Introduction To Explosives and Propellants

Chapter 1
Introduction to Explosives and Propellants
Part of the text from part-I of this chapter has been presented:
1 . S . Venkatachalam. G. Santhosh, K.N. Ninan "High Energy Oxidisers fcir Advanced Solid Propellants and Explosives" Advances in Solid Propellant Technology, P1 International HEMS1 Workshop, Ranchi, India, 2002, 87-106.
fJart-11of this chapter has been communicated:

1. G. Santhosh, S. 'Venkatachalam, K.N. Ninan "An Overview on the Synthetic Routes and Properties of Ammonium Dinitramide (ADN) and Other Dinitramide Salts" Propellants Explosives Pyrotechnics (communicated).
Prepared by BeeHive Digital Concepts Cochin for Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam
NERGETIC materials used as ingredients in both propellants and explosive formulations are either high melting crystalline solids or liquids at room temperature. The search for new energetic materials with a given performance, sensitivity and physical properties is one of the major challenges to the chemical industry. New energetic cornpounds with higher densities are often designed by modifying known substances by addition and/or modification of explosophoric groups (-NO2, NO3, -ON02, N3, -C10~,etc:.,). Solid propellants are widely used in The solid propulsion looks to the future with modern rockets and miss~les. enhanced requirements in terrns of reduction of costs, increased performance, improved reliability and more friendly environmental impact. In this perspective new generation of solid propellants consisting new oxidizers and binders are needed. This chapter is focused to give a summary on the development and use of various energetic materials. It is divided into two parts. The first part briefly surveys the development of various explosives, oxidizers, polymeric fuellbinder systems used or considered for use in solid propellants. It includes a brief background, requirement for high performance, advantages and shortcomings of the various systems. Special emphasis is placed on the development of based energetic materials. The second part of this dinitramide (-N(N02)~) chapter presents a comprehensive review on the methods used for the synthesis of various dinitramide salts and discuses their properties.
1.1.
Background and History o f Explosives The earliest energetic material referred to by name is "Greek Fire".
It was actually developed by the Byzantines of Constantinopole around the

7"
century A.D. and cor~sistedof a petroleum distillate, thickened by
dissol$ing resinous and other combustible materials. Its exact composition is unknown. The development of explosives began with the formulation and use of black powder, which is also known as gunpowder in about the middle of the thirteenth century
[','].
In 220 BC, Chinese alchemists
ac:cidentally made black powder while separating gold from silver. Blackpowder was introduced in 1 4 ' ~ century by Roger Bacon and in 1320 a German Berthold Schwartz made black powder and studied its properties. The fuel is a powdered mixture of charcoal and sulphur, which is mixed with potassium nitrate (KN, KN083) oxidizer. At the end of the 181h century and at the beginning of the 191h century the composition became more or less standardised KN03ICIS (75115110 wlw). In 1654, Glauber introduced ammonium nitrate (AN, NHdN03), but it was not until the beginning of the
1 ~ 3 century when AN was considered for use in explosives by Grindel and '~
R.obin as a replacement for potassium nitrate in black powder. Later in the nineteenth century the nitration of many compounds to produce high-energy explosives were realized. Research on explosives greatly intensified during World War ll. Much of the interest in the early part of the 191h century was in the effects of nitration of relatively common materials, such as silk, wool, resins, wood, cotton etc., Table 1.I provides a reference guide to the chemical formulas and structures of some of the more common explosives in use now. There has been enormous growth in the explosives field in the latter half of the twentieth century with the advent of modern electronic instrumentation, characterization techniques, c:omputational analysis etc.,
Table 1.1: Names and formulas of some of the explosives in use Name
--
Structural formula
HzC-ONW
Molecular formula
[CSH~N~OIII~
Nitrocellulose
.
CH-o
H (
Nitroglycerine
I
I
).-.]
n
CH20N*
CH-CHON% A% N
'32-
1
Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate (PETN)
I
1
iHoN, L20N%
[C~H~N~OS~I
O~NOH~C-A-CH~ON~
AH20Nq
--
~rinitrotoluene(TNT)
O:?N.~,
Trinitrophenol (Picric acid)

0 2
+'402
[C~H~N~OIZI
[C7bN3061
[CsH3N3071
N ~ N NO2 0 2
~riaminotrinitrobenzen6~(T.ATB)
0 2 N @ ~ ~ ~ "2N
[CsHsNsOsl
NO2
Cyclotrimethylenetrinitrarnine / Research & Development Explosive (RDX)

--
fJ7J2
N
H2C'
N
\CH~
[C~HSN~O~]
O~N'
"c%
k NO^
N02
'N"
Cyclotetrarnethylenetetranitraminel Her Majesty's E:~plosive (HMX)
02N
H~C'
N
L-CHZ
ho2
LH2
[C4HtlNsOsl
o:?N-' xCH2 N/
Nitroguanidine (NQ)
o
2 1 1
[CH~N~OZ]
Lead azide
P
-d
'N-N-N
PbNs AgN3
Silver azide
A~N-N-N
1.1,.I. Nitro Explosives In 1846 the Italian Professor Ascanio Sobrero discovered liquid nitroglycerine (NG). A few years later the Swedish inventor, lmmanuel Nobel developed a process for manufacturing nitroglycerine. Nitroglycerine has a great advantage over black, powder since it contains both fuel and oxidizer elements in the same molecule. Due to its unpredictability and the dangers of handling it in normal liquid state it was not used. Nitration of cellulose to nitrocellulose (NC) was undertaken by different workers, notable Schonbein at Base1 and Bottger at Frankfurt-am-main during 1845-47. Until 1868, nitrocellulose was not used in military and commercial explosives because of its high explosive nature. E.A. Brown discovered that nitrocellulose could be handled under wet conditions. Wet compressed NC: when mixed with small quantity of dry NC could be exploded, whereas dry compressed NC with high extent of nitration could be detonated using a detonator. In 1875 Alfred Nobel discovered that on mixing nitrocellulose with nitroglycerine a gel was formed. This gel was developed to produce blasting gelatine, dynamite and later in 1888, ballistite, the first smokeless powder. It was a mixture of nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, benzene and camphor. The Swedish chemists Ohlsson and Norrbin found that the explosive properties of dynamites were enhanced by the addition of ammonium nitrate. In 1885 Turpin has found that Picric acid
(Tririitrophenol) to be a suitable replacement for black powder. In 1888 black powder was replaced by picric acid in British munitions under the name Liddite. In Russia, Panpushko prepared picric acid in 1894 and soon realized its potential as an explosive. Eventually, picric acid was accepted all over the world as the basic explosive for military uses. Around 1902, the Germans and British had experimented with trinitrotoluene (TNT), first prepared by Wilbrand in 1863. Pure 2,4,6trinitrotoluene was prepared in 1880 by Hepp and its structure established in 'I883 by Claus and Becker. By 1914, TNT became the standard explosive for all armies during World War I. Use of a mixture of TNT and amrnonium nitrate, called amatol became widespread to relieve the shortage of TNT. Other explosives with superior characteristics were also developed. Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX) was first prepared in 1899 by Henning for medicinal use. Its value as an explosive was not
recognized until 1920 by Herz. Herz succeeded in preparing RDX by direct nitration of hexamine, but the yields were low and the process was expensive and unattractive for large-scale production. RDX was not used as the main filling in British shells and Bombs during World War II, but was added to TNT to increase the power of the explosive compositions. Research and development continued throughout World War II to develop new and more powerful explosives and explosive compositions. Octogen or Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine (HMX) became available at the end of World War II. The detonation performance of HMX was found to be superior to that of RDX. Other explosives viz., pentaerythritoltetranitrate (PETN), Triaminotrinitrobenzene (TATB), hexanitrobenzene (HNB) etc., wa:j developed later for val-ious applications. The flow sheet in Figure 1 .I gives tpe general classification of explosive materials with relevant examples
L31
It shows the breakdown of energetic materials into families
designed for the specific purposes associated with different types of weapon applications and civilian uses of explosives.
L7-J
(
Explosives
Explosive Matter
Industrial Chemical Products for non-explosive Purpose

Fertilizer grade AN. Organic peroxides
Fume generators Fire works
Lead azide Lead styphnate Tetrazene
Single base Double base Black powder
Composites Liquid fuels 8 Oxidizers
-1
TNT, RDX PETN. Tetryl, HMX Gelalms ANFO EmL~lslon slurries
Figure 1 .: Explosive Materials and their Application I
1..2. Liquid Oxidizers and Explosives I
Liquid oxygen explosives (LOX) came into use in 1926 and their use was continued into the 1960s. Two problems exist with LOX; they lose their explosiveness as the liquid oxygen evaporates (b.p. -183C); and they are easily inflammable. The combination of liquid oxygen with the detonable fuel acetylene (acetylene 25%1 0 with detonation velocity 6000 mls. Nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) is another liquid oxidizer capable of forming powerful explosives. It exists over the narrow temperature range between its freez~ngpoint (-11C) & 2I0C, where it dissociates into N02. Explosives made with liq.N204and combustible liquids (CS2,nitrobenzene, nitrotoluene, gasoline, halogenated hydrocarbons) were considered in the 1880s. Mixtures of N204 with 64% nitromethane have a detonation velocity of 6900 mls N204 explodes on contact with a number of fuels: acetic anhydride, liquid NH3, methyl & ethylnitrate, propene, hydrazine-type fuels. Perox~des with oxygen bonded to oxygen, can be violent oxidizers in the presence of fuel. Pure H202 decomposes violently above 80C.
2
75%) produces an explosive
Solutions of 90.7% H202 have reported detonation velocities of 5500 mls to 6000 mls. H202when mixed with organic materials is readily detonable. One of the propellant systems on the space shuttle uses the combination of H202 & unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine (UDMH).
1.2.
Solid Rocket Propellants
Propellants are mixtures of chemical compounds that produce large volume of gas at controlled, predetermined rates systems.
[41.
Their major
applications are in launching projectiles from guns, rockets, and missile Propellant-actuated devices are used to drive turbines, move
pistons, operate rocket valves, start aircraft engines, eject pilots, pump fluids and act as sources of heat in special devices. Solid propellants are compact, have a long storage life, and may be handled and used without exceptional precautions. These are substances containing fuel and oxidizer in a single molecule or those which contain suitable molecular configurations which on appropriate initiation, burn slowly - a few mm to about a hundred mmls, resulting in deflagration or burn up very fast - at about a few km to 10 kmls, resulting in explosion or detonation [5,61. In the initial years, a composite mixture of carbon (fuel), sulphur (binder) and potassium nitrate (oxidizer) was used in the solid propellant rocket motors ['I. In 60's and early 70's propellants based on either
nitrocellulose or on synthetic cross-linked polymeric binders such as polysulfides, polyurethanes or polybutadienes were used. Propellants containing only plasticized nitrocellulose as energy source are referred to as single-base propellants. Propellants, which contain both NC and a liquid explosive plasticizer such as nitroglycerin, are called double-base propellants. Multiple or triple base propellants incorporate a crystalline nitroguanidine in the double-base formulation. explosive such as
Composite-modified double-base rocket propellants generally contain an inorganic crystalline oxidizer such as ammonium perchlorate (AP, NH4C104) and a metallic fuel, e.g. aluminium in a double-base matrix. Polymer-based rocket propellants, generally referred to as
composite propellants, contain cross-linked polymers that act as a viscoelastic matrix for holding a crystalline inorganic oxidizer such as ammonium perchlorate and for providing mechanical strength. Many other substances may be added including metallic fuels, plasticizers, extenders, and catalysts to improve the mechanical, storage and ballistic properties. A typical composite propellant used in solid rocket motors consists in general 1) organic polymeric binder 2) solid oxidizer 3) metal powder
4) plasticiser 5) anti-oxidant 6) burning rate catalyst and 7) curing agent. The propellant is thus a composite mixture of finely ground solid particles of an oxidizer and a metal in
i3
matrix of combustible polymeric fuel binder.
The finely suspended solids have a good adhesion with the surrounding polymeric binder to impart strength to the propellant.
1.2.1. Propellant Types
Chemical propellants provide a simple and effective way of creating propulsion for flight The rocket propellant gained importance during The World War I and II with the use of various types of propellants. classification is given below.
1.2.,1 I Single Base Propellants . .
Single base propellants are mainly used as gun propellants and are not used in rocketry. As there is no plasticizer in single base formulations, the nitrocellulose is not plasticised properly and hence the propellant has a horny structure and poor mechanical properties. Only thin webbed charges are processed as single base propellants.
1.2.1.2. Double and Triple Base Propellants
Double base propellants contain two energetic ingredients viz., nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine. Nitroglycerine is used to plasticise the high molecular weight nitrocellulose to yield thermoplastic materials. Both nitrocellulose and nitroglycerine are high explosives each capable of undergoing detonation with a detonation velocity of 6-7 kmls. Other nitrate esters like glycol dinitrate, diethylene glycol dinitrate, metriol trinitrate etc., can also be used in place of nitroglycerine as explosive plasticisers for nitrocellulose. A triple base propellant contains nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine an13 an energetic ~ngredient nitroguanidine (NQ). NQ is an aliphatic nitramine with characteristic N-NO2 group. Incorporation of ultra fine grade
NQ yields grains with reasonably good mechanical properties.
, .
,'a,l:
,,': ' , ;
1.2.1.3. Composite Modified Double Base Propel9ir;ts
\,. I ,
','...
,,,..#
..
L
,p..
* - -.-w>,,---,.*., ,..,
7.>,.%.\
-- Q>>,
.-?;
,
(cMb%)
.
.
..
Y.?,
17 , h,,
. >,I.
.
*q
In conventional double base propellants, a d j u s t n l ~ f . i n v m ~ .~7; l i -v ' e is made by varying the percentage of nitrocellulose, nitr~~l~cerineana'inert components. The energy level of the double base propellant can be increased by incorporating a crystalline inorganic oxidizer like ammonium perchlorate (AP). Significant amount of metallic fuel, viz. aluminium powder can also be added to exploit maximum energy and such a highenergy verslon 1 called composite modified double base propellant. In the s CMDB formulations double base matrix is approximately 60% (by weight) and the rest AP and aluminium powder.
1.2.1.4. Composite Propellants
These are solid rocket fuels, consisting of oxygen donating inorganic salts and a b~nder made of plastic. The polymeric binders include polysulfides, polybutadiene-acrylic acid (PBAA), polybutadiene-acrylonitrileacrylic acid (PBAN), polyurethane (PU) and carboxyl or hydroxyl terminated pc~lybutadiene(CTPB or IHTPB). Nitrates and perchlorates are used as oxidizers.
1.3. Development of Composite Propellants
The development of castable composites started in 1942 at the Guggenheim Aeronaut~cal Laboratory with the formulation of mixes containing ca. 25% (by weight) asphalt and 75% potassium perchlorate
[71.
These were rapidly superseded by a variety of cross-linked elastomerbased propellants with superior mechanical properties and increased available energy, which contained as much as 90% crystalline filler in the polymeric matrix. The rnost widely used binders include polysulfides, polyurethanes, and polybutadienes. The polysulfides, developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s, start with low viscosity partially polymerized mercaptyl (-SH) terminated compounds, which are cured by oxidation by compounds such as p-quinone dioxime or Pb02.
Other ingredients are sulfur as a cure catalyst, dibutyl phthalate as plasticizer, magnesium oxide to improve thermal stability, iron oxide and ferrocene as burning rate catalysts, and copper phthalocyanine as a burning rate suppressor. Polysulfide based propellants have been replaced for most purposes by binders with superior characteristics. The
polyurethanes were developed during the 1950s to take advantage of the long-chain polyalcohols, which were becoming available in a wide molecular weight range. With diisocyanates these form stable network polyurethanes , which are used in large, case-bonded rocket motors. The polybutadienes were first made during the late 1950s by curing the liquid copolymer of butadiene and acrylic acid (PBAA) with epoxides andlor polyfunctional imines. The PBAA binders were replaced during the 1960s by superior terpolymers of butadiene, acrylonitrile and acrylic acid (PBAN). The PBAN has been extensively used in high performance rockets. During the early 1960s, polybutadiene prepolymers were developed with terminal carboxy groups. These were cured with epoxides or aziridines to form polymers that have better low temperature mechanical properties than the PHAN. Hydroxy-terminated polybutadienes (HTPB) cured with isocyanates were also developed during this period; they have superior processing properties and low temperature properties. Figure 1.2 gives an o v e ~ i e w of the evolution of composite and double base propellants through the major improvements brought to the various families of materials ['I.
1.,4. Major Components of a Composite Solid Propellant
Composite propellants are made of a polymeric matrix, loaded with a solid oxidizer, and possibly a metal powder that plays the role of a secondary fuel component. A certain number of properties such as burning rate, rheology and mechanical behaviour are directly related to this cl~mposite character.
1.4.1. Oxidizer
All energetic materials contain oxygen, which is needed for the explosive reaction to take place. Oxygen can be introduced by chemical reactions (nitration) or by mechanical incorporation of materials containing bound oxygen. The most important solid oxidizers are nitrates - AN, sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate; chlorates - potassium chlorate, ammonium perchlorates. The characteristics of a good oxidizer are the capability of supplying oxygen to burn the binder and other fuels with maximum heat of combustion and highest enthalpy of formation.
1.4.2. Binder
Binders are compositions that hold together a charge of finely divided particles and increase the mechanical strength of the resulting propellant grain. These are usually functionally terminated prepolymers such as hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), carboxyl-terminated polybutadiene (CTPB), resins, plastics, or asphaltics used dry or in solution. The enthalpy of formation (AHf, discussed later) should be more positive and the binder must have suitable structure, which on combustion produces low molecular weight gases, thereby leading to high specific impulse (I,,, discussed later).
1.4.3. Metallic Fuel
Most explosives and pyrotechnic compositions are prepared by mixing of oxidizers and fuels. Fuel means any substance capable of It is reacting with oxygen and oxygen carriers with the evolution of heat. Aluminium is virtually the universal fuel for composite propellants. available in spherical powders, with small diameters and it is well suited for is high solid load~ng.Aluminil~m safe to handle because of the fine layer of aluminium oxide, which inactivates the grains in humidity. Apart from
aluminium, boron, beryllium and lithium have also been used in very specific applications. Because of the increased cost, toxicity, long-term instability and toxic combustion products, the latter fuels are not used.
COMPOSITE PROPELLANTS
DOUBLE BASE PROPELLANTS
1 1
v
Asphalts
j.
Extruded Double Base Cast Double Base
Composite Modified Cast Double-base Hydroxyl Polymers C:arboxyl Polymers
Polyether and Polyester ,

--
based Polyurethanes
1
I
I
High Energy Composites Crosslinked Double-base
I
PBAA binder PBAN binder
Metallic additives and bonding agents
t HTPB
binder
-I
CTPB binder High energy Propellants
Figure 1.2: Chronological development of double base propellants and composite propellants 1.4.4. Cross-linking Agents and Curing Agents The function of a cross-linking agent is to facilitate curing of the prepolymer molecules by forming a cross-linked network. It plays a critical role in kinetics of the crosslinking reaction and in achieving the desired
mechanical properties of the propellant. Examples are trimethylol propane (TMP), glycerol etc., in addition to cross-linking agents, curing agents like toluene diisocyanate (TDI), isophoronediisocyanate
(IPDI)
or
hexamethylene diisocyanate (HMDI) are used, which react with the terminal functional groups of the binder and crosslinking agent to give rigid matrix with very good mechanical properties to the propellant.
1.4.5. Plasticizers
Plasticizer plays the essential role of complementary element to reduce the viscosity of the slurry and to improve the mechanical properties by lowering the T and the modulus of the binder. Typically, it is oil that is , non-reactive with the polymer chains, thereby reducing their interaction in the liquid state as well as in the cross-linked state. Examples include diisooctyl azelate, diisooctyl sebacate, isodecyl pelargonate, dioctyl phthalate and dioctyl adipate.
1.4.6. Other Additives
These are liquid or solid products added in small quantities (a few %) of the binder. Their function is to modify the characteristics of the propellant. Burning rate mod~fiers are used to modify the propellant burning rate and to adjust the pressure exponent "n" of the burning ratepressure curve in the pressure zone where the propellant grain will be operating (discussed later). Examples include ferrocene, n-butylferrocene, copper chromate etc., Antioxidants are essential to ensure satisfactory ageing of the propellant in ambient conditions. Examples are ditertiary butyl paracresol, :!,2-methylene bis(4-mettiy-6-tertiary-butyl phenol) etc., Catalysts are often necessary to reduce the curing time of the propellant. They have a significant impact on the mechanical properties by facilitating some favourable reactions, thereby giving direction to the
formation of the polymer network. They are usually salts of transition metals. Examples include dibutyltindiiaurate, lead octoate, iron acetyl acetonate, lead chromate etc., Basic Requirements for High Performance
1.5.
A solid propellant develops thrust or recoil force due to discharge of

gaseous products when it undergoes combustion. The burning process in the rocket motor is influenced by the thermodynamic performance values of the propellant, the burning characteristics of the propellant grain, depending on its shape and by the pressure influence of the burning rate. The specific impulse (, I
) is a means of characterizing and evaluating the
properties and is viewed as a key measure of propellant performance [''I. ,I
It
can be interpreted as the thrust derived per unit weight flow of propellant. is a theoretical maximum of the mechanical work that can be derived from the adiabatic decomposition of a unit mass of propellant followed by expansion of the decomposition products into an environment of specified pressure, which is usually the near total vacuum of outer space. In other words, it is the enthalpy release converted into the kinetic energy of the exhaust jet. It is expressed by a simplified relation given by Equation 1.1.
where, T, is the combustic~nchamber temperature and N is the number of moles of gaseous products produced. The heat released during the combustion increases the flame temperature T,, which is given by Elquation 1.2.
where, AH is the heat of reaction, C, is the specific heat capacity.
Specific impulse is also defined as the thrust or impulse achieved per unit weight of propellant and is given by Equation 1.3
, I F t
= specific impulse = thrust (N) = time (s)
= weight of propellant
The heat of reaction (AH) is given by Equation 1.4.
The heat of formation (AH,) depends on the bond energies between the atoms of the various ingredients used in propellant formulations. To get as high a combustion temperature as possible, one must select reactants with large positive heats of formation and products with large negative heats of formation. The maximum energy output is possible from a material when it contains bonds with as small bond energies as possible and products with as high bond energies as possible. The linear burning rate of a propellant is the velocity with which combustion or burning process progresses along the length of the propellant grain (at right angles to the current surface of the propellant). It depends on the chemical composition, geometric shape of the grain, the pressure, temperature and the viscoelastic state of the propellant (whether slurry, cured mass, powder or gel). The burning rate versus pressure law is usually expressed by the formula given by Saint Robert and Vielle and is given in Equation 1.5
r = aPn
.......... (1.5)
where, 'n' is the pressure exponent, 'a' is the rate of burning constant and 'P' is the pressure in MPa. For a propellant, generally 'n' values range between 0.2 to 0.7 at a pressure ranging from 3-15 MPa. Oxygen balance (OB) is important for the propellanffexplosive/ oxidizer characteristics. It is expressed as the excess weight % of oxygen present in the molecule after complete conversion of the fuel elements to C02, H20, CO etc.
If the amount of oxygen bound in the explosive is
insufficient for the complete oxidation reaction, the material said to possess a negative oxygen balance and if it possess sufficient oxygen it is said to have a positive oxygen balance ["I. Explosives such as nitrate esters, nitro compounds and nitramines contain only the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and are called CHNO explosives['21 having the general formula: C N , , , %O Oxygen balance (OB) is given by Equation 1.6.
where M is the relative molecular mass of the explosive. , One of the primary ways of improving the I of propellants is by
increasing enthalpy release and increasing the average molecular weight of the exhaust gases to attain more working fluid. In order to achieve this the propellant should contain sufficient oxygen to maximise the energy release. This is possible when the molecules contain bonds between first row elements i.e., C-N, N-C), N=O, N=N, N-F and 0-N in propellant formulations. The presenc:e of more number of such bonds improves the oxygen balance. Examples are ammonium dinitramide (ADN), ammonium nitrate (AN), HNF, CI-20 etc, (discussed later). Systems that yield high performance can undergo violent reactions on heating, impact or shock. They must be safe enough for handling during production and use.
The density of the propellant should be as high as possible to store as much energy per volurrie as possible. Density is far less a critical factor in the performance of propellants than it is for explosives, having a small indirect effect on I , In addition to ,I the density impulse (the product of specific impulse and density) also becomes important for launch vehicle applications such as first stages of launchers, boosters and jet assisted take off vehicle applications where, the propellant mass is much less compared to the total mass of the launch vehicle. Maximizing the density is important because it permits the volume fraction of the particulate within the composition is minimised and improves the flow properties of the mix. In addition to the above the cured propellant has improved energy, absorbing capacity or toughness because of low solid loading in the system. Solid metallic hydrogen expanding into a vacuum would have an excellent I , provided one is able to technologically realize such a system.
1.6.
Energetic Materials - Currently in Use In past decades fascinating and novel molecular structures have
been synthesized and a number of them are being developed for use in rocket propulsion and ordnance industries
(13-151
. Unlike photophysics or
biotechnology, the science of energetic materials evolved slowly. It has taken nearly 200 years to reach its current status, because the newly developed energetic materials need years of vigorous field-testing. Number of innovative explosives, oxidizers and binders were explored for use in space propulsion. The investigations on solid propulsion have grown over the years and continue to emerge with special attention on I) safe handling and operation 2) perfclrmance reliability and reproducibility 3) cost minimization and so on. The first oxidizer used in composite propellants was potassium perchlorate (KP, KC104). It is stable, compatible, and relatively insensitive but contributes little energy. Thus it was soon replaced by AP, which is
more energetic and is now the most commonly used oxidizer in composite propellants. AP - hydroxyl-terminated-polybutadiene (HTPB) composite mixtures containing Al powder are the most frequently used in solid rocket propellants world-wide. AP is the work-horse oxidizer for composite solid propellants. It is a white crystalline solid, usually in powdery form. The crystals are orthorhombic in structure at room temperature, with a crystal phase transition to cubic structure at 240C. AP is oxidizer rich and can sustain self-deflagration above at 20bar. This does not imply that it is of the explpsive class, it is usually very safe to handle and even grindable. For the purpose of using in propellants it is desirable to use AP particles that are more or less spherical in shape, and special efforts may have to be taken to spheridise AP particles by the supplier. Propellants with fine AP burn faster in general, than those with coarse AP; so significant burning rate tailoring is effected by the choice of suitable distribution of particle size of AP in the propellant. The greatest advantage with AP is the immense experience and vast inforrnation on AP-based propellants available over several decades, which imparted growing confidence in that oxidizer. Ammonium nitrate was considered early as an environment-friendly alternative to AP, because of its low cost, low sensitivity and absence of chlorine. But its multiple crystal phase transition at low temperatures and poor performance preclude its use. At 32.1% it undergoes phase change, which is accompanied by a large volume change. Hence AN is used only in its phase stabilised form (PSAN, phase stabilised AN) with its phase transition at 32.1% either suppressed or shifted to higher temperatures. The binder used n propellant formulations should have good mechanical propert~es and good adhesion between the oxidizer and metal additives. In the early mid-forties the binder used was asphalt, which was later replaced by polyurethanes and polyvinylchlorides. In the 70's hydroxy terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) was developed as a standard binder for composite solid propellants, because of its excellent mechanical properties
and very good adhesion with aluminium and ammonium perchlorate (AP), which are all the standard ingredients in the present-day composite solid propellants. In order to achieve higher performance an entirely new system of binder- oxidizer combination is necessary. Use of binders and oxidizers witpi low bond energies i.e. large positive heats of formation (AHt) could enhance I , . To achieve large specific impulse values energetic groups like etc. are
nitro, nitrato, nitramino, d~nitramino, azido, difluoramino groups properties of conventional binders used in composite propellants Table 1.2: Properties of conventional binders Binder Oxygen Balance Density (g/cm3)
incorporated in advanced high energy binders. Table 1.2 lists typical
A Hi (kJlmol) -51.9
-9.17
HTPB CTPB PBAN
-323.8 -315.7
-273.3
0.916 0.916 0.980
203.34
From Table 1.2 it is seen that all the binders have negative oxygen balance with densities less than one. PBAN has positive heat of formation, heat of formation. while HTPB and CTPB have negat~ve 1.7,. New High-energy Oxidizers and Binders Over the years, high performance, insensitive munitions, and pollution prevention issues in relation to solid rocket propellants have grown in importance
['6-'81.
In the past, a number of ingredients that
increase performance suffered from instability problems as well as incompatibility with binders. Still others, especially oxidizers, were hygroscopic and became strongly acidic on absorbing moisture. sensitivity. In addition, many compounds were hazardous because of their extreme
Most of the current operational solid propellants make use of AP as oxidizer. The most perceptible disadvantage of AP is its chlorinated exhaust products that are detrimental to the environment and produce a distinct smoke signature behind missiles that can be easily detected. During the burning of large boosters, enormous quantities of HCI are released to the atmosphere. 503 tonnes propellant liberates about 100 tonnes of HCI and other chlorine containing compounds during its burning thereby polluting the atmosphere and hence could cause "ozone depletion" in the stratosphere. The large amount of HCI emission could cause "acid rain". These aspects have become a matter of serious concern for environmentalists all over the world. Hence there is a need for development alternate materials, which are both environment-friendly as well as more energetic to meet future space missions. The growing environmental awareness in recent years has generated interest in search for new performance high-energy oxidizers
1'9-211.
The main considerations in the
new propellant development are 1) a quantum jump in specific impulse (15-20 sec.) and 2) an environment-friendly propellant system. Factors such as safe handling and manufacturing, environmental safety, low cost, and chemical compatibility with oxidizer and other propellant ingredients, are also essential for newly developed propellants. AP evolves hydrogen chloride (HCI), which acts to increase average molecular weight, and because AP has a relatively high (-602 callg) negative heat of formation, it is only moderately energetic. Thus, in the 1960's there was an effort to enhance propellant performance by incorporating more energetic oxidizers with oxygen content similar to that of AP but with a lower negative heat of formation. Energetic oxidizers were investigated, including those containing a hydrazinium diperchlorate (HP2) as shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Properties of conventional oxidizers Oxidizer Oxygen Balance (/.) 20.0 34.0 41 .O 24..0 -21.6 -21.6 Density (91cm3) 1.73 1.95 2.20 1.94 1.82 1.96
A Hf (kJImol)
-365.04 -296.00 -293.30 -177.80 70.63 74.88
AN AP HP2 HP RDX ' HMX
Table 1.3 lists some of the elementary characteristics of oxidizers including AP and AN. it shows that HMX has the highest heat of formation but it has a negative oxygen balance. AN, AP, hydrazinium perchlorate
(HP) and hydrazinium diperchlorate (HP2) have negative heat of formation

with a positive oxygen balance. A detailed performance calculation, in combination with a binder is required before establishing the suitable combination of oxidizer and binder. The oxidizers exhibited lower heats of formation than AP, produced energetic propellants that were detonable in addition to being friction and impact sensitive. In addition, many had undesirable combustion characteristics. In order to improve the solid-rocket propulsion the worldwide research is focused on new energetic ingredients such as hexanitrohexazaisowurtzitane (CL-20), ammonium dinitramide (ADN), hydrazinium nitroformate (HNF), trinitroazetidine (TNAZ), 3-nitro-l,2,4-triazole-5-one (NTO), octanitrocubane (ONC) structures of which are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: Energetic oxidizers developed in the past years
Energetic Oxidizers
Hexanitrohexazaisowurtzitane
(CL-20)
02N-N
N-NO2
02N-N
Hydrazinium nitroformate (HNF) Trinitroazetidine (TNAZ) Ammonium dinitramide (ADN)
N2H5 C(N02),
NHdN(NO2)2
3-nitro-I ,2,4-triazole 5-one (NTO)
02'4
Octanitro cubane (ONC)

f
The main characteristics in demand for new oxidizers are high density, high oxygen balance and also no chlorine content. CI-20 is a high energetic dense caged nitramine
1228231.
It is superior
to HMX with respect to density, enthalpy of formation and oxygen balance. The salt of nitroform and liydrazine ie., HNF is being studied for use with fuel binders combination explosive
[261 L241 like
HTPH, glycidyl azide polymer (GAP) etc., which is
expected to give 8% higher performance than the current propellant

1'51.
TNAZ is of interest to the military as a melt castable
and is advantageous over HMX and RDX in terms of higher
energy content. ADN is e chlorine free oxidizer. It has positive oxygen
balance and an enthalpy of formation superior to those of AP and AN. NT'O is a less sensitive explosive and has a higher crystal density
L271.
Its
detonation velocity and pressure are equivalent those of RDX and HMX. ONC is a C-nitro compound in which the nitro groups are attached by way of nitrogen to carbon L281. ONC is a highly nitrated cubane molecule and the most powerful known non-nuclear explosive elementary properties of new oxidizers. Table 1.5: Properties of new oxidizers
,
[291.
Table 1.5 gives some
Oxidizer ADN HNF CL-20 TNAZ NTO ONC
Melting point ("C) 92 122 167-170 101 270 275
Oxygen Balance (%) 25.80 13.10 -10.95 -1 6.66 -24.60 0
Density (g/cm3) 1.82 1.87 2.04 1.84 1.93 2.10
A Hf (kJ/mol)
-150.60 -72.00 381.20 33.64 -111.84 413.80
Table 1.5 shows that ADN and HNF have positive oxygen balance, while CL-20, TNAZ and NTO have negative oxygen balance. Both CI-20 and ONC have high positive heat of formation; hence they are potential ingredients in high performance explosives. The density of ADN, HNF and TNAZ are closer. ADN and HNF are lower melting solids, while others are high melting solids. The heat of formation of HNF is more positive than ADN. The consideration of oxygen balance, density and heat of formation may serve as a good guidance to select potential oxidizers for use in propellants or explosives. Out of the different types of new binders synthesized and characterized the following binders are promising candidates with regard to above factors. They are glycidyl azide polymer (GAP), poly-3,3-bis
(azidomethyl) oxetane (BAMO), Poly glycidyl nitrate (PGN), poly-3-nitratomethoxy-3-methyl oxetane (NIMMO) and their copolymers, and nitrated HTPB Energetic binders used in composite solid propellants and their The
structures are given in Table 1.6. GAP and poly BAMO are unique energetic materials containing azide groups in the polymer chain
L311.
presence of highly endothermic azide bond structure makes GAP and Poly BAMO highly energetic. Hydroxyl terminated GAP, Poly BAMO, or Poly NIMMO and their copoly-mers make use of the terminal hydroxyl groups for curing with isocyanates to form a polyurethane network structure L321.
Table 1.6: Energetic binders developed in the past years
Energetic Binders
GAP
Structure
Poly NIMMO
W0 H
PGN
ONO,
Poly BAMO
Nitrated HTPB
CH2 CH=CH-CH,
CH,-CH-CH-CH,
l 0 , d Am,
OH
Table 1.7 : Properties of some energetic binders for propellants Property PNIMMO PGN GAP Nitrated HTPB -442 BAMO
Heat of formation (kJ/kg) Glass transition temperature T, ("'7 a Oxygen balance (%) Density (g/cm3)
-309
-284.5
+957
+2460
-25
-35
-50
-58
-39
-1 14.3
-60.5 1.39-1.45
-121.2
-1.20
-123.8
1.26
1.30
1.30
Table 1.7 shows the comparative properties of new energetic binders. It is seen from the table, positive heat of formation was obtained for the azide based binders GAP and BAMO. The density of PNIMMO,
PGN, GAP and BAMO is higher than that of nitrated HTPB. PGN has
oxygen value higher than that of other polymers. The glass transition temperature of nitrated HTPB is much lower than that of the other polymers. The oxygen balance is higher for the polymers other than HTPB.
1.a.
Development of Dinitramide Based Energetic Materials In 1989, Schmitt and Bottaro reported their synthesis of an unusually
powerful energetic material. The synthesis of this new compound ammonium dinitramide or ADN, developed from efforts to make potent explosives that were also stable and safe to handle. Such materials could be processed on a large scale for use as rocket fuel. The simplest class of nitramine is the nitro derivative of ammonia
[33-351 ' 1.e.
nitramide (NH2N02).
The alkyl derivatives of dinitramide (R-N(N02)z) have low stability. The
The alkyl derivatives of dinitramide (R-N(NOZ)~) have low stability. The previously synthesized dinitramide salts were known to be good explosives, but were not practical to use since they tend to be highly sensitive and unstable. Schmitt and Bottaro surmised that deprotonation of the diriitramide to form its anion (-N(N02)2'), the dinitramide, might lend extra stability. Using counter ions such as ammonium, they hoped, might help maintain high packing density, an important factor in detonation power and efficiency. ADN was indeed found to possess enhanced stability and insensitivity yet also proved to be a powerful explosive. It was discovered that ADN had been synthesized some 20 years earlier by chemists in the former Soviet Union, but due to its potential uses in weapons of destruction, knowledge of its creation had been kept top secret. possessed the following formula: ADN
It is stable to moderate shock, pressure, and heat, and does not detonate in small quantities. Usually, only extremes of temperature or pressure will cause it to explode. Figure 1.3 shows the calculated specific impulse of propellants with an energetic binder and Al for different oxidizers. As it is seen from Figure 1.3, the I is higher for ,
HNF
based propellants and is lower for ADN and
AP bdsed propellants. As the oxidizer percentage increases, all the , systems show a different trend. For AP based propellants, the I value starts decreasing after 15% of oxidizer, while for HNF based propellants an , increase in I followed by gradual increase after 25% of oxidizer content. In the case of ADN based formulations a maximum ,I as the oxid~zer content is increased further. of 272 sec. was , obtained for a 10-15% oxidizer content and show a gradual decrease in I
Figure 1.3: Specific impulse of propellants containing an energetic binder, Al and various oxidizers
As such ADN is designated as "Class C" or minimum hazard material

[361.
By comparison, lead azide or nitroglycerine, compounds
extremely sensitive to minor spark or shock, are considered as "Class A . ADN exhibits a fairly broad melting range of about 90-95"C, with decomposition occurring at 150-160C. Pyrolysis and spectroscopic studies
["'I
indicate that decomposition yields mostly ammonia, water, N20 and
NO2. One of the major p~hotochernical decomposition products of ADN is
AN. Experiments have shown that exposure to ambient light leads to a

large increase in AN in 24 hours (0.1 to 3 wt%), and after 120 hours, about half the
ADN decomposes to AN. Some of this decomposition may also
have been aided by ambient moisture since crystals were left in open dishes. Table 1.8 lists the properties of ADN in comparison with AP.
Table 1.8: Co~~parative properties of ADN and AP
Property
Melting point ("C) 92-94
ADN
300-350
3.58
AP
Yield of gas (moles11009) 4.03 Adequate stability StabilitylCompatibility Clystal shape Sensitivity Contribution to , I
Superior stability
Needleslleaflets with Spherical shape as received ability to form prills Sensitivity greater than AP Sensitivity less than ADN
3-5s higher than AP
I Less than ADN
As it is seen from Table 1.8, ADN has a more favourable heat of formation i.e., -298 as compared with -602 callg for AP. This condition is due to the relatively weak N-N and N - 0 bonds in ADN as compared with the stabilized CI-0 bonds in AP. The lower heat of formation and the greater volume of gas generated cause ADN formulations to have a higher
, than corresponding AP compositions. I

Because of the combined explosive properties and unusual stability of ADN, it is an attractive candidate for use in a variety of military and scientific projects. These include using ADN as an oxidizer in ballistic missiles and in space shuttle booster rockets. Currently the propellant most commonly used in the space shuttle boosters is a mixture of ammonium perchlorate (AP) and powdered aluminium all held together with a hydrocarbon binder. Sometimes, the binder also acts as a fuel, and efforts are underway to develop energetic polymers (discussed earlier) for use as binders. As a propellant, ADN has the added benefit of being both an oxidizer and a fuel. Additionally, ADN is calculated to have an eight percent better lift capacity than AP, which means more mass could be accommodated per shuttle or missile flight. ADN is envisaged as a suitable successor to AP. The use of ADN in composite solid propellants eliminates
,..'
?.f $ $
'?'
the emission of chlorinated exhaust products from rock&motors and gives ammonium salt of dinitraniide (ADN), many different stable oxygen r ~ c h salts with a variety of catioris are possible, which could provide a new class of energetic materials. 1.9. Formulations of New Generation Solid Propellants The maln propellant characteristics with regard to performance are specific impulse, density, availability, safe use, ease of handling and manufacturing. Ingredients with a high heat of formation, high oxygen balance and a high density must be selected for realizing best performing propellant. Based on the gained experience, it is possible to formulate and develop new solid propellants. One important point in the formulation of these new propellants is the introduction of an energetic binder. The behaviour of these new energetic polymers with plasticizers requires complete study including rheology, casting and its mechanical properties. In Table 1.9 a set of theoretical performance data with these new classes of energetic oxidizers 13'] and binders are given. Table 1.9: Theoretical performance of advanced propellants made with new energetic oxidizers Composition HTPB 14lAP 68lAI 18 PNIMMOIAP 58lA120 GAPIAP 58lAI 20 PNIMMO 25IAPINaNOdAI 20 GAP 22lAP 56/(AI/Mg 70/:30) GAPIADN 55lAI 20 GAPICL-20 55lA120 GAPIHNF 60 IAl 15
5-10 sec more ,I than conventional AP based propellari~?'fyxitt fmmthg,-*;7 .

---*
---- .---z,...
I (s)
264.5 263.5 266.0 254.6 260.3 276.5 267.1 277.2
Is , (
g/cm3) 465.2 484.1 491.9 474.8 471.3 479.3 505.8 486.4
HCI (%) 21 .O 17.6 17.5 8.08 10.7 Nil Nil Nil
Table 1.9 gives the calculated pelformance characteristics of few propellant combinations utilizing conventional and as well as new energetic oxidizer and binders. For a conventional propellant based on HTPB,
maximum specific impulse obtained is 264 seconds, while for a new oxidizer binder system such as GAP-ADN or GAP-HNF, the specific impulse obtained is around 276 to 277seconds. This clearly indicates the improved performance for a new oxidizer-binder system. Regarding the environmental pollution, the conventional AP based formulations release as much as 7-20% HCI, while those utilize new oxidizers release zero HCI emissions. It can be seen from the Table 1.9 for formulations utilizing novel ingredients; the specific impulse has been totally recovered and enhanced, eliminating the HCI emissions.
1.10.
Preparation of Energetic Nitro Compounds by Nitration A great emphasis of research is directed towards the synthesis of
new nitro compounds, which would be useful as potential ingredients in propellants. Nitration has been an active area of industrial chemistry for over a century
139,401.
The continued interest is a testimony to the This process is used for the Dinitrobenzene,
importance of nitration. The most common industrial nitration is the sulfuric acid catalyzed reaction with nitric acid
[4'1.
production of many industrial chemicals such as nitrobenzene, which is used as solvent and in the manufacture of aniline. nitrotoluenes are used as intermediates to dyes, pharmaceuticals and perfumes. Acid catalyzed nitrations are also used in the manufacture of high explosives such as TNT, RDX, HMX and related nitramines. Historically, nitro derivatives played a special role as the most commonly used compounds. Energetic nitro compounds viz., C-nitro derivatives, 0nitro compounds or N-nitro compounds are the building blocks for energetic materials
[421.
The nitro functionality is introduced into precursor or
substrate molecules by a process called nitration. Nitration is the reaction between an organic compound and a nitrating agent (generally HN03 or its
derivatives) to introduce a nitro group on to a carbon atom (C-nitration) or to produce nitrates (0-nitration) or nitramines (N-nitration). The nitro group most frequently substitutes a hydrogen atom, however, other atoms or groups can also be substituted. New and improved nitration processes have also been developed that minimizes production costs and promise reduced safety hazards [431. Table 1.10: Electrophilic Nitrating Agents
NO2' Carrier
Acid Catalyst
N02'
Carrier
Acid Catalyst
H2S04 H2S04:S03 H3P04 HC104 HF HF-BF3 BF3 CH3SO:3H CF3SO:IH FS03H Solid acids
None BF3, PF5, AsFs, SbFs HF, AICI3, TiC14 BF3 H2S04, AIC13, FeCI3,BF3 BF3 N02BF4, N02PFs None and other salts
The nitronium ion, NO2' is the reactive nitrating agent in electrophilic nitrations. Table 1.10 sumrnarizes the most frequently used electrophilic nitrating agents. The activity of nitrating agent is believed to be directly dependent on the concentration of nitronium ion, and the nitrating potential of a selection of few systems commonly used in the laboratory and in production is summarized 14"] in Table 1.11.
Table 1.1: Selected nitration media and their properties I System Pure HN03 By-Products Dilute H1\103, acyl nitrates Dilute m~~xed acid, acyl nitrates N02BFa HBF4, acyl tetrafluoborate Acetyl nitrate, acetic acid Potentially None Features Low nitrating strength, limited substrate choice, disposal1recycling problems. High nitrating strength, wide substrate choice, severe disposal problems Very high nitrating strength, limited substrate choice, high expense & very corrosive by-products Moderate nitrating strength, limited substrate choice, highly hazardous High nitrating strength, wide substrate choice, no by-products.
A brief account of various nitrating agents being used in the synthesis of energetic nitro compounds is given in the following sections.
1.10.1. Dinitrogen Pentoxide

Since its first reported synthesis in 1849 from chlorine and silver nitrate
[451,
N205 has been extensively used by organic chemists for the
nitration of variety of substrates. N205has proven to be quite useful in the nitration of aromatics, alkanes, alcohols, amines, amides and hydroxyl containing polymers [461. The easiest and most widely used method for the preparation
14']
of
N2O5 is the dehydration of t-[NO3by P205. Pure N205 is sublimed from this mixture and collected in a cold trap at -78C as shown in Equation 1.7.
Direct ozonolysis of N204 produces N205as well [481. This reaction is instantaneous as noted by the immediate disappearance of the red gaseous N204. Pure N2C)5 is collected as white crystals at -20C. The reaction is shown in Equation 1.8.
Anodic oxidation of N204 in 100% HN03 using controlled potential technique

[491
yields solutions of N205/HN03.The reaction is given in
Equatidn 1.9.
A voltage of + I .85V versus the standard calomel electrode (SCE) is required for the desired electrochemical oxidation.
1.10.2. Nitronium Salts

Although a wide category of nitronium salts are known at present, the most frequently used nitronium salt for nitrating aromatics is N02BF4
[50'.
A simple and efficient preparation of the same was achieved by Olah
et al. [51-531 letting a 2 mole excess of BF3 react with an equimolar mixture of HN03 and anhydrous HF. The reaction is given in Equation 1.10. HNO,
HF
nBF,
--
NO,'BFi
H,O. (n-1) BF,
..........(1.10)
Water formed as by-product in the reaction is bound by BF3 as a stable hydrate from which BF3 can be easily regenerated by distilling with H2S04 or oleum.
N02BF4 is a ~ersat~ile nitrating agent capable of nitrating much number of organic and inorganic compounds. It can be safely used with a wide variety of solvent medium. Examples of other nitronium salts include N02HS207, N02SbF4.NOzAsF6etc.,
1.10.3. Nitration with HNO:I H z S O ~
By far the nitration with nitric acid in the presence of strong protic acids such as ti2SO4,FS03H and CF3S03Hor other Lewis acids has been practiced by chemists throughout the world and
[541.
The nitration using HN03
is most widely practiced. The mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric
acid is an excellent nitrating agent for many of the aromatic and aliphatic compounds. The formation of nitronium ion N02', the active nitrating species is given by Equation 1.I 1.
HNO,
2H2S04-
NO,'
2HSOi
H30'
.......... (1.11)
H2S04 aids the ionization of HN03 to the nitronium ion, the de facto nitrating agent, and also binds the water formed in the reaction. A convenient way of altering the nitrating activity is by changing the concentration of H2SO4 and HN03. The use of mixed acids has many advantages and disadvantages. Advantages include low cost of materials and ease of handling. Nitration can be carried out at low and high temperatures and does not require a solvent. The disadvantages include, the recycling of spent acids left after the reaction, highly corrosive nature of acids to the reactor and other systems, poor regioselectivity for many of the aromatics, problems in disposal and neutralization of spent acids etc., For preparing high-energy oxidizers based on dinitramide salts, a suitable nitration technique is to be adopted. The methodology should invoke a favourable nitration method, better safety, high yield etc., in the nitration of deactivated amines. In order to provide an in-sight into the
synthetic methodologies adopted in preparing these dinitramide based energetic materials, the part-ll of this chapter attempts to consolidate the available methods of synthesis of ammonium dinitramide with a summary
of the methods and properties of other dinitramide salts.
PART-II
1.11. An Overview on the Synthetic Routes and Properties of Ammonium Dinitramide (ADN) and other Dinitramide Salts In recent years, there has been a considerable interest in the design of new high performance propellants for space applications. Ammonium salt of dinitramide (ADN, NH4N(N02)2)attracts wide interest as a potentially useful energetic material. There are a number of methods reported for the synthesis of dinitramide salts. This part of the chapter reviews the general synthetic methods used for the synthesis of inorganic, organic and metal dinitramide salts and their properties with a special emphasis on ammonium dinitramide because of its importance as a high-energy oxidizer in composite solid propellants. The salient features with reference to the extent of conversion and ease of separation of the products on the various synthetic methodologies are also addressed.
1.12. Dinitramidic Acid and its Salts
Dinitramidic acid (DIVA) is a very strong mineral acid
[5535q
having
pKa value of -5.6 and is thermally labile. It forms stable salts with almost all bases, ammonia, metals, tertiary amines, melamine, cubane tetraamine, dinitro azetidine etc., The dinitramide salts are more stable than the related covalently bound N,N-dinitro derivatives such as alkyl dinitramines. The higher stability of ionic dinitrarnide salts is due to the presence of the overall negative charge that is distributed by resonance over the entire molecular system, thereby imparting a higher N-N bond order 15'] as shown in Figure 1.4 (a-c).
Figure 1.4 (a-c): Resonance structures of the dinitramide anion The dinitramidic acid as such is unstable due to self-protonation and is rather stable in very dilute aqueous solutions. It exists in the ionized state in polar solvents including water and strong acids. solvents it exists in the covalent state
L581.
In less polar
The structure shown in Figure
1.5. can be considered a:; a superposition of the aci-form with a strong hydrogen bond in which hydrogen is equally bonded to two oxygen atoms. The stability of dinitramide salts in solid state varies and is associated with the structural symmetry of the anion in the crystal lattice. The anion symmetry depends on the cation size, the smaller the cation the higher is the stability. Other factors such as nature of the impurity and its amount also affect the stability of the anion.
Figure 1.5: Aci form of dinitramidic acid Aqueous solutions of the dinitramide anion show absorption bands at 212, 284 and a shoulder at 335nm in the UV spectrum [571. The peak at 2H4nm is characteristic of the anion. The reported molar extinction
coefficieht values are 5207 L mole" cm-', 5258L591 mole-' cm-' and 5627L601 L L mole-' cm'. IR spectrum of NHdt salt of dinitramidic acid
L6',621
shows
characteristic peaks at
1531 cm-' (v asymmetric in phase of N02), 1344
crn" (V symmetric in phase of N02), 1174 and 1200 cm-' (v symmetric out of phase of NO2), 1020 cm-' (v asymmetric of N3), 951 cm-'
(V symmetric of N3). Arnmonium salt of dinitramidic acid shows the following characteristic frequencies in the Raman spectra
(V
[6'-621
- 1505 cm-'
asymmetric in phase of NO2), 1335 cm-' (v symmetric in phase of
NO2), 1174 cm-'(v symmetric out of phase of N02), 1025 cm-' (V asymmetric of
N3) and 955 cm-' (v symmetric of N3). Dinitramide
anion is stable to pH between 7-14 and slowly decomposes in concentrated acids at room temperature. Dinitramide A l t s are normally readily soluble in water, alcohol, nitro methane, methyl acetate, acetonitrile and other polar solvents, but insoluble in ether, benzene, hexane or methylene chloride.
1.3. Methods of Preparation of Dinitramide I

The methods of preparation of dinitramides, can in general, be classified into four groups. The first being formation of N,N-dinitro derivative RN(N02)2 and subsequently the cleavage of R-N bond leading to dinitramide anion as shown in Equation 1.12.
The second method of synthesis is based on inorganic synthetic routes involving direct nitration of NH3 or NH2N02 using either N02BF4or N:a05, followed by reaction with a base as shown in Equation. 1.13. NH,
- - ,
N H -, O ,
HN(N02),-----
'""3
NH4N(N02)2
The third method ir~volvesnitration of deactivated amines such as NH2N02, NH2CONH2or PdH2COOCH3 using strong nitrating agents such as N02BF4 or N2O5t0give dinitramidic acid as shown in Equation. 1.14.
where,
The fourth method consists of double decomposition reaction of the already synthesised dinitramide salts with respective metal salts as shown in Equation. 1.15.
where,
X is -OH. CI, -SO,
.....
The established method of preparation of alkyl dinitramine practiced earlier

[631
is via
N-nitromethylcarbamate, which is prepared from alkyl
monoisocyanates, followed by nitration with nitronium ion as shown in Scheme 1.I
Hydrolysis
R-N
/ 'NO,
"'02
NO,
+
R-N
-/
NH4
1. Base -2. NH, +
R-N
/NO2 H
'
Scheme 1 .I: Formation of alkyl dinitramines from isocyanates
The four step method shown in Scheme I I , was later modified by a . one step synthesis by nitration of aliphatic i s o c y a n a t e ~ [ ~using ~I stoichiometric quantities of N02BF4 and HN03 in acetonitrile. The reaction is shown in Equation 1.16.
This route differs from Scheme 1. I , as it involves only one step and requires the use of nitric acd and high quality N02BF4. In the following sections, the methods for the synthesis of ammonium din~tramide and other dinitramide salts reported in the literature are described:
Bottaro et a/.. disclosed a method of preparation of dinitramide salts

[651,
in which the alkyl dinitramine precursor may be formed directly
from an aliphatic isocyanate using stoichiometric quantities of nitronium tetrafluoborate and nitric acid in acetonitrile as shown in Equation 1.16. The yield varied from 1 O/b to 35 % depending on the alkyl substituent present in the isocyanate (Table 1.12). Instead of monoisocyanates, alkyl diisocyanates were used to make the corresponding bis(N,N-dinitramino alkanes). Examples are hexamethylenediisocyanate and ethanel,2diisocyanate. When the latter compound was nitrated by the procedure in Equation.1. l 6 , no dinitramide was formed. Different substrates investigated using this method and the product obtained along with the yield are given in Table 1.12.
Table 1.12: Alkyl N,N-dinitrarnines
I Substrate
n-butyl isocyanate methyl isocyanate 1-adarnantyl isocyanate hexamethylene diisocyanate ethane-1,2diisocyanate
Product
Yield
I-(N,N-dinitramin0)-2-trirnethylsilylethane
Dinitramide salts were synthesized by p-elimination reaction of I-(N,N-dinitramin0)-2-trimethylsilylethane catalyzed by CsF

[57,651.
The
reaction is normally carried out below 0C. The 1-(N,N-dinitramin0)-2(trimethylsily1)ethane was synthesised by reaction of an isocyanate with a mixture of HN03 and N02BF4 as shown in Scheme 1.2. The yield of the desired 2-(trimethylsilylethy1)-N,N-dinitramine precursor was about 25%. Me, Sip-- NCO
NO,BF,
____)
Me, Si
HNO,
Scheme 1.2: Synthesis of cesium dinitrarnide from 1-(N,N-dinitrarnino) 2-trimethylsilylethane
In Scheme 1.2, substitution of CsF by other metal fluoride salts in the p-elimination reaction iresults in other dinitramide salts. Dinitramide salts were also prepared by ion exchange reaction of cesium dinitramide using AMBERLYST 15 sulphonic acid resin charged with the appropriate cation, followed by elution with a suitable solvent. Yet another method of preparing dinitramide salts makes use of nitramide (NH2N02)as a starting material and N02BF4as a nitrating agent
[651.
The reaction was carried out at -20C to form the free acid HN(NO~)Z
as shown in Equation 1.17.
The free acid was then reacted with a corresponding base such as ammonia, hydrazine or metal hydroxides (MOH), where M is the desired metal cation, to form the desired dinitramide salt. The product yield was about 60%. The reaction of an ionic nitronium salt such as N02BF4 or N205 with amrnonium carbamate NH2(;02- NH4', yields the intermediate dinitramidic acid
1661.
The reaction was carried out in the temperature range of -30 "C
to -40C followed by neutralization either with ammonia, hydrazine, primary and secondary amine, or salt of the formula AX where A is mono, di or trivalent metal cation, to give the corresponding dinitramide salt. The product yield was 15%. The reaction is shown in Equation 1.18.
Schmitt el al., reported a method for forming dinitramide salt by reaction of NH:, with a nitronium containing compound such as N02BF4 or
N2O5[671. The reaction was carried out at -78C in CH2C12 medium and is believed to proceed via the formation of covalently bonded NH2N02, which further reacts with the nitronium-containing reagent to give dinitramidic acid and on subsequent neutralization with ammonia forms ammonium dinrtramide. The reaction Scheme is shown in Equation. 1.19.
where, Xis
NO,^, BF;
When the reaction was performed using N02BF4, N205 or N02HS207 yield of 21%, 5% and 20% is obtained respectively. an Hatano et a / . , disclc~seda clean and safe method for formation of arrtmonium dinitramide steps. a. forming urea nitrate by reacting urea with dilute HN03.
b, forming nitrourea by reacting urea nitrate with sulfuric acid.
[68'691
c. reacting nitrourea with a nitrating agent and then neutralising the formed dinitrourea with am~nonia. The reaction sequence follows the steps shown in Equation. 1.20 and 1.21. Nti,CONHNO,
NY
----Excess N\
or H O S; ,
Nq-X
N4-X NyN0,WN(N9I2
NH,N(Nq)
.......... (1.19)
starting from urea involving the following
NO,BF,
(NO,),NCONH,
HBF,
The reaction was carried out at -40C in acetonitrile medium. The yield of the reaction varied from 5% to 20% depending on the reaction temperature and reaction tirne.
Stern et a / . , described a process for dinitramide I'[
preparing ammonium
In which ethyl or methyl carbamate was nitrated using
Ac:~O/HNO, to the corresponding mononitro compound, followed by ammonia treatment under anhydrous conditions to produce the ammonium salt of ethyl or methyl N-nitrocarbamate. It was further nitrated using
nitronium salts and then treated with ammonia to give ammonium dinitramide, thus regenerating the starting compound in the final step. The reaction sequence is showr in Scheme 1.3.
L.-NH,
-.
------------, Z---NHNO,
(CH,CO),O HNO,
Scheme 1.3: Synthesis of ammonium dinitramide from ethyl or methyl carbamate The first step of nitration was performed at OC, while the second step of nitration was performed in CH2C12 medium at 4 a C using N2O5,an overall yield of 70% to 76% is obtained. A method for forrning dinitramide salts by the reaction of N-
(alkoxycarbonyl)N-nitroamide and a nitronium containing compound, followed by contacting the reaction mass with a base to form the
dinitramide
has
been
described. The
N-(alkoxycarbonyl)N-
nitroamide reactant may be made by mixing an alkyl carbamate with Ac20/HN03at 0C followed by treatment with NH3 to from
N H ~ ' salt of N-
(alkoxycarbonyl)N-nitroamide (ammonium nitrourethane). Further nitration

of ammonium nitrourethane with N02BF4 gives dinitrourethane (DNU), which was then base treated with NH3 to give ammonium dinitramide. The reaction sequence is shown in Scheme 1.4.
NH, excess
where
R = -CH,,CH,
Scheme 1.4: Synthesis o ammonium dinitramide from alkyl carbamates f
The reaction was carried out in the temperature range of -60C to -20C and the yield of ammonium dinitramide ranged from 50% to 60%. In a method by Kyoo-Hyun Chung et a/.. dinitramide salts were prepared ["I using starting from diethyl 4-azaheptanedioate, nitration of the same (trifluoroacetic was then anhydride)-Br2 gave N-nitro-4base treated in the retro-michael The nitramino compound was
HN03-TFAA
azaheptanedioate, which
reaction to glve 3-nitramino-propanoate.
treated with N02BF4 at below 0C to give dinitramino compound and subsequently reacted with base to give dinitramide salts. The overall sequence of the reaction is shown in Scheme 1.5. The product yield was 30%. O.A. Luk'yanov et a/., proposed a similar approach for the synthesis of dirlitramide salts in Michael and retro-Michael-type reactions CH,CH2CO,Et
--
H-N/
TFAA-HNO, Br2
- - --
\CH ,cH,CO,E~
O,N-N/
CH2CH,C02Et
'-CH,CH~CO,E~
KOHlEtOH N0,BF4
1
M+ -N/ 'NO,
"402
v
E~O,CCH,CH,-N/
NO,
MOH
't\l0,
Scheme 1.5: Synthesis of dinitramide salts from
diethyl4-azaheptanedioate.
Kyoo-Hyun Chung also described another method of preparation of ammonium dinitramide by nitration of bis(2-cyanoethyl)amine followed
by decyanoethylation by a base and further nitration with N02BF4. The reaction sequence is shown in Scheme 1.6. The reaction was carried out at
-10C. The product yield was 60%.
CH,CH,CN H-N/ 'CH,CH,CN
HNO, Ac,O
O,N-N/
CH,CH,CN \CH2CH2CN
OH-
-1 7
CH,CH,CN 'N-H
O,N-N/
H,N+ N-<
NO2 NO2
NH3
-
NCCH,CH,-N/
NO2 'NO,
N02BF4
Scheme 1.6: Synthetic route to ammonium dinitramide from bis- (2-cyanoethy1)amine
Langlet et a/., described a method for producing dinitramide salts from ammonia-sulfate derivatives such as NH(S03H),, NH2S03H, or NH(S03NH4)2 using mixed acid NH2S03NH4, agents
nitrating
(HN03/H2S04) shown in Equation 1.22. as
NH,-SO,NH',
HN031H2S0,
----,
H,N-N
NO,
NH3
'NO,
The reaction was carried out at -40C using fuming HN03 (>go%) and con,H2S04 (98%). Potassium salt of dinitramide is prepared the same way by employing potassium sulphamate as a starting material and neutralizing the dinitramidic acid with KOH. The overall yield of the product was about 60% The above method also describes an easy adsorption-
desorption pur~fication techr~iquefor separation of dinitramide salts using different adsorbents.
1.14. Synthesis of alkyl dinitramines
Synthesis of alkyl dinitramines involves the direct nitration of the correspondiny alkyl isocyanates with N02E3F4/HN03. The already
synthesized din~tramide salts can also be converted into alkyl dinitramines. For eg., cesium dinitramide can be converted into the alkyl dinitramine by reaction with the corresponding alkyl triflates (Equation. 1.23). The product yield was about 40%
The reaction of dinitramidic acid with diazomethane

1.24) in ether gives methyl dinitramine with 30% yield.
L861
(Equation
AgN(N02), reacts with methyl or alkyl iodide to give corresponding alkyl N,N-dinitramines with 16-50% yield (Equation.l.25).
AgN(NO,),
RI - - - - +
Rk'(NO2),
+ Agl
..........(1.25)
KN(N02), reacts with triethyloxonium tetrafluoborate, giving a mixture of N and 0-alkylated products (Equation.l.26).
N and 0-alkylated products are formed when mercury salt of dinitramide Hg(N304),is mixed with an alkyl iodide in ether. The reaction is fast and is complete within 10-15min. The reaction is shown in Equation. 1.27.
.........(1.27) where. R = Et, Me, n-Pr, n-f3u, i-Pr When tne nitration is carried out using nitronium salts N02BF4 or N;!05, the available NO2' concentration in the reaction is very high and hence the yield of the product could also be very high. The yield of the
dinitramide salt depends on the anion present in the nitronium salt used for the nitration. For example when NH3 is nitrated with N02BF4 the yield of dinitramide salt is 25% whereas with N205 or N02HS207, the yield is 15%
[571.
Similarly when NH2N02 is nitrated with N02X much higher yields
(>go%) are obtained when X is BF4- whereas the yields are much lower
when X is NO3 or HS207. lrhe synthetic routes for the dinitramide salts are summarized in Table 1.13. Table 1.13: Substrates and nitrating agents for the synthesis of dinitramide salts SI. No Starting Material Nitrating Agent Reaction Temperature Yield Ref.
1.15. Chemical and Physical Properties of Dinitramide Salts

Dinitramide salts are stable to base but slowly decompose in concentrated acid at room temperature [771.In 8M H2S04,no loss is seen
after 8 hours but in 11M and above the decomposition is quite rapid. Similarly the decomposition in con. HN03 is found to be fast in 70% HN03 and above, and is slow in HN03 treated with urea. The oxides of nitrogen in the untreated HNO:3catalyses the decomposition of dinitramide.
The decomposition occurs in acid medium via the protonation of dinitramide anion 1571. The protonation can occur either at the oxygen or the central nitrogen leading to the elimination of HN03, N20 and H20. The protonation at oxygen is favourable.
Dinitramidic acid is most acidic among the known gas phase acids The gas phase acidity of dinitramidic acid was found to be
ilHoaCid 310 kcallmol. Clinitramide anion is extremely unreactive in the <

gas phase and is a poor nucleophile. It does not react with 0 2 , CO2, CSz or
S02.
The bond angles and bond distances in the dinitramide anion are shown in Figure 1.5.
Figure 1.5: Bond angles and bond distances in dinitramide Ammonium salt of dinitramidic acid has a melting point of 92C followed by an onset of decomposition at 130-135'C, with a peak maximum at 180-190C Therrnogravimetric analysis shows single stage
decomposition. The decomposition products are identified as NH3, NO,
N 2 0 , H 2 0 , NO2, HONO and H N 0 3
The physical properties reported in
the literature for ADN are surnrnarized in Table 1.14.
Table 1.14: Physical properties of ammonium dinitramide

~.. .
Property
I
~
Ref
[571
Melting point Density Decomposition temperature Ternperature of Ignition Enthalpy of formation Dissociation energy Friction sensitivity Impact sensitivity Electrostatic discharge Figure of Insensitivity (Gas evolved, mL) Vacuum stability ( 80"C/40hr, mLl5g) Yield of gas, 1nolesl100g
UV absorption maxima in water
~ .84 g/cm3 2
127C
[811 ~ [821 [811

p11
142C -150.6 kJ/mol 255k12.5 kJ/mol 72N 5Nm 0.45 J 30(2,3) 0.73 4.03 212 and 284nm
p11
[811
[a21 [821 [a21 [a31 [841 [851
NMR peaks
' ' = -12.0 ppm (NNO,') ~

-60.2 pprn (NNO;) -360.1pprn (NH,')
=~ -12.2 pprn ( M N, )
1851
-60.8 pprn (NNO,') -360.1 pprn (NH,')
( I
"0 = 496.6 ppm (NNQ;)
[851
The hygroscopic prclperties of dinitrarnide salts vary widely.
The
ammonium salt of dinitramidic acid is highly hygroscopic, while quaternary, arninoguanidine, and acetamidine salts are non-hygroscopic. dinitramide salts are photosensitive. All the
The mechanical sensitivity of
dinitramide salts also varies. Highly sensitive dinitramide salts are those of hydrazine and triarninoguanidine
1.16. Other Dinitrarnide Salts

Dinitramidic acid forrns stable salts with mono and di-valent metals of group I,II, VII & VIII. They are crystalline substances with melting points in the range ot 4C-150C. A number of organic and metal derivatives of dinitramides have also been synthesised and studied
[84-861.
These
compounds are considere83 to be model compositions of
fuel-oxidizer
system mixed at the molec:ular level. The general methods of preparation are given in Equations 1.28 to 1.35. [a] By the ~nteractionof ~netalhydroxides with P-substituted alkyl-N,Ndinitramines in organlc solvents to give metallic dinitramide salt as shown in Equation 1.28
[b] Cation exchange reaction of Ag. K or Cs salt of dinitramide with the appropriate metal halide in water or organic solvents (Equation 1.29) gives salt. the corresponding metal di~iitramide
[c] The treatment of ammonium salt of dinitramide with solutions of strong bases or the reaction of aqueous and non-aqueous dinitramidic acid solutions with the appropriate metal hydroxide, oxide or carbonate will give the required dinitramide salt as shown in Equations.l.30 and 1.31.
[dl The reaction of ADN with excess of organic amine either in bulk or in solvent,at 60C for 4-5 hrs will give the desired dinitramide salt as shown in Equation.l.32.
RNH,
N~~,+N(No,),-
R-N(No,),+
2 NH,
..... ..(I .32)
[el By heating ADN with equimolar quantity of the carbonate salt of the amine in isopropanol or ethanol, till the evolution NH3 or C02 is ceased. The dinitramide salt is then separated after evaporation of the solvent. The reaction is shown in Equation.l.33.
[q
The reaction of ADN with equimolar quantity of B ~ ( O H ) in aqueous Z corresponding amine
medium gives barium dinitramide, which is reacted with a sulphate salt of the corresponding amine in ethanol to give the
dir~itramide salts as shown in Equations.l.34 and 1.35. Ba(OH),
+ NH,N(NO,),
----+
Ba(N(NO,),),
+ NH, + H 2 0
.......(1 .34)
The X-ray evaluation of dinitramide salts
having organic,
inorganic and metal cations reveals that these salts exist in different conformation depending on the cation present. The theoretical and structural studies of the dinitram~deanion revealed that it is flexible and adopts different conformations depending on its environment. Ideal
minimum energy conformation is of C2 symmetry.
However dinitramide
salts show diversity of conformation with Cq, Cs and predicted C2 symmetry. No two dinitranlide salts give isostructural conformers. The
conformation adopted by dinitramide anion is quite different with bent, twist and torsional angles. Table 1.15 and Table 1.16 summarize the different dinitramide salts, method of preparation and their melting point.
Table 1.15: Metal dinitramide salts Dinitramide
Method of preparation
Melting point ("C)
Ref.
Table 1.16: Organic and Inorganic dinitrarnide salts

p~
Dinitrarnide
-
Melting Method o f preparation point "C [el [el if] [fl [dl Id1 [d1 [d1 [d1 [f] [d1 146 87-88 83-86 95-97 59-61 75-78 37-39 43-45 82-84 101-103 212-214 234-238 70-71 70-73 89-90
Ref.
Guanidium dinitramide Aminoguanidine dinitramide 5-aminotetrazole dinitramide Aniline dinitramide Benzylamine dlnitramlde Diethanolamine dinitramide Ethanolamine dinitramide Methylamine dinitramide Morpholine d~nitramide m-nitroaniline dinitramide I Piperazine bis-dinitramide Tetramethylammonium dinitramide o-Toluidine dinitramide 3,5-dimethylpyridine dinitramide Hexamethylenediamine bisdinitramide Melaminiurn dinitramide Cubane I,4-bis (ammonium dinitramlde) a Cubane 1,2,4,7-tetrakis(ammonium dinitramide) " 3,3-dinitroazet~dinium dinitrarnide Triazidocarbenium dinitramide Butane,diammonium dinitramide 2-hydroxyethylhydrazinium dinitramide MeONH2.HN3O4 H:!NCONH?.HN,O, H,NC(=NH)NH,.HN,O, (C5H5NNO2)N3O4 * (NCCH2CH2') 2NH.N3Oq NH2CH2CH2NHz.2HN304 (C)2NOCH2CH2)NH.HN30, H,NC(=NH)NHNH,.HN,O, NCCH2CH2NH;.HN3O4 Urotropinium dinitramide Biguanidinium dinitramide Biguanidinium bis-dinitram~de N-Guanylurea d~nitramide Ethane-1.2-diammonium dinitramide NH2NH2.HN30, HzNOH.HN,Oq 1
'
[fl [fl [d1 [dl
--
LC] [dl [Cl [e1 1e 1
---
139
67-73 Oil 98-100 55-58 67-69 115-117 125 114 148 94 121-124
[dl [cl [dl Id1 [d1 [dl [bl [fl [fl [fl [d1 [c] [el
---
--83 18-23
" by ion exchange reaction of the corresponding perchlorate salts, breadion of B; F and AND with tetramethylammonium hydroxide. 'reaction of C(N,)< potassium dinitramide, reaction of (C,H5NN02)'BFi and potassium dinitramide
Apart from the practical application of dinitramide salts, few of these can be new reagents in orgarlic synthesis
[84.861.
Example is Hg(N304)2 It is
a covalent compound, where the Hg atom is bound to oxygen atoms of the nitro group. This salt can enter mercuration reaction and can add to olefins yielding mercury derivatives having dinitramide units as shown in Equation
1.36.
The salts derived from aliphatic amines decompose at 120-14O0C, while quarternary ammoniuin and hydrazonium salts have higher melting and decomposition points. Dinitramide salts of hydroxylamine or
methoxyamine are readily soluble in non polar solvents Iggl.
Azet~dine based explosives are expected to
have excellent
performance because of the associated high strain energy with the four membered ring For example, the 3,3-dinitroazetidinium cation has a
high oxygen balance and is useful as an energy rich substitute for the cor~ventionalcations, such as ammonium, guanidine, hydrazine etc., and these can be useful as propellant ingredients. The alkali metal dinitramide derivatives are synthesized for use in pyrotechnic flare compositions. These metal dinitramide salts, apart from providing energy for the composition, provide pyrotechnic effects and increase the density of formulation. The amine salts of dinitramide are considered as explosives or components of energetic mixtures because of their good thermal stability and low susceptibility to hydrolysis ["I. Apart
frorn the thermal stability, these amine salts have better unhygroscopicity and positive oxygen balance, and may find applications in new highenergetic compositions.
N-guanylurea dinitrarnide has low sensitivity and is a good candidate for insensitive munitions ['03'. It is neither soluble in water nor hygroscopic. Its thermal stability is comparable to RDX and superior to that of ADN. The substitution of an organic cation for ammonium in dinitramide will result in change of combustion temperature and reactivity of the fuel.
The cubane and azetidine salts of dinitramide are of great interest because of the high strain energy and density of the cubane molecule and may have potential application in advanced propellants.
1.17.
Conclusions Energet~cmaterials are the main source of energy for various
military and space applications. The nitro containing energetic materials play an important role as key ingredients in most of the propellant and explosive combinations, lr~gredientscontaining light chemical elements such as H, Al, Be, B, C, N, 0 and F are the most desirable for high-energy propellant compositions. These elements enhance enthalpy release per
unit weight while reducing the average molecular weight of gases. Oxidizers such as ADN, CL.-20 and HNF have been identified as the most energetic ingredients for achieving high-performance propellants. The synthetic methclds for the preparation of dinitramide salts are reviewed and the salient aspects of the reactions with respect to the product yield, purity and separation methods are discussed. The methods for the synthesis of dinitraniidic acid involves dinitration of primary amines that are made weakly basic by suitable substituents using nitrating agents such as NOZBF,, N205, N02HS207 or 100% HN03 in presence of acid
catalysts.
The product yield varies from 5 to 70% depending on the An account on the preparation of
nitrating agent and the reactant.
numerous salts of dinitramitle consisting of metal, organic and inorganic derivatives is also given.
1.18.
References Yrbansk~ Chemistry and Technology of Explosives, Vols.1-4, T, Pergamon press, 1964,1965,1967,1984. Roth J, Capener E.L, Encyclopaedia of Explosives and Related Items, Vo1.8, US Arrr~y Armament Research and Development Command, New Jersey, 1978. Rudolf Meyer, Josef Kohler, Axel Homburg, Explosives, 5th Edition. Wiley-VCH Verlag Grnbh, Germany, 2002. Jacqueline Akhavan: The Chemistry of Explosives, The Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, 1998. Sutton G P , Rocket propulsion Elements, 5th Edition, Wiley, New York, 1986. Sarner S.P, Propellant Chemistry,Reinholt, New York, 1966. Victor Linder, Explo:sives and Propellants - Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Kirk Oathmer (ed.), 3rded., John Wiley, New York, 1980, 9, 620-671. Krishnan S, Chakravarthy S.R, Athithan S.K, (eds.,) Propellants and Explosives Technology, Allied Publishers Limited, India, 1998. 4776. Alain Davenas, Solicl Propulsion Technology, Pergamon press, 1993. Kubota N, Fundamentals of Solid-Propellant Combustion, K.K. Kuo and M. Summerfield (eds.) Proaress in Astronautics and , Aeronautics, AIAA, New ~ o r k i984, 90, 1-52. Naminosuke Kubota, Propellant and Explosives - Thermochemical aspects of combustion, Wiley-VCH, Germany. 2002. Bailey A, Murray S.C;, Explosives propellants and pyrotechnics, Brassey's publishers, UK, 1989. Miller R.S, Proceedings of Materials Research Society Symposium, 1996, Vo1.418, 3-1 5. Agrawal J.P, Prog. Ener. Comb. Sci., 1998, 24, 1-34.
Philip F. Pagoria, Gregory S. Lee, Alexander R. Mitchell, Robert D. Schmidt, Therm.Chin~.Acta, 2002, 384, 187-204. Pak Z.P, AIAA paper 93-1 755. Stu Borman, Chem. R Engg. News, 1994, 18-22. Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Chem. R Industry, 1996, 249-252 Horrnuz P.Mama, Space Flight, 1996, 38,409-410. Bernard Fink, Hewe Graindorge, 2 f h lnt. Annu. Conf. ICT, 1996, 23-1 to 23-1 3. Andrew Sanderson,
;?fh Annu. Conf. ICT, 1996, 18-1 to 18-8. Int.
Robert B. Wardle, JelPaldC. H~nshaw. Paul Braithware, Michael Rose, 27'h lnt. Annu. Conf. ICT, Germany, 1996, 27-1 to 27-10. Nielsen A.T, Chemistry of energetic materials, G.A. Olah (ed.), Academic press, 1991, 95-124. Schoyer H.F.R, SchnorhkA.J, Korting P.A.O.G, Van Lit P.J, Mul J.M, Gadiot G.M.H.J.L, Meulenbrugge J.J, J.Prop. & Power, 1995, 11(4), 856-859. Schoyer H.F.R, Welland-Veltmans W.H.M, Louwers J, Korting P.A.O.G, van der Heijden A.E.D.M, Keizers H.L.J, van den Berg R.P, J.Prop.& Power, 2002, 18(1), 131-145. Theodore Axenrod, Clara Watnik, Hamid Yazdekhasti, Paritosh R.Dave, Teff.Lett., 1993, 34(42), 6677-6680. Lee Kien-Yin, Coburn Michael D, U.S. Patent 4733610, 1988. Mao-Xi Zhang, Philip E.Eaton, Richard Gilardi, Angew.Chem.lnt.Ed., 2000, 39(2), 401-404. Philip .Eaton, Richard L.Gilardi, Mao-Xi Zhang, Adv. Mater., 2002, 12(15),1143-1148. Colclough M.E, Paul N.C, ACS symposium series 623, 1996, 97-1 02.
31.
Eamon M. Colclough. Hesmant Desai, Ross W. Millar, Norman C.Paul. Malcolm J.Stewart, Peter Golding, Polym. Adv. Technol., 1994, 5, 554-560. Antony Arber, Greville Bagg, Eamon Colclough, Hemant Desai, Ross Millar, Norman Paul, Dave Salter, Malcolm Stewart, Int. Annu. Eonf ICT, 1990. 3-1 to 3-1 1 Pierre Vast, Joseph Heubel, C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1965, 260, 5799-5801 Pierre Vast, Joseph Heubel, C.R. Acad. Sc. Paris, 1967, 264, 1697-1699. Sylvaine Tellier-Pollon, Joseph Heubel, Rev. de Chim. Miner., 1967, 4, 413-423. USDOT code of federal regulations 9, sections 173.52, 173.56, 173,517,173.58,1997. Doyle R.J. Org. Mass Spectrom., 1993, 28, 83-91 Bruno D'Andrea, Francesca Lilo, Alain Faure. Christian Perut, Acta Astronautica. 2000, Y7(2-9), 103-112. George A. Olah, Ripudaman Malhotra, Subhash C. Narang, Nitration - Methods and Mechanisms. VCH publishers, New York, 1989. Lyle F. Albright, Sootl. M.K, Nitration-recent laboratory and industrial developments, ACS symposium series 623, 1996, Chapter 18, 201-213 Ph~lip F.Pagoria, Alexander R.Mitchell, Robert D.Schmidt, Clifford L.Coon, Edward S. Jessop, ACS symposium series 623,1996, 151-164 George A.Olah, David R.Squire, Chemistry of energetic materials, Academ~c Press. 1991. Lyle F.Albright, Richard V.C.Carr, Robert JSchmitt, ACS symposium series 6;!3, 1996, 1-9. Ross M~llar, Eamon Colclough, Hemant Desai, Peter Golding, Peter Honey, Norman Paul, Andrew Sanderson, Malcolm Stewart, 21S' Int. Annu. Conf. ICT, 1990, 5-1 to 5-12.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42. 43. 44
Sainte-Claire, Deville. H.C.R, Hebd. Seances Acad.Sci., 1849, 28, 257. Millar R.W, Colclough M.E, Desai H, Golding P, Honey P.J, Paul N.C. Sanderson A.J, Stewart M.J, ACS symposium series 623, 1996, 104-121. Gruenhut N.S, Goldfrank M, Cushing M.L, Caesar G.V. Inorg.Syn., vol.lll, Mc Graw Hill, New York, 1950, 78-81. Guye P.A, U.S. Pate~vt 1348873, 1920. Harrar J.E, Pearson K.K, J.Electrochem.Soc., 1983, 130, 108-1 12. Fleser Louis F, Fieser Mary. Reagents for organic synthesis, Vol.1, John Wiley Sons. New York, 1967,742. Olah G.A, Kuhn S.J, Chem. & Ind., 1956,98. Olah G.A, Kuhn S.J, Mlinko A, J.Am.Chem.Soc., 1956, 4257 Kuhn S.J, Olah G.A, J.Am.Chem.Soc., 1961,83,4564. Henry Feuer, Arnold T.Nielsen, Nitro compounds Recent advances in synthesis and chemistry, VCH publishers lnc, USA, 1990. Michels H.H, Montgomery J.A, Jr. J. Phys. Chem., 1993, 97, 66026606. Tore Brinck, Jane S. Murray, Peter Politzer, J.Org.Chem., 1991, 56, 5012-5015. Jeffrey C.Bottaro, Paul E. Penwell. Robert J. Schmitt, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1997, 119, 9405-9410. Tartakovsky V.A, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc., 1996,418, 15-24 Santhosh G . Venkatachalam S, Kanakavel M, Ninan K.N, Ind. J. Chem Technol.. 2002, 9, 223-226. Shlyapochnikov V.A, Oleneva G.I. Cherskaya N.0, Luk'yanov O.A, Gorelik V.P, Anikin O.V, Tartakovsky V.A, Russ. Chem. Bull., 1995, 44(8), 1449-1453.
61.
Karl 0 . Christe, Willia~n Wilson, Mark A. Petrie, Harvey H. W. Michels, Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Richard Gilardi, Inorg. hem:, 1996, 35, 5068-5071 Shlyapochnikov V.A, 'Tafipolsky M.A, Tokrnakov I.V, Baskir E.S, Anikin O.V, Strelenkcl Yu.A, Luk'yanov O.A, Tartakovsky V.A, J. Mol. Str., 2001, 559, 147-166. Harnrnel E.E, Heights C, Olsen R.E, British Patent 1126591, AeroJet-Gen Corp. 1968. Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Paul E. Penwell, Robert J. Schrnitt, Syn. Commun., 1991, 7, 945-949. Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Robert J. Schrnitt, Paul E. Penwell, S. Ross, U.S. Patent 5254324, 1993, SRI International, USA. Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Robert J. Schrnitt, Paul E. Penwell, Ross S, U.S. Patent 5198204, 1993, SRI International, USA. Robert J. Schrnitt, Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Paul E. Penwell, Bornberger C, U.S. Patent 5316749, 1994, SRI International, USA. Hideo Hatano, Toshic Onda, Kazuo Shiino, Shigefurni Miyazaki, Shin Matsuura, Kayaku Gakkaishi, 1996, 57(4), 160-165. Shigeru Suzuki, Shigefumi Miyazaki, Hideo Hatano, Kazuo Shiino, Toshio Onda, U.S. Patent 5659080, 1997, Nissan Motor Company and Hosaya Fireworks Company. Japan, Alfred G. Stern, William M. Koppes, Michael E. Sitzrnann, Lori A. Nock, Donna M. Cason-Smith, U.S. Patent 5714714 ,1998, Secretary of the Navy, USA. Robert J. Schrnitt, Jeffrey C. Bottaro, Paul E. Penwell, Bornberger C, U.S. Patent 5415852 ,1995, SRI International, USA. Kyoo-Hyun Chung, Hyun-Ho Sirn, J. Korean Ind. & Engg. Chem., 1998, 9(1), 155-157. Luk'yanov O.A, Konnova Yu.V, Klimova.T.A, Tartakovsky V.A, Russ. Chem. Bull., 1994, 43(7), 1200-1202. Kyoo-Hyun Chung, Hyun-Ho Sirn. J. Korean Chem. Soc., 1997, 41(12), 661-665.
Langlet Abraham, Ostmark Henric, Wingborg Niklas, U.S. Patent 5976483, 1999, Forsvarets Forskningsanstalt, Sweden. Monika Malesa, Wincenty Skupinskij, Michal Jamroz, Prop. Expl Pyro., 1999, 24, 83-89, Robert J. Schrnitt, Jeffrey C. Bottaro and Paul E. Penwell. SRI International Final Report No. AD-A 263271, 1993. Robert J. Schrnitt, Michele Krempp, Veronica M. Bierbaum, Int. J. Mass Spectrom. Ion. Process., 1992, 117, 621-632. Sergey Vyazovkin, Charles A. Wight, J. Phys. Chem. A, 1997,101, 5653-5658. Rossi M.J. Bottaro J.12, Int. J.Chem. Kinet., 1993, 25, 549-570. Ulrich Teipel, Thomas Heintz, Horst H. Krause, Prop. Expl. Pyro., 2000, 25, 81-85. Matthew D. Cliff, Dar~ren Edwards, Matthew W. Smith, 29" Int P. Annu. Conf ICT, 1998, 24-1 to 24-12. May L Chan, Russ Reed Jr, David A. Ciaramitaro, Solid propellant chern~stry, combustic~n and motor interior ballistics, Vigor Yang, Thomas B. Br~ll, Wu-Zhen Ren (eds.) Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, 2000, 185, 185-206. Vladimir A. Tartakovsky, Oleg A. Luk'yanov, 25" Int. Annu. Conf ICT, 1994, 13-1 to 13-9. Manfred Kaiser, Bert Ditz, 31S' Int. Annu. Conf. ICT. 2000, 130-1 t0130-8. Oleg A. Luk'yanov, Tartakovsky V.A, Solid Propellant Chemistry, Combustion and Moi:or interior Ballistics. T.B. Brill (ed.), AIAA, New york, 2000, 207 - 220. Richard Gilardi. J. Flippen-Anderson, Clifford George, Ray J +Butcher,J. Am. Che,r71. Soc., 1997,119, 941 1-9416. Matthew D. Cliff, Matthew W. Smith, J. Energ. Mater., 1999, 17, 069-086.
89
Ming Lei, Zhi-Zhong Zhang, Yang-Hui Kong, Zi-Ru Liu, Chun-Hua Zhu, Ying-Hui Shao, Pei Zhang, Therm. Chim. Acta, 1999, 335, 105112. Gilardi R.D, Ray J. Butcher, J. Chem. Cryst., 1998, 28(2), 105-110. Shylyapochnikov V.fr, Cherskaya N.0, Lukyanov O.A, Anikin O.V, Tattakovsky V.A, Russ. Chem. Bull., 1996,45(2), 430-432. Valery P. Sinditskii, Alexander E. Fogelzang, Anton I. Levshenkov, Vlacheslav Yu. Egoshev, AlAA Paper 98-0808. Rasim Tanbug, Kristin Krischbaum, Alan A. Pinkerton, J. Chem Cryst., 1999, 29(1), 45-55. Ray J. Butcher, Gilardi R.D, J.Chem.Cryst., 1998, 28(2), 95-104. Michael A. Hiskey, Mary M. Stineciper, James E. Brown, J. Energ Mater, 1993, 11, 157-166. Gilardi R.D, Ray J. t3utcher, J. Chem. Cryst., 1998, 28(3), 163-169. Mark A. Petrie, Jeffrey A. Sheehy, Jerry A. Boatz, Golam Rasul, Surya Prakash G.K, George A. Olah, Karl 0. Christe, J. Am. Chem. SOC.,1997, 119, 8802-8808. Lee Mia Nagao, Ph.1) Thesis, Faculty of the Graduate School, Yale University. May 1998. Adam J. Brand, Gregory W. Drake, U.S. Patent 6218577B1, 2001, Secretary of the Air force, USA. Tartakovsky V.A, RIJSS. Chem. Bull., 1995,44(1), 108-112.
90
91.
92.
93
93.
94.
95.
96.
97. 98.
99. Luk'yanov O.A, Agevnin A.R, Leichenko A.A, Seregina N.M,

100. Henryka Boniuk, lwc~na Cieslowska-Glinska, Michal Syczewski, 31'' Int. Annu. Conf. ICT, 2000, 39-1 to 39-9.
101. How-Ghee Ang, Wolfgang Fraenk, Konstantin Karaghisoff, Thomas M. Klapotke, Heinrich Noth, Joanna Sprott, Max Suter, Martin Vogt, Marcus Warchhold, Z.Anorg.Allg.Chem., 2002, 628, 2901-2906. 102. Anthony Martin, Alan Pinkerton A, Richard D. Gilardi, Jeffrey C, Bottaro. Acta. Cryst., 1997, B 53, 504-512.
103. Ostmark H, Bemm U, Bergman H, Langlet A, Therm. Chim. Acta, 2002. 384, 253-259. 104. Gilardi R D , Ray J. Butcher, J.Chem.Ctyst., 1998, 28(9), 673-681.
105.
Richard Gilardi, Ray J . Butcher, J.Chem. Cryst., 2000,30(9), 599-604

Introduction To Explosives and Propellants

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Explosives and Propellants

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction To Explosives and Propellants

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 1

Introduction to Explosives and Propellants

fJart-11of this chapter has been communicated:

It was actually developed by the Byzantines of Constantinopole around the

century A.D. and cor~sistedof a petroleum distillate, thickened by

In 220 BC, Chinese alchemists

Trinitrophenol (Picric acid)

Cyclotrimethylenetrinitrarnine / Research & Development Explosive (RDX)

Cyclotetrarnethylenetetranitraminel Her Majesty's E:~plosive (HMX)

It shows the breakdown of energetic materials into families

Industrial Chemical Products for non-explosive Purpose

Fume generators Fire works

Lead azide Lead styphnate Tetrazene

Single base Double base Black powder

Composites Liquid fuels 8 Oxidizers

Figure 1 .: Explosive Materials and their Application I

1..2. Liquid Oxidizers and Explosives I

75%) produces an explosive

matrix of combustible polymeric fuel binder.

1.,4. Major Components of a Composite Solid Propellant

1.4.3. Metallic Fuel

DOUBLE BASE PROPELLANTS

Composite Modified Cast Double-base Hydroxyl Polymers C:arboxyl Polymers

Polyether and Polyester ,

High Energy Composites Crosslinked Double-base

Metallic additives and bonding agents

CTPB binder High energy Propellants

A solid propellant develops thrust or recoil force due to discharge of

properties and is viewed as a key measure of propellant performance [''I. ,I

where, AH is the heat of reaction, C, is the specific heat capacity.

= specific impulse = thrust (N) = time (s)

The heat of reaction (AH) is given by Equation 1.4.

If the amount of oxygen bound in the explosive is

incorporated in advanced high energy binders. Table 1.2 lists typical

HTPB CTPB PBAN

0.916 0.916 0.980

In the past, a number of ingredients that

The main considerations in the

AN AP HP2 HP RDX ' HMX

(HP) and hydrazinium diperchlorate (HP2) have negative heat of formation

Table 1.4: Energetic oxidizers developed in the past years

Hydrazinium nitroformate (HNF) Trinitroazetidine (TNAZ) Ammonium dinitramide (ADN)

3-nitro-I ,2,4-triazole 5-one (NTO)

Octanitro cubane (ONC)

HTPH, glycidyl azide polymer (GAP) etc., which is

expected to give 8% higher performance than the current propellant

TNAZ is of interest to the military as a melt castable

and is advantageous over HMX and RDX in terms of higher

energy content. ADN is e chlorine free oxidizer. It has positive oxygen

Table 1.5 gives some

Oxidizer ADN HNF CL-20 TNAZ NTO ONC

Melting point ("C) 92 122 167-170 101 270 275

Oxygen Balance (%) 25.80 13.10 -10.95 -1 6.66 -24.60 0

Density (g/cm3) 1.82 1.87 2.04 1.84 1.93 2.10

The alkyl derivatives of dinitramide (R-N(N02)z) have low stability. The

based propellants and is lower for ADN and

As such ADN is designated as "Class C" or minimum hazard material

By comparison, lead azide or nitroglycerine, compounds

indicate that decomposition yields mostly ammonia, water, N20 and