population

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• Quality Education: This goal ensures that all girls and boys complete free primary
and secondary schooling by 2030.

• Gender Equality: Empowering women and promoting gender equality is crucial

to accelerating sustainable development. Ending all forms of discrimination
against women and girls.

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• Clean Water and Sanitation: Access to safe water, sanitation and hygiene is the
most basic human need for health and well-being.

• Affordable and Clean Energy: Lack of access to energy supplies and

transformation systems is a constraint to human and economic development.
The environment provides a series of renewable and non-renewable energy
sources i.e. solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, biofuels, natural gas, coal,
petroleum, uranium.
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• Decent Work and Economic Growth:

• The SDGs promote sustained economic growth, higher levels of productivity

and technological innovation. Encouraging entrepreneurship and job creation
are key to this. Totally avoid forced labour, slavery and human illegal usage.
With these targets in mind, the goal is to achieve full and productive
employment, and decent work, for all women and men by 2030.
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• Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure:
Investment in infrastructure and innovation are crucial drivers of economic
growth and development. With over half the world population now living in
cities, mass transport and renewable energy are becoming ever more
important, as are the growth of new industries and information and
communication technologies.
Technological progress is also key to finding lasting solutions to both economic
and environmental challenges, such as providing new jobs and promoting
energy efficiency. Promoting sustainable industries, and investing in scientific
research and innovation, are all important ways to facilitate sustainable
development.
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• Reduced Inequalities:
Income inequality is on the main inequality, the richest 10 percent
have up to 40 percent of global income whereas the poorest 10
percent earn only between 2 to 7 percent. If we take into account
population growth inequality in developing countries, inequality
has increased by 11 percent. These widening disparities require
sound policies to empower lower income earners.

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• Sustainable Cities and Communities:
More than half of us live in cities. By 2050, two-thirds of all humanity 6.5
billion people will be urban. Sustainable development cannot be achieved
without significantly transforming the way we build and manage our urban
spaces.
Making cities sustainable means creating career and business opportunities,
safe and affordable housing, and building. It involves investment in public
transport, creating green public spaces, and improving urban planning and
management. sustainable means creating career and business opportunities, safe and
affordable housing, and building
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• Responsible Consumption and Production
The efficient management of our shared natural resources, and the way we
dispose of toxic waste and pollutants, are important targets to achieve this goal.
Encouraging industries, businesses and consumers to recycle and reduce waste is
equally important, as is supporting developing countries to move towards more
sustainable patterns of consumption by 2030.

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• Climate Action

There is no country that is not experiencing the drastic effects of climate

change. Greenhouse gas emissions are more than 50 percent higher than in
1990. Global warming is causing long-lasting changes to our climate system,

which threatens irreversible consequences if we do not act.

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• Life Below Water

Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their
livelihoods. However, today we are seeing 30 percent of the world’s fish stocks
overexploited, reaching below the level at which they can produce sustainable
yields. Enhancing conservation and the sustainable use of ocean-based
resources through international law will also help mitigate some of the
challenges facing our oceans.
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• Life On Land

Human life depends on the earth as much as the ocean for our sustenance and
livelihoods. Plant life provides 80 percent of the human diet, and we rely on
agriculture as an important economic resources. Forests cover 30 percent of the
Earth’s surface, provide vital habitats for millions of species, and important
sources for clean air and water, as well as being crucial for combating climate
change. Urgent action must be taken to reduce the loss of natural habitats and
biodiversity which are part of our common heritage and support global food and
water security,
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• Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions
We cannot hope for sustainable development without peace, stability, human
rights and effective governance, based on the rule of law. Yet our world is
increasingly divided. Some regions enjoy peace, security and prosperity, while
others fall into seemingly endless cycles of conflict and violence. This is not
inevitable and must be addressed. The SDGs aim to significantly reduce all
forms of violence, and work with governments and communities to end conflict
and insecurity. Promoting the rule of law and human rights are key to this
process, as is reducing the flow of unlawful arms and strengthening the
participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance.
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• Partnerships for the Goals
The world is more interconnected than ever. Improving access to technology and
knowledge is an important way to share ideas and foster innovation.
Coordinating policies to help developing countries manage their debt, as well as
promoting investment for the least developed, is vital for sustainable growth and

development .

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Smart City:

A smart city is an urban development vision to integrate

information and communication technology (ICT) and Internet of
things (IOT) technology in a secure fashion to manage a city's
assets. These assets include local departments' information
systems, schools, libraries, transportation systems, hospitals,
power plants, water supply networks, waste management, law
enforcement, and other community services.
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The core elements of Smart City Infrastructure include
• Assured Supply of Electricity

• Adequate Supply of Water

• Solid Waste Management

• Sanitation

• Efficient Urban Mobility

• Affordable Housing

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• Public Transport

• Digitalization

• IT Connectivity

• Sustainable Environment

• Good Governance

• Health and Education

• Security of the Citizens

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Smart City Concepts:
• Smart Governance:
Smart Governance includes political and active participation, citizenship
services and the smart use of e‐Government. In addition, it often relates to the

use of new communication channels, such as e-government or "e‐democracy".

• Smart Citizen:
People are smart in terms of their skill and educational levels, as well as the
quality of social interaction in terms public life and their ability to open to the
outside world.
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• Smart Energy:
The power generation from renewable energy sources, generation and
consumption are connected in an efficient and intelligent way

• Smart Technology:

Technological development, supported by Innovation, is essential to

offer competitive products and services. The new relationship emerging
from e‐Government has led to the emergence of a new kind of citizen,
the e‐citizen. It also includes areas such as new means of marketing and
more efficient organizational and managerial systems
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• Smart Infrastructure:
Smart Infrastructure designs will need to be anticipatory and proactive to be truly
sustainable. For example, not only provide food for urban dwellers, but serve as
storm water management systems, allowing water and waste to be recycled at the
smallest scale with real-time sensors telling the centralized system how much less
will have to be processed.

• Smart Mobility:
Smart Mobility aims to improve operational efficiency through linking traffic road
information, the vehicle condition, real-time data acquisition and integration of
urban traffic capacity, thus achieving smooth flow of traffic running with automatic
toll collection technology and other data gathering instruments.
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• Smart Building:
At the most fundamental level, smart buildings deliver useful building services
that make occupants productive (e.g. illumination, thermal comfort, air quality,
physical security, sanitation, and many more) at the lowest cost and
environmental impact over the building lifecycle

• Smart Healthcare:
The application of new technologies for health care, from diagnosis to
monitoring patients, including the management of the organizations involved in
these activities, is defined as Smart Healthcare.

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Clean City concept
India has a population of over one billion, of which almost 300 million people
are living in 600 towns and cities.It is unfortunate that, as a result of stressed
environmental conditions, most of these towns and cities are unable to keep the
pace for development. Water pollution, Depletion of Groundwater, inadequate
sanitation, open dumping of waste, and loss of forest cover are the problems.
These impacts on the health of the people and also does an economic impact on
the country. Similarly, water diseases like diarrhea, jaundice, and cholera are
Increasing daily on the basis of pollution done by us and are affecting both
human health and economic productivity.
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This situation demands a proper solution in the management of rapidly growing
urban environmental problems. The grade of the environment needs to be
monitored regularly and scientific work needs to extend beyond the laboratory
and become more community-centered. While the regulatory agencies continue
to play their role Programs that are community-based are required. This will
help the people understand local problems and take necessary actions to
improve the local environmental conditions and come up with new relative
options to help save the environment.

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CLEAN-India program was launched for the Development of Alternatives with
the vision of developing a cleaner environment for our urban centers. This
nation-wide program focuses on environmental assessment, awareness, and
action on school children who are the future citizens. The underlined realization
is that ‘each one of us is responsible for the current state of our environment and
we cannot wait for someone else to solve it’.

The CLEAN-India program aims to deploy responsibility to the people for the
assessment of environmental consequences and improvement in all major cities
and states in India through schools and NGOs linked with governments and other
private organizations.
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While the term 'clean city' refers to a city that is free from pollution and
environment degradation. Both these terms are relative in nature. A city that
has many trees than buildings all over will be free from environmental
problems as trees help to purify the air and maintain the cycle of nature.

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Clean and green cities around the world show us that first
impressions count. Neat and tidy public green areas, roads, and
paths do not only contribute to a good image for visitors and the
local inhabitants. Moreover, it is a sign that this council encourages
people to keep the city clean and tidy.

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Launched in 2015, Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), has come a long way. The
program made sure that cleanliness and sanitation found a place in India’s
governance landscape. The program was aimed at transforming the behavior of the
masses on issues of sustainable waste management.

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To further strengthen and evaluate the performance of the
mission, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA),
Government of India (GoI) kick started India’s first and largest
cleanliness survey, Swachh Survekshan in 2016. Since, then the
survey has evolved significantly, engaging citizens, administrative
systems and civil society towards creating a robust waste

management system.

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Swachh Survekshan 2020 results (Declared in August 2020)

• Indore from Madhya Pradesh emerged as the cleanest city for

the fourth time.

• Surat from Gujarat and Navi Mumbai from Maharashtra

claimed second and third rank respectively.

• Varanasi was emerged as cleanest Ganga town

• Jalandhar cantonment was ranked the cleanest cantonment in

the country.
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Safe City Concept:
It refers to the duty and function of the state to ensure the safety of
its citizens, organizations and institutions against threats to their
well-being as well as the traditional functions of law and order.

The safe city concept is based on a consolidated ICT( Information

and communication Technology) platform which combines public-
safety information of different types and from different sources,
obtained through sensors and multi-agency collaboration.
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Four major requirements of Safe city concept
• It provides reliable and comprehensive security measures to
predict threats and hazardous situations

• It aids to public-safety organizations in collecting, sharing and

analyzing data more effectively to provide early warnings and
raise situational awareness

• It enables the key organizations in the city to react to security

threats in real time
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• It provides post-event examination and analysis, identify
victims and provide assistance in rescue actions.

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Built-environment:
Energy efficient buildings:
An energy-efficient building creates comfortable living conditions inside the
dwelling with the least possible amount of energy consumption maximizing
efficiency in use of resources.

An energy-efficient building balances all aspects of energy use in a building by

providing an optimized mix of passive solar–design strategies, energy-efficient
equipment, and renewable sources of energy.

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Aspects of Energy efficient buildings:
1. Nearly: Zero-Energy Passive Building Design:
The design of a nearly zero-energy passive building involves adopting all solar
passive strategies at the design stage before actual construction begins. For
instance, passive solar heating/cooling, building day lighting, and provision for
rainwater harvesting.
In a hot and dry climate, passive cooling designs, such as wall and roof cooling,
solar refrigeration, and earth water heat exchangers should be integrated into
the building.
In the cold zones, passive heating designs should be adopted, such as air
handling units, sunspace, trombe wall, etc.
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2. Utilization of Low Embodied Energy Building Materials:
The usage of low embodied energy materials for building construction is important
for reducing the impact of global warming and making the building energy-efficient.
Some of the examples of low embodied energy construction materials are fly ash
bricks, fiber-reinforced bricks, woods, stabilized adobe blocks, cement-replacement
materials such as silica fume, slag, and fly ash which is mostly by-products in
factories.
3. Usage of Energy-Efficient Equipment
This involves using energy-efficient equipment in a building that requires the lowest
possible energy, such as LED lights, fans, air-conditioners, and refrigerators. Energy
star-approved fluorescent bulbs are highly desirable because they are more durable,
and their maintenance cost is 75% less than conventional bulbs.
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4. Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies in Different
Applications:
Solar water heaters, small wind turbines to generate electricity,
solar electricity generation are examples of renewable energy
technologies installed in a building to reduce operational energy
consumption. Other renewable energy sources like
hydroelectricity, biomass, and biofuels can also be used.

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Recycling:
Recycling is the process of breaking down and reusing materials
that would otherwise be thrown away as waste.

There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new

technologies making even more materials recyclable, with
everyone’s help, we can clean up our Earth. Recycling not only
benefits the environment but also have a positive effect on the
economy.
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1.Mechanical Recycling
One of the most globally used methods of giving residues new usages is
mechanic recycling. This method is used to recycle plastics, either obtained from
industrial scrap, or domestic, or commercial disposals. The residues are
mechanically transformed into new materials without changing their chemical
structures.
2. Energy Recycling:
The method used to convert plastics into both thermal and electric energy is
called energy recycling. The process is done by leveraging, through incineration
and the heat is released in the form of fuel.
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3.Chemical Recycling

Among all types of recycling, chemical recycling is the most

complex method. In this process, the chemical structures of plastics
are modified after reprocessing them. The final product is
produced to be used as raw material in different industries. It can
also be used as a basic input in manufacturing new plastic
products.

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Temperature control in buildings:
Heat-reflecting roofs, insulation, and energy efficient windows will help to reduce
that heat conduction.
Radiation is heat traveling in the form of visible and non-visible light. Sunlight is an
obvious source of heat for homes. In addition, low-wavelength, non-visible infrared
radiation can carry heat directly from warm objects to cooler objects. Infrared
radiation is why you can feel the heat of a hot burner element on a stovetop, even
from across the room. Older windows will allow infrared radiation coming from
warm objects outside to radiate into your home; shades can help to block this
radiation. Newer windows have low-e coatings that block infrared radiation. Infrared
radiation will also carry the heat of your walls and ceiling directly to your body.
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Heat transfer in and out of a building occurs in only three ways:
1. Radiation
2. Conduction
3. Convection
1. Reduction of Radiation heat transfer:
• Use light colours on the roof and external walls
• Increase wall shading with verandahs, carports on North walls
• Reduce window sizes on West facing walls
• Add window shading, on East, North and West walls
• Consider window tinting or reflective film
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2.Condction is the pathways the heat travels though
• Keep external surfaces cooler in summer, e.g. by shading or using light
colours

• Insulation reduces thermal conduction through roof, ceiling and external

walls

• Window coverings with pelmets add additional isolation spaces from

outside temperatures

• Slate or ceramic tiled floors conduct heat better than timber, cork, vinyl or
carpet

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3.Thermal Convection is improved by airflow controls:
• Window size and position, cross ventilation breeze paths and ceiling fans

• Roof ventilation reduces roof cavity temperature

• Controlled infiltration or leakage of external air into the house

• Weather stripping, flue dampers, closeable vents including down lights or

skylights

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Sound Control in buildings:
Acoustic control of Buildings is the science of controlling the unwanted noise in
the living environment. It is a minimization of sound transmission from one
place to another place and the control of the characteristics of sound. It is an
implementation of techniques for making structure soundproof.
Construction Techniques for Noise Control in Buildings:
• Walls are the important structural components of the Buildings which
protect the internal environment from the external noise.
• The use of cavity walls in partition proves to be very efficient for sound
resistance in the Buildings.
• The more the mass of material more will be noise resistance. The concrete
walls provide more sound insulation as compared to wooden walls because
of its higher mass.
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• Isolation blankets which can increase sound attenuation when placed in the
airspace.

• Windows are one of the major sources from where the sound enters into the
structures. So that is necessary to take into consideration while acoustic
planning of the structures.

• The noise can be resisted by increasing the thickness of the glass. It is also
necessary that proper sealing should be done in order to increase the
effectiveness of soundproofing.

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Building security systems
Building security systems realize convenience and peace of mind through
sensing, connectivity, and user interface technologies.

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Following are the types of building security systems:
• Monitoring Systems
Monitoring systems may include motion sensors for crime monitoring and fire detectors,
carbon monoxide detectors, and the like to monitor for emergencies within the building. The
monitored information is sent via the network to a supervisor in the form of emergency
signals and images. This information can also be stored and managed on a secure data server
if needed.
• Crime Prevention Systems
Crime prevention systems may incorporate sensors such as door open-close detectors and
glass break detectors to detect emergencies as well as ingress and egress management
functions to enforce entrance and exit regulations and keep logs of those entering and leaving.
They control the entrance and exit of persons to and from the building in conjunction with the
information from the monitoring systems.
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• Communication Networks of Security Systems

Via the network, the large volumes of data making up the security logs,
operation logs, and entrance and exit logs from the monitoring and
crime prevention systems are tracked on security monitoring PCs and
stored and managed on secure data servers. This information may also
be linked via a network to other building automation systems (air
conditioning systems, lighting systems, etc.) to enable more efficient
building security management.

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Smart Buildings:
A smart building involves the installation and use of advanced and integrated
building technology systems. These systems include building automation, life safety,
telecommunications, user systems, and facility management systems.

Advantages of Smart Buildings:

• Smart buildings give smart data:

The smart buildings give us the necessary data pertaining to electricity, water
consumption, Sewage recycling, etc. This data further helps the residents to take
corrective action pertaining to their constructive utilization. The best part is all the
data gets collected centrally and hence simplifies the entire process even further.
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• Efficient consumption of energy:
One of the most important aspects of a smart building is that it offers greater
efficiency. Energy gets optimized to the fullest. Smart buildings are designed in
such a way that the energy gets utilized efficiently irrespective of the internal
and external conditions.

• Smart buildings result in increasing the asset value:

When smart applications become a part of the building, the asset value is bound
to increase. Smart energy efficiency measures ensure that the building is well
maintained and hence doesn’t depreciate over a period of time.

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• Decreased consumption:
Greater the efficiency, lower the consumption. That’s the principal these smart
buildings tag themselves with. One can always conduct energy audits and based
on the inference implement effective measures to lower the consumption and
hence further decrease the cost.

• Smart buildings give birth to smart equipment:

For monitoring the all activities of buildings the development of smart

equipment's are developed as an advanced research.

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Environment:
Water supply systems:
Water supply systems are essential for providing clean and safe water for
various human needs, such as drinking, cooking, washing, and firefighting etc,.

Types of water supply systems:

1. Gridiron systems

In gridiron systems, the main water supply line goes through the central part of
the area, while sub mains branch out perpendicular to the main line. This
system has no dead-ends, as all of the individual pipes are interconnected.

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2. Ring systems
In circular or ring systems the supply main forms a circle or ring around the area
of distribution. In this system, the branches are cross-connected to the supply
mains and each other.

3. Radial systems

In radial systems, the distribution area is divided into different distribution

districts or zones. Each zone has an elevated distribution reservoir in the middle
from which supply lines run in a radial pattern towards the distribution district
periphery.

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4. Dead-end systems
Dead-end water supply systems are the best choice for cities and towns without
definite road patterns. In this type of system, there is one main line that runs
through the town or city with sub-mains branching off from left and right.
These sub-mains then divide into a number of branch lines that provide service
connections.

Components of water supply systems:

• Water source: The sources of drinking water can come from

groundwater, lakes, reservoirs, rivers, canals, rainwater, and saltwater.

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• Water purification & treatment facilities: Different treatment systems are
used depending on the source of the water.
• Transmission & distribution systems: The treated water is transported from
the source via water mains and sub-mains to the end-users.
• Storage systems: these may include water tanks, reservoirs, and water towers.
In smaller systems, pressure vessels and cisterns may be used.
• Pumping stations: in order to maintain optimal water pressure, additional
pressurizing components, called pumping stations, are often used.
• Accessories: these may include support components such as valves, service
lines, generators, meters, fire hydrants, and other accessories needed to ensure a
smoothly running system.
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Urban air pollution management:
“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological
molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”

Types of Air Pollutants:

• Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants.
Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
• Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are
known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog,
is a secondary pollutant.
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Causes of Air Pollution:
• Burning of Fossil Fuels
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide.
Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also
results in air pollution.

• Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute
the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and
also result in diseases among individuals.

• Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural
activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful
chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.
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• Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide,
organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released
into the air, degrading its quality.

• Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using
large equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process
not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers
and people living in the nearby areas.

• Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that
are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the
smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air
but also affects breathing. 61
Effects of Air Pollution:
• Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart
diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the
last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to
pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or
indirect effects of air pollution.

• Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the
gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the
temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known
as global warming. This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an
increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

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• Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and
sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants,
become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.
• Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of
depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent
the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin
diseases and eye problems among individuals.
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• Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution
also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This
renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal
species.

Air Pollution Control:

• Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they
should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to
another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.
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• Energy Conservation

A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do

not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can
save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices
such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

• Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger
level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these
resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.

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Solid waste management:
Solid waste management is the process of handling and disposing of the unwanted
materials produced by human activities.

Sources of Solid Waste

1. Residential (domestic or household)
2. Commercial
3. Institutional
4. Construction Demolition
5. Treatment plant sites
6. Solid Industrial Waste
7. Solid Agricultural Waste
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Functional Elements of Solid Waste Management:
1. Waste generation- The materials that are identified and collected are
thrown away or gathered for disposal.
2. On-site handling, storage, and processing- The activities associated
with the handling, storage, and processing of solid wastes at or near the
point of generation.
3. Collection- The collection and disposal of solid waste from various
locations.
4. Transfer and transport- The transfer of wastes from the smaller
collection vehicle to the larger transport equipment, to the disposal site.
5. Processing and recovery- Those techniques equipment and facilities
are used both to improve the efficiency of the other functional elements
and to recover usable materials, conversion products, or energy from
solid wastes.
6. Disposal- The dumping of waste in a specific place for segregation.
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Common Solid Waste Disposal Methods
1. Composting: Composting type of waste reduction is used in both urban and
rural areas to minimize waste. Its organic components break down into
simpler form and turn into natural manure for the plants.

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2. Controlled Tipping/Burying:
Solid wastes that are not recycled or used should be disposed of. Disposal is
affected in many ways. A method that satisfies this is known as controlled
tipping. It is a way of isolating any type of waste without bothering to sort or
separate it.

3. Ploughing in the Fields: Ploughing of lands helps the segregation of the

organic waste that is biodegradable waste helps the recovering and reusing of
waste for soil conditioning.

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4. Incineration:
Incineration is a high-temperature dry oxidation process that reduces organic
and combustible waste to inorganic, incombustible matter and resulting in a
very significant reduction of waste volume and weight.

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Urban flooding:
Urban floods are an immersion of land in a built setting, especially in thickly
populated regions. It happens when precipitation or allied situations exceeds
the capacity of sewerage systems. Urban floods are a significant issue in many
regions of the world and are natural disasters that happen each year.
Some of the reasons of Urban floods are
• Melting of snow
• Heavy rain fall and floods
• Overflow from drainage
• Water discharged from damaged drain systems
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Impacts of Urban Floods:
• On Transport And Communication:
Disruption in communication- impact on the telephone lines, internet cables
Increased traffic congestion, disruption in rail services
• On The Environment:
Impact on animals in the zoo, Loss of tree cover, loss of habitat.
• On Economy:
Post-disaster rescue and rehabilitation add to the financial burden of the
government
i. Impact on heritage or archaeological site
ii. Disruptions to utility supplies
iii. Disruptions to industrial production
iv. Damage to buildings, roads, and other infrastructures
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• On Human Life:
i. A rise in mosquito-borne diseases
ii. Contamination of water supplies leading to diseases
iii. Increased stress, psychological problems
iv. Loss of life & physical injury

74
THANK YOU

Dept. of Civil, SVIT